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Macro level energetics: stability is a measure of lowering of energy.
From thermodynamics –ve ΔG favoured
Atomic level: Chemical reactions which produce lower energy
electronic configurations are favoured.
Generally, labile (reactive) high energy states react to seek lower
energy states that are inert (stable, unreactive)
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‐ Their valence orbitals are filled or “closed”;
‐ ns2 np6; this is called an octet (8 electrons).
‐ The groups immediately before and after are highly reactive;
‐ They combine with other species to acquire the stable noble gas
configuration.
The Octet rule – Each atom acquires, shares or loses electrons
until its valence shell achieves eight electrons (resembling the
noble gas configuration). 3
Electron sharing: Electron‐deficient species share electron
density to satisfy the octet rule (covalent interaction); or
Electron loss‐gain: Electron density is completely removed
from or introduced to an atom (ion formation, leads to ionic
interactions)
‐ IE and EA present the energetic barriers for electron loss‐gain
‐ Electronegativity (X) is a valid predictor of whether an atom will
undergo electron sharing or electron loss or gain
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Role of electronegativity
If an atom has a strong tendency to ‐When two atoms have similar
acquire electrons (like F and Cl), it is electronegativities (same desire
highly electronegative. for electrons) electron sharing
results.
If it has a tendency to lose electrons
(like group 1 metals) it is ‐ When there is a large difference
electropositive. in electronegativity (one atom is
electronegative and the other
Electronegativity increases regularly electropositive) electron loss‐gain
from L‐R across a period. results.
Electronegativity measures
Many attempts have been made to quantitatively measure
electronegativity:
Pauling scale χP
𝟏 𝟐
𝑫𝑨𝑩 𝑫𝑨𝑨 𝑫𝑨𝑩 𝟗𝟔. 𝟒𝟖 χ𝑨 χ𝑩
𝟐
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Electronegativity measures
Many attempts have been made to quantitatively measure
electronegativity:
Mulliken scale χM
𝟏
χ𝑨 𝑰𝑬 𝑬𝑨
𝟐
Electronegativity measures
Many attempts have been made to quantitatively measure
electronegativity:
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(b) At some distance rmax, the attractive forces
overcome the repulsions and the overall energy
of the two atoms is lowered (yielding stabilised
atoms) and a bond is formed
(a)
(c) If r < rmax , the internuclear
repulsions make the bonds
energetically unfeasible.
(b) 9
Characterised by equal sharing of
electron density
Bonds are non‐polar
The majority of electron density
remains with the parent atoms but
a significant density is in the
internuclear region
Identical atomic orbitals are Electron density line drawings for O2 and F2
involved (i.e. same shape, size,
orientation)
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Characterised by uneven sharing of
electron density;
Distorted electron cloud since majority
of electron density is with more
electronegative atom
Bonds are polar
Some compounds are polar, e.g. H2O
Different types of atomic orbitals are
involved (different shapes, orientations
and energies)
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Lewis Structures
GN Lewis (1916) proposed a scheme for representing the electron density sharing in
covalent molecules which is still useful today.
Steps for constructing Lewis Structures
(obeying octet rule)
3. Assign bond pairs to link the central
1. Count the number of valence electrons
atom to the peripheral atoms then assign
and determine the number of electron
other electron pairs to satisfy the octets of
pairs. Add electrons for anions and deduct
all atoms.
for cations.
2. Assign the least electronegative element
as the central atom and surround it with
the other (peripheral) atoms. NB with the
exception of H bridges, H is always
assigned a terminal position.
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Exceptions
H is satisfied with a duplet, and Be compounds
to not obey the octet rule. e.g. BeCl2
Group 13 elements generally form compounds
with less than 8 electrons. e.g BF3
Molecules with odd numbers of electrons do
not obey the octet rule.
Elements in period 3 and beyond have
available d orbitals which can accommodate
more than an octet (SF6) – this is called
hypervalence.
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Resonance structures
A single Lewis structure may not When all the contributing Lewis
adequately describe a molecule. structures have the same energy,
Draw the Lewis structure for ozone (O3): they contribute equally to the
resonance hybrid.
When the energies of the structures
are markedly different, the more
Resonance has two main effects:
stable structures contribute more to
Resonance averages the bond
the resonance hybrid.
characteristics over the molecule and
Lowers the energy of the molecule
The decision about the degree of
(stabilisation effect) – the energy of the
contribution from Lewis structures is
resonance hybrid is lower than that of
made by assigning formal charges.
any contributing structure.
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Formal charges
The formal charge of an atom is the charge it The sum of formal charges on each atom of the
would have had if the electron pairs were Lewis structure equals the total charge on the
shared equally. species.
Formal charge is calculated by : Lewis structures with low formal charges
𝒇 𝒗 𝒍 𝒃 typically have the lower/lowest energy (most
stable).
Where v: number of valence electrons
l: number of lone pairs and
b: number of bond pairs
NB Each lone pair counts as two electrons but
each bond pair counts as one electron
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