MSE 252 Heat and Mass Transfer

PART I
• Reading List:
• Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E. and Lightfoot, E.N., Transport
Phenomena, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
• Sindo Kou, Transport Phenomena and Materials Processing,
John Wiley and Sons, New York.
• Poirier, D.R. and Geiger, G.H, Transport Phenomena in
Materials Processing, The Minerals, Metals and Materials
Society, Pennsylvania

1
 MSE 252 Heat and Mass Transfer
• Darby R., Chemical Engineering Fluid Mechanics, Second Edition,
Marcel Dekker Inc, New York
• Gaur, R.K., and Gupta, S.L., Engineering Physics, 8th Edition, Dhanpat
Rai Publications, New Delhi, India
• McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C., Harriot, P., Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, 7th Edition, McGraw Hill Higher Education Publishers,
USA, 2005
• Kumar D.S., Heat and Mass Transfer, 7th Revised Edition, Katson
Books, Kataria and Sons, New Delhi, India

2
MSE 252 Heat and Mass Transfer

3
 Heat Transfer
• Heat transfer is as a result of a temperature difference.
• Heat transfer can occur by three different mechanisms.
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation

• Conduction: This refers to heat transfer that occurs across a

stationary solid or fluid in which temperature gradient exists.

4
 Heat Transfer
• Convection: It refers to heat transfer that occurs across a
moving fluid in which a temperature gradient exists.

• Radiation: Thermal radiation refers to heat transfer between

two surfaces at different temperatures separated by a
medium transparent to electromagnetic waves emitted by
the surfaces.

5
 Heat Transfer
• Conduction is the transfer of heat by molecular motion
which occurs
• (i) between two parts of the same body
• (ii) between two bodies which are in physical contact with each
other.
• In solid, heat is conducted by either
• lattice waves in non-conductors or
• combination of lattice waves with drift of the conduction
electrons in conducting materials.

• In fluid, heat is conducted by molecular collision.

6
 Heat Transfer
• Fourier’s law is the macroscopic theory of conduction.
• There are basically two types of heat transfer mechanisms:
Conduction and Radiation

• Convection is rather a process involving mass movement of

fluids, than a real mechanism of heat transfer.
• We can therefore talk of “heat transfer with convection”
rather than “heat transfer by convection”.

• Convection implies fluid motion.

7
 Heat Transfer
• Convection (a) Forced convection or (b)Free (natural) convection.
• When a pump or other mechanical device causes fluid to move we
talk of forced convection

8
 Fourier’s Law of Conduction
• One Dimension

• Heat flux tends to flow from warmer lower surface to the cooler
upper layer

9
 Fourier’s Law of Conduction
• Heat flux, q, is defined as the amount of heat transferred per
unit area per unit time
• Greater the temperature difference between the two layers
𝑑𝑇
is or the steeper the temperature gradient is, the greater
𝑑𝑦
the heat flux qy
𝑑𝑇
• 𝑞𝑦 = −𝑘 -------- Fourier’s Law of Conduction
𝑑𝑦
• q is directly proportional to T2 – T1 but inversely proportional
to distance
• k is the thermal conductivity of the slab (material property)
10
 Fourier’s Law of Conduction
• Units
• qx, qy, qz ------[W/m2]
• T --------------[K]
• x, y, z ----------[m]
• k ---------------[W/m K]
𝑑𝑇
• 𝑞𝑦 = −𝑘 Fourier’s Law of Conduction
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑉𝑧
• 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = −𝜇 Newton’s Law of Viscosity
𝑑𝑦
• Minus sign shows that heat conduction occurs in the direction of
decreasing temperature

11
 Fourier’s Law of Conduction
• Thermal conductivity - reflects the relative ease or difficulty
of the transfer of energy through the material

• Thermal conductivity - depends on the bonding and

structure of the material

• Non – conductors have low thermal conductivities.

12
 Three-Dimensional Fourier’s Law
• For an isotropic material, three – dimensional heat flow can be
written as
𝜕𝑇
• qx = - k
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑇
• qy = - k
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑇
• qz = - k
𝜕𝑧

• Assumption of isotropic equalities is valid for fluids and for most

homogeneous solids

13
 Three-Dimensional Fourier’s Law
• Fibrous or laminated solids are non-isotropic

• For Isotropic material heat flux can be written in condensed form as

• q = - k 𝛻T

• Expanding into Rectangular coordinate system

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
• qx = - k ; qy = - k ; qz = - k
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

14
 Three-Dimensional Fourier’s Law
• Cylindrical
𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
• qr = - k ; qθ = - k ; qz = - k
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧

• Spherical
𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇
• qr = - k ; qθ = - k ; qØ = - k
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕∅

15
 Thermal Conductivity of Gases
• Conduction of energy in a gas phase is primarily by transfer of
translational energy (kinetic energy)
• Energy transfer from faster – moving (higher energy) molecule as it
collides with the slower – moving one

16
 Thermal Conductivity of Gases
• λ = Mean free path
• Mean free path = distance travelled by a molecule between two
successive collisions

• It is deduced that Thermal Conductivity, k is

1Τ
3 2
1 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
•k= ----------------------------------- (9)
𝑑2 𝜋3 𝑚

• From Eqn (9) thermal conductivity of gases does not depend on

pressure but rather on the square root of the temperature

17
 Thermal Conductivity of Gases
• d = center to center distance of two molecules
• κB = Boltzmann constant
• T = Temperature in Kelvin
• m = mass of the molecule.
• True for pressures up to at least 106 pa (approximately 10 atm)

• Following figure shows thermal conductivities of several common

gases as a function of temperature.

18
Thermal Conductivity of Gases

19
 Thermal Conductivity of Gases
• For more accurate treatment of monoatomic gases, we use the
Chapman-Enskog formula
−4 𝑇Τ𝑀
• 𝑘 = 1.9891 𝑥10
𝜎 2 Ω𝑘

• k [=] cal cm-1 sec-1 (°K)-1

• σ [=] Å given on Table B-1
• Ωk = Ωμ given on Table B.2
• M [=] Molecular weight

20
Thermal Conductivity of Gases, Table B-1

21
Thermal Conductivity of Gases, Table B-1

22
23
 Thermal Conductivity of Gases
• Example
• Compute the thermal conductivity of neon at 1 atm and 373.2 K.

• Solution
• Using the Chapman-Enskog equation given below for monoatomic
gases, we need to determine the various parameters from Tables B-1
and B-2.
−4 𝑇Τ𝑀
• 𝑘 = 1.9891 𝑥10
𝜎 2 Ω𝑘

24
 Thermal Conductivity of Gases
• The Leonard-Jones constants for neon, from Table B-1, are
• σ = 2.789 Å
• ε/K = 35.7 K
• M = 20.183
• Then at 373.2 K ΚT/ε = 373.2/35.7 = 10.45
• From Table B-2
• Ωk = Ωμ = 0.821

25
26
27
 Thermal Conductivity of Gases
• Substituting the values into the equation we have
𝑇Τ𝑀
•𝑘= 1.9891 𝑥10−4
𝜎 2 Ω𝑘

373.2Τ20.183
• 𝑘 = 1.9891 𝑥 10−4 =
2.789 2 0.821
1.338 𝑥 10−4 𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑚−1 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝐾 −1

• 1 cal = 4.184 J
28
 Thermal Conductivity of Gases
• For polyatomic gases, Eucken developed an equation for the thermal
conductivity of these gases at normal pressures

1.25𝑅
• k = µ 𝐶𝑝 + ----------------------------- 10
𝑀
• where M = molecular weight
• Cp = heat capacity at constant pressure
• µ = Viscosity of gas

29
 Thermal Conductivity of Gases
• For gas mixtures, we can estimate the thermal conductivity
1ൗ
σ𝑖 𝑋𝑖 𝑘𝑖 𝑀𝑖 3
• kmix = 1ൗ -------------------------------- 11
σ𝑖 𝑋𝑖 𝑀𝑖 3
• Where Xi = mole fraction of component i
• Mi = Molecular weight of i
• ki = intrinsic thermal conductivity of i

• Only 2.7 % error over the temperature range 273 – 353 K

30
 Thermal Conductivity of Solids
• Solids transmit thermal energy by two modes: either or both
• (1) energy may be transferred by means of elastic vibrations of the
lattice moving through the crystal in the form of waves
(Nonconductors)
• (2) notably metals (Conductors), free electrons moving through the
lattice also carry energy in a manner similar to thermal conduction in
a gas

• All solids store thermal energy as

• Vibrational motion - Kinetic energy of their atoms, and
• Bonding energy between atoms - Potential energy
31
 Thermal Conductivity of Solids
• The waves in a crystal exhibit the attributes of particles and are called
phonons

• The thermal conductivity of a solid (non-conductor) which conducts

energy only by phonons,
ഥ𝜆
𝐶𝑣 𝑉
•𝑘= −−−−− −7
3
• 𝑉ത = Average speed of the molecules
• 𝐶𝑣 = Heat capacity, 𝜆 = mean free path

• Debye showed that

32
 Thermal Conductivity of Solids
20𝑇𝑚 𝑑
• λph = ----------------------------------- 12
𝛾2𝑇

• Tm = melting point
• T = absolute temperature
• d = crystal lattice dimension
• 𝛾 = Gruneisen constant approximately 2 for most solids at ordinary
temperature.
• High melting point material has a large value of λ at low temperature
• From eqn (12) a large value of k at room temperature. E.g diamond

33
 Thermal Conductivity of Solids
• Phonons are scattered by
• Differences in isotropic mass
• Chemical impurities
• Dislocations
• Second phases

• We can be sure that the less perfect the crystal, the lower the thermal
conductivity.

34
 Thermal Conductivity of Solids
• Figure 6.3 below shows the thermal conductivity of oxides and
various electrical insulating materials

• From Eqn 12,

20𝑇𝑚 𝑑
• λph = ----------------------------------- 12
𝛾2𝑇
• as Temperature increases, λph decreases with a corresponding
decrease in k (Eqn 7)

ഥ𝜆
𝐶𝑣 𝑉
•𝑘= −−−−− −7
3

35
36
 Thermal Conductivity of Solids
• Conductors
• Conductors are materials with increasing concentration of conduction
electrons
• Electronic contribution to thermal conductivity, kel given as:
2
𝜋2 𝑛𝑒 𝑘𝛽 𝑇𝜆𝑒𝑙
• kel = ----------------------------------------- 15
3𝑚𝑒 𝑉𝑓
• This predicts that the electronic contribution in metals increases with
temperature
• Provided that 𝜆𝑒𝑙 does not decrease just as strongly with
temperature.

37
Thermal Conductivity of Solids (Metals)
Figure 6.6

38
 Thermal Conductivity of Solids
• Pure nickel and pure iron show decrease in k with low temperature

• At higher temperature the electronic contribution presumably

overwhelms the phonons contribution and k increases with
temperature.

39
 Amorphous Solids
• For amorphous solids such as high polymer and glasses

• Thermal conduction is mainly via atomic or molecular migration (or

radiation at high temperatures)
• (1) Material is too irregular in structure to support a phonon
mechanism and
• (2) Electron contribution is negligible.

• Results: Very low values of conductivity, as indicated in Table 6.1

40
Table 6.1 Thermal conductivities of amorphous
or molecular solids
Substance Temperature (K) k, W/m K

Glass 373 0.76

Lead glass 273 0.87
Pyrex glass 373 1.16
Quartz glass 373 1.42
Asphalt 293 0.76
Polystyrene 293 0.12
Polyvinyl chloride 293 0.26

41
 Summary
• Thermal Conductivity of Solids
ഥ𝜆
𝐶𝑣 𝑉
• Using 𝑘 = to describe k of a solid by phonons, k decreases as
3
temperature increases.

• Equation applies to electrically insulating substances as oxides

• Because of the presence of imperfections quantitative prediction is

difficult.

• The less perfect a crystal, the lower the thermal conductivity.

42
 Thermal Conductivity of Liquids.
• Lack of knowledge of their structure – problem
• Bird, Stewart and Lightfoot proposed the thermal
conductivity of liquids at densities away from critical
value as
2Τ
𝑁𝑜 3
• 𝑘 = 2.8𝑘𝛽 𝑉𝑠 ------------------------------------ 18
𝑉

43
 Thermal Conductivity of Liquids.
• Where V = molar volume
• NO = Avogadro number
• Vs = speed of sound through the liquid
1Τ
𝐶𝑝 1 2
• Vs = ---------------------------- 19
𝐶𝑣 𝜌𝛽 𝑇

• β = compressibility

44
 Thermal Conductivity of Liquids.
• Assumption:
• (1) Molecules in the liquid are arranged in a cubic
lattice
• (2) Energy transfer is via collisions between
molecules.
• The thermal conductivity of ordinary liquids near
room temperature (Table below)

45
 Table 6.3 Thermal conductivities of various
Liquids
• Substance Temperature, K k, Wm-1K-1
• Water 289 0.552
• Water 311 0.415
• Light oil 289 0.13
• Light oil 311 0.14
• Benzene 354 0.14
• Fluoride salts 755 5.5
• Slag 1865 4.0
46
Thermal Boundary Layer - External

47
 Thermal Boundary Layer
• At the solid/fluid interface the fluid temperature is TS

• Fluid temperature T in the region near the plate, varies from Ts at the
plate surface to T∞ in the stream: – heat transfer is by Conduction

• Region is called - Thermal Boundary Layer

• Thickness δT is typically – distance from the plate surface at which the

dimensionless temperature
𝑇− 𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇
• or = 0.99 --------------------------------- 6
𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞

48
 Thermal Boundary Layer
• In practice, it is usually specified that
• T = Ts @ y = 0----------------------------- 7
𝜕𝑇
• =0 @ y = δT --------------------------- 8
𝜕𝑦

• This effect of conduction is significant only in the boundary

layer

49
 Thermal Boundary Layer – Internal
• Consider a fluid of uniform temperature T∞ entering a circular tube of
inner diameter D and uniform wall temperature Ts as shown in Figure
below

50
 Thermal Boundary Layer
• Thermal boundary layers develop from opposite sides until
they approach the centreline at
𝑧 𝜌𝑉∞ 𝐷 𝐶𝑣 𝜇
• ≅ 0.05 ---------------------------------- 9
𝐷 𝜇 𝑘
𝑧
• ≅ 0.05 𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟 --------------------------------------- 10
𝐷
• Where,
𝑉∞ 𝐷 𝜌𝑉∞ 𝐷 𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
• 𝑅𝑒𝐷 = = = −−− −𝟏𝟏
𝜈 𝜇 𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆

𝜈 𝐶𝑣 𝜇 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐝𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐮𝐬𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲
• 𝑃𝑟 = = = − −𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑡𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 −− −12
𝛼 𝑘 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐮𝐬𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲

51
 Thermal Boundary Layer
• V∞ = velocity of fluid
• D = diameter of tube
𝜇
• v = kinematic viscosity = (m2/s)
𝜌
• µ = dynamic viscosity
• 𝜌 = density of fluid
𝑘
• α = thermal diffusivity = = (m2/s)
𝜌𝐶𝑣
• 𝐶𝑣 = specific heat capacity of material
• k = thermal conductivity

52
 Thermal Boundary Layer
• Equation 9 differs from its equivalent expression in momentum (fluid)
transfer by a factor of the Prandtl number

𝑧 𝜌𝑉∞ 𝐷 𝐶𝑣 𝜇
• ≅ 0.05 ---------------------------------- 9
𝐷 𝜇 𝑘

• For flow through a cross – sectional area A, such as that of a tube,

with constant heat capacity, the average temperature is defined as

‫𝐴𝑑𝑉𝑇𝜌 𝐴׭‬
• 𝑇𝑎𝑣 = -----------------(14)
𝑚ሶ

53
 Thermal Boundary Layer
• Thermally fully developed temperature profile in a tube is one with a
dimensionless temperature as follows

𝑇− 𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇
• or which is independent of the axial position
𝑇𝑎𝑣 − 𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎𝑣

• That is

𝜕 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇
• = 0 ------------------------------------------------- 15
𝜕𝑧 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎𝑣

54
 Heat Transfer Coefficient
• Consider the thermal boundary layer

• At the solid/fluid interface heat transfer occurs by conduction since

there is no fluid motion.
• Heat flux across the solid/fluid interface is given by

𝜕𝑇
• 𝑞𝑦 ห = −𝑘 ቚ ------------------------------------------- 16
𝑦=0 𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0

• Temperature gradient is unknown

55
 Heat Transfer Coefficient
• Thus a convenient way to avoid this problem is to introduce the Heat
Transfer Coefficient (h), defined as follows

𝜕𝑇
𝑞𝑦 ห −k ቚ
𝑦=0 𝜕𝑦 𝑦=0
•h= = ------------------------------------------- 17
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ 𝑇− 𝑇∞

• The absolute values are used to keep h always positive.

56
 Heat Transfer Coefficient
• From equation 17𝜕𝑇
𝑞𝑦 ห − k 𝜕𝑦 ቚ
𝑦=0 𝑦=0
• h= = ---------------------------------------- 17
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ 𝑇− 𝑇∞

• 𝑞𝑦 ห = ℎ 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ----------------------------------------- 18
𝑦=0
• Equation 18 is called Newton’s Law of Cooling.

• For fluid flow through a tube of inner radius R and wall temperature Ts, a
similar equation can be used:
𝜕𝑇
𝑞𝑟 ȁ𝑟=𝑅 − k 𝜕𝑟 ቚ
• h= = 𝑟=𝑅
------------------------------------------- 19
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎𝑣 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎𝑣

57
 Heat Transfer Coefficient
• where Tav is the average fluid temperature over the cross – sectional
area πR2.

• Considering the thermally fully developed region as shown

58
 Heat Transfer Coefficient
• For the case of a constant heat flux 𝑞𝑟 ȁ𝑟=𝑅 ,

• From equation 19 we see that (Ts - Tav) is also constant.

𝜕𝑇
𝑞𝑟 ȁ𝑟=𝑅 −k ቚ
𝜕𝑟 𝑟=𝑅
•h= = --------------------------------- 19
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎𝑣 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎𝑣

• Hence heat transfer coefficient h is constant in the thermally fully

developed region

59
 Heat Transfer Coefficient
• From equation 19 and equation 15 (thermally fully developed)
𝜕𝑇
𝑞𝑟 ȁ𝑟=𝑅 −k ቚ
𝜕𝑟 𝑟=𝑅
• h= = --------------------------------- 19
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎𝑣 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎𝑣

𝜕 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇
• = 0 ------------------------------------------------- 15
𝜕𝑧 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎𝑣

𝜕𝑇𝑠 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇𝑎𝑣
• we see that = = ------------------------------- 20
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

• Since TS and Tav are independent of r,

𝜕𝑇
• is also independent of r.
𝜕𝑧

60
 Heat Transfer Coefficient
• For a case of constant wall temperature Ts, equation 15
𝜕 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇
• = 0 ------------------------------------------------- 15
𝜕𝑧 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎𝑣

𝜕𝑇
• can be expanded and solved for to give
𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑇 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇 𝜕𝑇𝑎𝑣
• = ----------------------------------------------- 21
𝜕𝑧 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎𝑣 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑇
• Since T is dependent on r, is also dependent on r.
𝜕𝑧

61
Example: Flow through a cooling tube
• Cooling water runs through a copper tubing 0.4 cm in diameter and
20 m long at a mass flow rate of 20 g/s.
• Calculate the heat transfer coefficient, assuming the inner surface is
smooth.
•
• µ = 1 x 10-2 g cm-1 s-1
• ρ = 1 g/cm3
• Cp = 4.2 J g-1 C-1
• k = 6 x 10-3 W cm-1 C-1

62
Example: Flow through a cooling tube
• Solution
ℎ𝐷
• 𝑁𝑢𝐷 =
𝑘
𝐷𝜌𝑣∞ 𝜋𝐷2 𝜌𝑣𝑎𝑣 4
• ReD = = 𝑥
𝜇 4 𝜋𝐷𝜇
4𝑚ሶ
• = --------------------------- 1
𝜋𝐷𝜇
• Where 𝑚ሶ = mass flow rate. As such

4 𝑥 20 𝑔/𝑠
• ReD = = 6366 --------------- 2
𝜋 𝑥 0.4 𝑐𝑚 𝑥 1 𝑥 10−2 𝑔𝑐𝑚−1 𝑠 −1
• Substituting into equation (73) 𝑓 = 0.79 ln 𝑅𝑒𝐷 − 1.64 −2

63
Example: Flow through a cooling tube
• 𝑓 = 0.79 ln 6366 − 1.64 −2

• 𝑓 = 0.036 -------------------------- 3

• The Prandtl number

𝐶𝑝 𝜇 4.2 𝐽𝑔−1 𝐶 −1 𝑥 10−2 𝑔𝑐𝑚−1 𝑠 −1
• Pr = = = 7 -------------------------- 4
𝑘 6 𝑥 10−3 𝑊𝑐𝑚−1 𝐶 −1𝑓
𝑅𝑒𝐷 −1000 𝑃𝑟
• From equation (72) - 𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 8
1
𝑓 ൗ2 2ൗ
1+12.7 8 𝑃𝑟 3 −1

64
Example: Flow through a cooling tube
0.036
6366−1000 𝑥 7
• 𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 8
1 = 𝟓𝟏. 𝟖
0.036 ൗ2 2ൗ
1+12.7 8
7 3 −1

ℎ𝐷 𝑁𝑢𝐷 𝑘
• 𝑁𝑢𝐷 = ; ℎ=
𝑘 𝐷

51.8 𝑥 6 𝑥 10−3 𝑊𝑐𝑚−1 𝐶 −1

•ℎ= = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖 𝑾𝒄𝒎−𝟏 𝑪−𝟏
0.4 𝑐𝑚

65
 Series Composite Wall
• Consider a simple series wall made up of two different materials
whose thermal conductivities are k1 and k2

66
 Series Composite Wall
• There is a flow of heat from the gas at temperature Ti through its
boundary layer, the composite wall, and the boundary layer of the gas
at To.
• The unidirectional heat rate through the four parts of the entire
circuit is constant because steady state prevails. Thus
𝑘1 𝐴 𝑘2 𝐴
• Q = 𝐴ℎ𝑖 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇1 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇3 = Aℎ0 𝑇3 − 𝑇0 --
𝐿1 𝐿2
1

• A solution based on the four equalities in equation 1 – using the

resistance concept

67
 Series Composite Wall
• The flow of heat Q through material, subject to a temperature
difference Tj – Tk, is analogous to the flow of current I, as a result of a
potential difference Ej – Ek through an electrical conductor.

• Q ↔ Current (I)
• Tj – Tk,↔ Potential difference (Ej – Ek)↔ Voltage (V)
• V=IR
• R=V/I

68
 Series Composite Wall
• From Ohm’s law for electricity, the thermal resistance Rt for heat flow
is
𝑇𝑗 −𝑇𝑘
• Rt = ----------------------------- 2
𝑄
• Thus, for the composite wall, the four thermal resistances are from
(1)
𝑘1 𝐴 𝑘2 𝐴
• Q = 𝐴ℎ𝑖 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇1 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇3 = Aℎ0 𝑇3 − 𝑇0 -1
𝐿1 𝐿2
1 𝐿1 𝐿2 1
• , , , 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐴ℎ𝑖 𝑘1 𝐴 𝑘2 𝐴 𝐴ℎ0

69
 Series Composite Wall
• The total resistance for the whole circuit is simply their sum, so that
the heat flow is

𝑇𝑖 −𝑇0
•Q= 1 𝐿1 𝐿2 1 ------------------------------------ 3
+ + +
𝐴ℎ𝑖 𝑘1 𝐴 𝑘2 𝐴 𝐴ℎ0

𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜
•𝑄= 1 𝐿𝑖 1 −−− −(3)
+ σ𝑛 +
𝑖=1𝑘 𝐴 𝐴ℎ𝑜
𝐴ℎ𝑖 𝑖
• With the total temperature drop one can calculate the heat flux
• We can use expression to determine the temperature at any position
within the composite wall
70
 Composite Wall, Example 1
• A furnace wall is constructed of 230 mm of fire brick (k = 1.04 W/mK),
150 mm of insulating brick (k = 0.70 W/mK), 50 mm of glass- wool
insulation (k = 0.07 W/mK) and 3 mm thick steel plate (k = 45 W/mK)
on the outside.
• The heat transfer coefficients on the inside and outside surfaces are
28 and 5.7 W/m2K, respectively.
• The gas temperature inside the furnace is 1365 K and the outside air
temperature is 305 K.

71
 Composite Wall, Example 1
• Calculate the heat flux through the wall.
• Determine the temperatures at all interfaces

72
 Composite Wall, Example 1
• Solution
𝑇𝑗 −𝑇𝑘
• 𝑅𝑡 = −− −(2)
𝑄

𝑇𝑗 −𝑇𝑘
•𝑄=
𝑅𝑡

𝑇𝑗 −𝑇𝑘
•𝑞=
𝐴𝑅𝑡

1.𝐴 𝐿1 .𝐴 𝐿2 .𝐴 𝐿3 .𝐴 𝐿4 .𝐴 1.𝐴
• 𝐴𝑅𝑡 = + + + + +
𝐴ℎ𝑖 𝑘1 𝐴 𝑘2 𝐴 𝑘3 𝐴 𝑘4 𝐴 𝐴ℎ0

73
 Composite Wall, Example 1
1 0.230 0.15 0.05 0.003 1
• G𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝑅𝑡 = + + + + + =
28 1.04 0.70 0.07 45 5.7
𝟏. 𝟑𝟔𝟏 𝑾−𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝑲

• Therefore
1365−305
•𝑞= = 778.8 𝑊/𝑚2
1.361

𝑞 778.8
• 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇1 = = = 27.8 𝐾
ℎ𝑖 28
• T1 = 1365 – 27.8 = 1337.2 K

74
 Composite Wall, Example 1
• Similarly
𝑞 778.8 0.23
• 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = 𝑘 = = 172.2 𝐾
1.04
𝐿1

• T2 = 1165.0 K

• The remaining temperatures are determined in the same manner,

yielding T3 = 998.2 K and 𝑇4 − 𝑇5 = 441.8 𝐾

75
Example 2: Conduction through cylindrical
composite wall
• The cylindrical composite wall shown below is made of three different
materials, A, B and C, each having its own thermal conductivity that is
kA, kB, and kc respectively.
• The temperatures of the bulk fluids inside and outside the composite
walls are Ta and Tb, respectively,
• And the heat transfer coefficients are h1 and h4, respectively.
• The overall heat transfer coefficients U1 based on the inner surface
and U4 based on the outer surface are defined as

76
Example 2: Conduction through cylindrical
composite wall

77
Example 2: Conduction through cylindrical
composite wall
• Qr = 2𝜋𝑟1 𝐿 𝑈1 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑏 --------------------------------------- (A)

• Qr = 2𝜋𝑟4 𝐿 𝑈4 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑏 --------------------------------------- (B)

• Where Qr is the rate of heat flow through the composite wall

• L = length of the wall/pipe
• 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑏 = overall temperature difference

78
Example 2: Conduction through cylindrical
composite wall

79
Example 2: Conduction through cylindrical
composite wall
• Determine at the steady state, U1 as a function of the thermal
conductivities and heat transfer coefficient;

• Then calculate Qr from U1 and (𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑏 ).

80
Example 2: Conduction through cylindrical
composite wall
• Solution
• Considering material A as the control volume Ω with no mass flow
through nor heat generation within material A.
• At steady state equation 29 (overall energy balance eqn) below
becomes

𝑑𝐸𝑡
• = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 𝑇𝑎𝑣 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚𝐶𝑣 𝑇𝑎𝑣 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑄 + 𝑆 ---------------------------- 29
𝑑𝑡

• 0 = Q = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿𝑞𝑟 𝑟1 − 2𝜋𝑟𝐿𝑞𝑟 𝑟2 --------------------------------- 40

81
Example 2: Conduction through cylindrical
composite wall
• Meaning that
• 2𝜋𝑟𝐿𝑞𝑟 𝑟1 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿𝑞𝑟 𝑟2 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿𝑞𝑟 𝐴 = Q ---------------------- 41

𝑄𝑟
• Or rqr = (constant) ------------------------------------ 42
2𝜋𝐿

• Repeating for the other two materials, we obtain

𝑄𝑟
• 𝑟𝑞𝑟 𝐴 = 𝑟𝑞𝑟 𝐵 = 𝑟𝑞𝑟 𝑐 = 𝑟𝑞𝑟 = -------------------------- 43
2𝜋𝐿

82
Example 2: Conduction through cylindrical
composite wall
• From Fourier’s Law of conductivity
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑄𝑟
• −𝑘𝑟 = −𝑘𝑟 = −𝑘𝑟 = ---------------------------- 44
𝑑𝑟 𝐴 𝑑𝑟 𝐵 𝑑𝑟 𝑐 2𝜋𝐿

• Integrating over each individual material, (Verify Equations)

𝑄𝑟 𝑟2
• 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = 𝑙𝑛 ----------------------------------- 45
2𝜋𝐿𝑘𝐴 𝑟1

𝑄𝑟 𝑟3
• 𝑇2 − 𝑇3 = 𝑙𝑛 ----------------------------------- 46
2𝜋𝐿𝑘𝐵 𝑟2

83
Example 2: Conduction through cylindrical
composite wall

84
Example 2: Conduction through cylindrical
composite wall
𝑄𝑟 𝑟4
• 𝑇3 − 𝑇4 = 𝑙𝑛 ----------------------------------- 47
2𝜋𝐿𝑘𝐶 𝑟3

• At the two fluid/solid interfaces, from Newton’s Law of cooling we

obtain
𝑞𝑟1 𝑄𝑟
• 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇1 = = --------------------------------- 48
ℎ1 2𝜋𝐿𝑟1 ℎ1
𝑄𝑟
• Knowing that 𝑟𝑞𝑟 =
2𝜋𝐿
𝑞𝑟4 𝑄𝑟
• And 𝑇4 − 𝑇𝑏 = = --------------------------- 49
ℎ 4 2𝜋𝐿𝑟 ℎ 4 4

85
Example 2: Conduction through cylindrical
composite wall
• Adding equation 45 through 49
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑄 1 𝑙𝑛 𝑟2 𝑙𝑛 𝑟3 𝑙𝑛 𝑟4 1
• 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑏 = + 1
+ 2
+ 3
+ --------- 50
2𝜋𝐿 𝑟1 ℎ1 𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑘𝐶 𝑟4 ℎ4

• By definition in the problem

• Qr = 2𝜋𝑟1 𝐿 𝑈1 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑏 --------(A)

𝑄
• 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑏 = ----(A1)
2𝜋𝑟1 𝐿𝑈1

86
Example 2: Conduction through cylindrical
composite wall
𝑄
• 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑏 = ---(A1)
2𝜋𝑟1 𝐿𝑈1

𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑄 1 𝑙𝑛 𝑟2 𝑙𝑛 3 𝑙𝑛 4 1
𝑟2 𝑟3
• 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑏 = + 1
+ + + ---(50)
2𝜋𝐿 𝑟1 ℎ1 𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑘𝐶 𝑟4 ℎ4

• Equating Eqn (A1) to (50)

1
• 𝑈1 𝑟1 = 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
1 𝑙𝑛 𝑟2 𝑙𝑛 𝑟3 𝑙𝑛 𝑟4 1
+ 1 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑘 3 +𝑟 ℎ
𝑟1 ℎ1 𝑘𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 4 4
1 1
• 𝑈1 = 𝑟2 𝑟 𝑟
𝑟1
1 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑟3 𝑙𝑛 𝑟4 1
𝑟1 2 3
+ + + +
𝑟1 ℎ1 𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑘𝐶 𝑟4 ℎ4

87
Example 2: Conduction through cylindrical
composite wall
• Qr = 2𝜋𝑟1 𝐿 𝑈1 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑏 = 2𝜋𝑟4 𝐿 𝑈4 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑏

• Divide through by 2𝜋𝐿 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑏 to give

• 𝑈1 𝑟1 = 𝑈4 𝑟4

𝑈1 𝑟1
• 𝑈4 =
𝑟4

1 1 1
• 𝑈4 = = 𝑟2 𝑟 𝑟
𝑟4 𝑟4
1 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑟3 𝑙𝑛 𝑟4 1
𝑟1
𝑟1 ℎ1
+ 𝑘𝐴
+ 𝑘 2 + 𝑘 3 +𝑟 ℎ
𝐵 𝐶 4 4

88
Example 2: Conduction through cylindrical
composite wall
1
• 𝑈4 =
𝑟4
• Substituting equation A into equation 50
𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟4 −1
1 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 𝑙𝑛 1
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3
• 𝑈1 = 𝑟1−1 + + + +
𝑟1 ℎ1 𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑘𝐶 𝑟4 ℎ4

• From equation B, U4 can be found since

𝑈1 𝑟1
• 𝑈4 =
𝑟4

89
Example 3: Insulation Selection
• Example 3
• As part of a continuous annealing process, a rod passes through a
cylindrical furnace chamber 101 mm inside diameter and 15.2 m long.
• The inside surface temperature of the furnace wall under operating
conditions is predicted to be about 920 K and the outside surface
about 310 K.
• If it is decided that a heat loss of 73 kW is an acceptable figure then
which of the following insulations would you use?

90
Example 3: Insulation Selection

k, Wm-1K-1 Cost, ($) per m3

Insulation A 0.70 350
Insulation B 0.35 880

• Solution

91
Example 3: Insulation Selection
• Heat flow in radial direction in cylindrical coordinates
𝜕𝑇
• Heat flux, qr = - k
𝜕𝑟
𝑄𝑟
• Heat flow, Q = 𝑞𝑟 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 𝑟𝑞𝑟 =
2𝜋𝐿

• From equation 44 and 45 as having integrated over a controlled

volume
• From Fourier’s Law of conductivity
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑄𝑟
• −𝑘𝑟 = −𝑘𝑟 = −𝑘𝑟 = ---------------------------- 44
𝑑𝑟 𝐴 𝑑𝑟 𝐵 𝑑𝑟 𝑐 2𝜋𝐿

92
Example 3: Insulation Selection
𝑄𝑟 𝑟2
• 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = 𝑙𝑛 ----------------------------------- 45
2𝜋𝐿𝑘𝐴 𝑟1
2𝜋𝐿𝑘
• Qr = 𝑟 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑙𝑛𝑟2
1
𝑟2 2𝜋𝐿𝑘
• 𝑙𝑛 = (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) ----------------------------- A
𝑟1 𝑄

• For A
𝑟2 2𝜋 0.70 15.2 920−310
• 𝑙𝑛 = = 0.559
𝑟1 73 𝑥 103

93
Example 3: Insulation Selection
• So that with r1 = 50.5 mm
• r2 = 88.3 mm

• Similarly for B using ratio of conductivities:

𝑟2 2𝜋𝐿 𝑇1 −𝑇2
• 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑘𝐴
𝑟1 𝐴 𝑄
𝑟2 𝑟2
• 𝑙𝑛 = 𝐶 𝑘𝐴 Implying 𝑙𝑛 ∝ 𝑘𝐴
𝑟1 𝐴 𝑟1 𝐴

94
Example 3: Insulation Selection
• Hence ratio of conductivities gives
𝑟
𝑙𝑛 2
𝑟1 𝐴 𝑘𝐴
• 𝑟2 =
𝑙𝑛 𝑘𝐵
𝑟1 𝐵

• Thus
𝑟
𝑘𝐵 𝑙𝑛 𝑟2
𝑟2 1 𝐴
• 𝑙𝑛 =
𝑟1 𝐵 𝑘𝐴

95
Example 3: Insulation Selection
𝑟2 0.35
• 𝑙𝑛 = 0.559 = 0.28
𝑟1 𝐵 0.70

• So that r2 = 66.8 mm

• Calculating the volume of insulation and cost (πr2L x unit cost)

96
Example 3: Insulation Selection
1𝑚2
• Cost A = 𝜋 88.32 − 50.52 𝑚𝑚2
10002 𝑚𝑚2
350$
• = 15.2 𝑚
𝑚3
• = $ 87.69

• Cost B = $ 80.34
• Choice is B.

97
 DERIVATION OF OVERALL ENERGY BALANCE
EQUATION
• Consider an arbitrary stationary control volume Ω bounded by surface
A as shown in Fig 6A below

98
 DERIVATION OF OVERALL ENERGY BALANCE
EQUATION
• The control surface A can be considered to consist of three different
regions:
• Ain for the region where the fluid enters the control volume
• Aout, where the fluid leaves
• Awall, where the fluid is in contact with a wall

• In other words A = Ain + Aout + Awall -------------------------------- 22

99
 DERIVATION OF OVERALL ENERGY BALANCE
EQUATION
• Consider the outward heat transfer, for example, conduction rate
through dA = q.n dA shown in Figure 6B
• Since n points outward

100
DERIVATION OF OVERALL ENERGY BALANCE
EQUATION
• Inward heat transfer rate through area dA, dQ = - q.n dA ------------ 23

• Applying the following energy conservation law to the control volume

• (Equation here, PTO)
• This equation is in fact, the first law of thermodynamics written for an
open system under the unsteady state condition.
• In Terms 1 through 3 – the energy includes the thermal, kinetic and
potential energies.

101
DERIVATION OF OVERALL ENERGY BALANCE
EQUATION
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
• = - +
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑢𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
1 2 3

𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡

𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• - +
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
4 5 6
• ---------------------------------------- 24

102
DERIVATION OF OVERALL ENERGY BALANCE
EQUATION
• The thermal, kinetic and potential energy unit per unit mass of the fluid
are:
• Thermal : CvT
𝑉2
• Kinetic :
2
• Potential : ∅
• Cv = specific heat
• T = temperature
• The Total energy per unit mass of the fluid is given as
1
• eT = CvT + 𝑉 2 + ∅ ----------------------------------------- 25
2

103
 DERIVATION OF OVERALL ENERGY BALANCE
EQUATION
𝜕
• ‫𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝜌 ׮‬Ω = − ‫𝑉 𝑡𝑒𝜌 ׭‬. 𝑛𝑑𝐴 − ‫𝑞 𝐴׭‬. 𝑛𝑑𝐴 −
𝜕𝑡
‫𝑣𝑝 𝐴׭‬. 𝑛𝑑𝐴 − ‫𝜏 𝐴׭‬. 𝑣 𝑛𝑑𝐴 + ‫׮‬Ω 𝑠𝑑Ω − 𝑊𝑠 ----------26

• In materials processing problems, the kinetic and potential

energies are negligible as compared to the thermal energy.
• Furthermore, the pressure, viscous and shaft work are
usually negligible or even absent. As such equation 26
reduces to

104
 DERIVATION OF OVERALL ENERGY BALANCE
EQUATION
𝜕
• ‫𝑑𝑇 𝑉𝐶𝜌 ׮‬Ω = − ‫𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝐶𝜌 ׭‬. 𝑛𝑑𝐴 − ‫𝑞 𝐴׭‬. 𝑛𝑑𝐴 + ‫׮‬Ω 𝑠𝑑Ω ----- 27
𝜕𝑡

• Integral energy balance equation

• For the overall form of terms 1 through 6 into equation 24 (Rate

equation) and neglecting
• Kinetic energy Pressure work Viscous work
• Potential energy Shaft work

105
 DERIVATION OF OVERALL ENERGY BALANCE
EQUATION
𝑑𝐸𝑡
• = ‫𝐴𝑑𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝐶𝜌 ׭‬ − ‫𝐴𝑑𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝐶𝜌 ׭‬ + 𝑄 + 𝑆 −−−−− 28
𝑑𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡
• Where ET is the thermal energy in the control volume, ‫׮‬Ω 𝜌𝐶𝑉 𝑇𝑑Ω .
• Substituting equation (14)

‫𝐴𝑑𝑉𝑇𝜌 𝐴׭‬
• 𝑇𝑎𝑣 = -----------------(14)
𝑚ሶ

• into equation (28)

• And assuming Cv is constant, we obtain:

106
 DERIVATION OF OVERALL ENERGY BALANCE
EQUATION
𝑑𝐸𝑡
• = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 𝑇𝑎𝑣 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚𝐶𝑣 𝑇𝑎𝑣 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑄 + 𝑆 ------------ 29
𝑑𝑡

• Overall Energy Balance Equation

• Where ET = thermal energy in the control volume

• = 𝜌𝐶𝑉 𝑇Ω
• ET = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 𝑇 if 𝜌𝐶𝑉 𝑇 is uniform in Ω

107
 DERIVATION OF OVERALL ENERGY BALANCE
EQUATION
• 𝑚ሶ = mass flow rate at inlet or outlet
• = 𝜌𝑉𝑎𝑣 𝐴
• Q = heat transfer rate into control volume from surrounding
(other than the two 𝑚𝐶𝑣 𝑇𝑎𝑣 terms), that is, by conduction

• S = heat generation rate in the control volume

• = s Ω if uniform s.

108
 BERNOULLI EQUATION
• Considering a steady – state isothermal flow of an inviscid
incompressible fluid Term (1) = 0
• Without heat generation Term (6) = 0
• No heat conduction Term (4) = 0
• No shaft work Term (5a) = 0
• No viscous work Term (5c) = 0
1
• Substituting eT = CvT + 𝑉 2 + ∅ into equation 26 and assuming
2
uniform properties over the cross-sectional area A, we obtain

109
 BERNOULLI EQUATION
𝜕
• ‫𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝜌 ׮‬Ω = − ‫𝑉 𝑡𝑒𝜌 ׭‬. 𝑛𝑑𝐴 − ‫𝑞 𝐴׭‬. 𝑛𝑑𝐴 − ‫𝑣𝑝 𝐴׭‬. 𝑛𝑑𝐴 −
𝜕𝑡
‫𝜏 𝐴׭‬. 𝑣 𝑛𝑑𝐴 + ‫׮‬Ω 𝑠𝑑Ω − 𝑊𝑠 ---------------------------26

𝑃
• 0 = −𝜌 ‫𝐴׭‬ 𝑒𝑡 + 𝑉. 𝑛𝑑𝐴
𝜌
1 2 𝑃 1 2 𝑃
•0=𝜌 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 + 𝑉 +∅+ 𝑉𝐴 − 𝜌 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 + 𝑉 +∅+ 𝑉𝐴 -
2 𝜌 1 2 𝜌 2
---------------------- 30

110
 BERNOULLI EQUATION
• Since T1 = T2 and (ρvA)1 = (ρvA)2

• Equation 30 reduces to
1 2 𝑃1 1 2 𝑃2
• 𝑉1 + ∅1 + = 𝑉2 + ∅2 + ------------------------- 31
2 𝜌 2 𝜌

• If the z direction is taken vertically upwards, ∅ = 𝑔𝑧

• Where g is the gravitational acceleration. As such equation 31 on
multiplying by ρ becomes

111
 BERNOULLI EQUATION
1 1
• 𝜌𝑉12 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧1 + 𝑝1 = 𝜌𝑉22 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧2 + 𝑝2 ----------- 32
2 2

• Or simply

1
• 𝜌𝑉 2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 + 𝑝 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ---------------------------- 33
2

• This is the Bernoulli equation.

112
 Example (1) Fluid Temperature in a Mixing
Tank
• A mixing tank receives fluid from two inlets and discharges it through
one outlet.
• The mass of the fluid in the tank is M and its temperature T is uniform
as a result of stirring.
• Both the tank wall and the stirrer are very light in mass and a very
good insulator.
• The initial fluid mass and temperature in the tank are M0 and T0
respectively.

113
Example (1) Fluid Temperature in a Mixing
Tank
• The mass flow rates and temperatures are respectively m1 and T1 for
inlet 1, m2 and T2 for inlet 2, and m3 and T for the outlet.

114
Example (1) Fluid Temperature in a Mixing
Tank
• Determine the fluid temperature in the tank as a function of time

• Solution
• Assumptions
• (1) Since (a) stirrer is very light in mass (b) tank is a very good thermal
insulator
• We can ignore them in the heat flow analysis
• (2) (a) Kinetic energy, (b) Potential energy, (c) Pressure work of the
fluid, (d) work done on the fluid by the stirrer are negligible
115
Example (1) Fluid Temperature in a Mixing
Tank
• Compared with the thermal energy of the fluid.

• (3) Heat transfer due to conduction is negligible as compared to that

due to convection at the inlet and outlet.
• Since temperature is uniform, the thermal energy in the control
volume is
• 𝐸𝑇 = 𝑀𝐶𝑣 𝑇 ---------------------------------------------- 34

116
Example (1) Fluid Temperature in a Mixing
Tank
• From overall energy balance equation (Eqn 29) with Q = S = 0
𝑑𝐸𝑡
• = 𝑚𝐶
ሶ 𝑣 𝑇𝑎𝑣 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚𝐶
ሶ 𝑣 𝑇𝑎𝑣 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑄 + 𝑆 ------------ 29
𝑑𝑡

𝑑 𝑀𝐶𝑣 𝑇
• = 𝑚ሶ 1 𝐶𝑣 𝑇1 + 𝑚ሶ 2 𝐶𝑣 𝑇2 − 𝑚ሶ 3 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 -----------------35
𝑑𝑡

• Taking a material balance around the control volume

𝑑𝑀
• = 𝑚ሶ 1 + 𝑚ሶ 2 − 𝑚ሶ 3 @ t = 0 , M = Mo
𝑑𝑡
𝑀 𝑡
• As such ‫𝑀𝑑 𝑀׬‬ = ‫׬‬0 𝑚ሶ 1 + 𝑚ሶ 2 − 𝑚ሶ 3 𝑑𝑡
0

117
Example (1) Fluid Temperature in a Mixing
Tank
• Since d(xy) = xdy + ydx

𝑑𝑇
• 𝑚𝑡 + 𝑀0 + 𝑚𝑇 = 𝑚1 𝑇1 + 𝑚2 𝑇2 − 𝑚3 𝑇 ------------ 38
𝑑𝑡

• So

𝑑𝑇 − 𝑚+𝑚3 𝑇− 𝑚1 𝑇1 +𝑚2 𝑇2 / 𝑚+𝑚3

• = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑡+ 𝑚0

118
Example (1) Fluid Temperature in a Mixing
Tank
• And so
• M = 𝑚ሶ 1 + 𝑚ሶ 2 − 𝑚ሶ 3 𝑡 + 𝑀0
• 𝑀 = 𝑚𝑡 ሶ + 𝑀0 -------------------------------------- 36
• Where 𝑚ሶ = 𝑚ሶ 1 + 𝑚ሶ 2 − 𝑚ሶ 3

• Substituting equation 36 into 35 and dividing by Cv, we obtain

𝑑 𝑚𝑡+𝑀0 𝑇
• = 𝑚ሶ 1 𝑇1 + 𝑚ሶ 2 𝑇2 − 𝑚ሶ 3 𝑇 ------------------------------------- 37
𝑑𝑡

119
Example (1) Fluid Temperature in a Mixing
Tank
• Initial condition
• At t = 0 , T = T0

𝑑∅ 𝑎 ∅−𝑏
• From = (Appendix A: Case B, p619)
𝑑𝑈 𝑐 𝑢−𝑑
• With boundary (or initial) condition ∅ = ∅0 @ 𝑈 = 𝑈0
• Solution is
∅−𝑏 𝑐 𝑈−𝑑 𝑎
• =
∅0 −𝑏 𝑈0 −𝑑

120
Example (1) Fluid Temperature in a Mixing
Tank
• Thus, we have

𝑇− 𝑚1 𝑇1 + 𝑚2 𝑇2 / 𝑚+𝑚3 𝑚 𝑡+ 𝑚0 Τ𝑚 −(𝑚+𝑚3 )
• =
𝑇0 − 𝑚1 𝑇1 + 𝑚2 𝑇2 / 𝑚+𝑚3 𝑡0 + 𝑚0 Τ𝑚

121
 Differential Energy – Balance Equation
• In materials processing the kinetic and potential energy are negligible
as compared to the thermal energy,
• Total energy per unit mass 𝑒𝑡 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑇.
• Pressure, viscosity and shaft work are usually negligible.

• The surface integrals in the integral energy balance (equation 27) can
be converted into volume integrals. From Gauss’ divergence theorem
• ‫𝑣 𝐴׭‬. 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = ‫𝛻 𝛺׮‬. 𝑣𝑑𝛺

122
Differential Energy – Balance Equation
𝜕
• ‫𝑑𝑇 𝑉𝐶𝜌 ׮‬Ω = − ‫𝑣𝑇 𝑉𝐶𝜌 ׭‬. 𝑛𝑑𝐴 − ‫𝑞 𝐴׭‬. 𝑛𝑑𝐴 + ‫׮‬Ω 𝑠𝑑Ω ------ 27
𝜕𝑡
• (1) (2) (3) (4)

• From the integral balance equation (27) and Gauss theorem

• Term (2) becomes

• ‫𝑣𝑇 𝑣𝐶𝜌 𝐴׭‬. 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = ‫𝛻 𝛺׮‬. 𝜌𝐶𝑣 𝑇𝑣 𝑑𝛺 ------------------------------ 51

123
Differential Energy – Balance Equation
• Term (3) also becomes
• And ‫𝑞 𝐴׭‬. 𝑛𝑑𝐴 = ‫𝛻 𝛺׮‬. 𝑞𝑑𝛺 ---------------------------- 52

• Substituting equations (51) and (52) into (27) we have

𝜕
• ‫׮‬ 𝜌𝐶𝑉 𝑇𝑑Ω + ‫𝛻 𝛺׮‬. 𝜌𝐶𝑣 𝑇𝑣 𝑑𝛺 + ‫𝛻 𝛺׮‬. 𝑞𝑑𝛺 − ‫׮‬Ω 𝑠𝑑Ω = 0
𝜕𝑡
----------------- 53

124
Differential Energy – Balance Equation
𝜕
• If the control volume Ω does not change with time, in equation (53)
𝜕𝑡
can be moved inside the integration sign:

𝜕
•‫׮‬ 𝜌𝐶𝑉 𝑇 + 𝛻. 𝜌𝐶𝑣 𝑇𝑣 + 𝛻. 𝑞 − 𝑠 𝑑𝛺 = 0 --------------------- 54
𝜕𝑡

• The integrand, which is continuous, must be zero everywhere since

the equation must hold for any arbitrary region Ω

125
Differential Energy – Balance Equation
𝜕
• 𝜌𝐶𝑉 𝑇 + 𝛻. 𝜌𝐶𝑣 𝑇𝑣 + 𝛻. 𝑞 − 𝑠 = 0 -------------------------------- 55
𝜕𝑡
• (1) (2) (3) (4)

• The first two terms in the equation can be expanded

• In the case of the second term by using the idea of the divergence of
products we have, from appendix A, Terms (1) and (2) become

𝜕 𝜕𝜌
• 𝜌 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 + 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 + 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 𝛻. 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑣. 𝛻 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 ----(A)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
126
Differential Energy – Balance Equation
• Hence Eqn (A) becomes
𝜕 𝜕𝜌
• 𝜌 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 + 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 + 𝛻. 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑣. 𝛻 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 -----(B)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

• Which reduces to
𝜕
• 𝜌 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 + 𝜌𝑣. 𝛻 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 --------------------------------- 56
𝜕𝑡

• Since from the continuity equation

𝜕𝜌
• + 𝛻. 𝜌𝑣 = 0
𝜕𝑡

127
Differential Energy – Balance Equation
• Substituting
• 𝑞 = −𝑘𝛻𝑇 ----------------- (5) and
• Substituting equation (56) into (55), we have Eqn (57)
𝜕
• 𝜌 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 + 𝜌𝑣. 𝛻 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 --------------------------------- 56
𝜕𝑡
𝜕
• 𝜌𝐶𝑉 𝑇 + 𝛻. 𝜌𝐶𝑣 𝑇𝑣 + 𝛻. 𝑞 − 𝑠 = 0 ------------ 55
𝜕𝑡

𝜕
• 𝜌 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 + 𝜌𝑣. 𝛻 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 = 𝛻. 𝑘𝛻𝑇 + 𝑠 ------------ 57
𝜕𝑡

128
Differential Energy – Balance Equation
• Assuming constant Cv and k we have from 57
𝜕
• 𝜌 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 + 𝜌𝑣. 𝛻 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 = 𝛻. 𝑘𝛻𝑇 + 𝑠 ------------ 57
𝜕𝑡

𝝏𝑻
• 𝝆𝑪𝒗 + 𝒗. 𝜵𝑻 = 𝒌𝜵𝟐 𝑻 + 𝑺 --------------------------- 58
𝝏𝒕

• Equation 58 is the Differential Energy Balance Equation or the

Equation of Energy.

129
Differential Energy – Balance Equation
• Rectangular Coordinates
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
• 𝜌𝐶𝑣 + 𝑣𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦 + 𝑣𝑧 =𝑘 + + + 𝑆 ------ A
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

• Cylindrical Coordinates
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑣𝜃 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
• 𝜌𝐶𝑣 + 𝑣𝑟 + + 𝑣𝑧 =𝑘 𝑟 + + +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝑆 ---------------- B

130
Differential Energy – Balance Equation
• Spherical Coordinates
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑣𝜃 𝜕𝑇 𝑣∅ 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
• 𝜌𝐶𝑣 + 𝑣𝑟 + + = 𝑘ቂ 𝑟 +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕∅ 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕2 𝑇
2 sin 𝜃 + 2 2 2 ቃ+ 𝑆 ------------------- C
𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕∅

131
 Dimensionless Form
• Dimensionless forms are used to make solutions more general
• Reynolds number
𝜌𝑣2
𝐿𝑉 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
• Re = = = 𝐿
𝜇𝑣 ---------------------------------- 59
𝒱 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐿2

• Froude number
𝑣2 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝜌𝑣 2 Τ𝐿
• Fr = = = ----------------------------- 60
𝑔𝐿 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝜌𝑔

132
Dimensionless Form
• Prandtl number
𝑣 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
• Pr = = ------------------------------- 61
∝ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

• Peclet number
𝐿𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝜌𝐶𝑣 𝑉 𝑇1 −𝑇0
• PeT = Re Pr = = = -------- 62
∝ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑘 𝑇1 −𝑇0 Τ𝐿

133
 Solution Procedure
• The purpose of the equation of energy, is to determine the
temperature distribution.
• The following steps can be followed:
• (1) Choose a coordinate system that best describes the physical
system geometrically.
• (2) Choose the equation of energy from a Table for the coordinate
system.
• (3) Eliminate the zero terms from the equation of energy.

134
Solution Procedure
• (4) Substitute the velocity distribution, if it is available and
temperature – independent, into the equation.

• (5) Set up the boundary and/or initial conditions

• (6) Solve the equation of energy, subject to the boundary and/or

initial conditions in step 5, for the temperature distribution. Standard
solutions to the differential equations are available.

135
Solution Procedure
• (7) Check to see if the temperature distribution satisfies the
boundary and/or initial conditions in step 5.

136
Commonly Encountered Heat Flow Boundary
Conditions
• Rectangular Coordinates
• (1) Plane of symmetry

137
Commonly Encountered Heat Flow Boundary
Conditions
• (2) Constant surface Temperature

138
Commonly Encountered Heat Flow Boundary
Conditions
• (3) Adiabatic or Insulated Surface

139
Commonly Encountered Heat Flow Boundary
Conditions
• (4) Constant Surface Heat Flux

140
Commonly Encountered Heat Flow Boundary
Conditions
• (5) Convection Exchange

141
Commonly Encountered Heat Flow Boundary
Conditions
• The free surface of a fluid may be exposed to a gas of bulk
temperature Tf

• Or the surface of a solid may be exposed to a gas or liquid of bulk

temperature Tf.

• From Newton’s law of cooling

𝜕𝑇
• 𝑞 = −𝑘 = ℎ 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑓 ----------------------------- 63
𝜕𝑦

142
Commonly Encountered Heat Flow Boundary
Conditions
• (6) Interface I/II :S/S, L/S, G/S, L/L, G/L

143
Commonly Encountered Heat Flow Boundary
Conditions
• The temperature and the heat flux are the same on both sides of the
interface.

• This is for a case when temperature distribution is to be found in both

phases.

144
Commonly Encountered Heat Flow Boundary
Conditions
• (7) Solid/solid contact

145
Commonly Encountered Heat Flow Boundary
Conditions
• If there is a small gap between two solids in contact with each other

• Heat flux across the gap can be expressed as 𝑞 = ℎ 𝑇𝐼 − 𝑇𝐼𝐼

• Where h is the heat transfer coefficient,
• TI = temperature in solid I at the gap
• TII = the temperature of solid II at the gap.
• This is for a case where the temperature fields in both I and II are
being determined.
• Eg: gas-filled window pane
146
Scenarios in Heat Conduction
• 3 Scenarios

• Scenario 1
• Infinite thermal conductivity in solids, k→∞ (Lumped Parameter
Analysis)
• Uniform temperature in the solid body (No temperature gradient in
solid)

• Biot number < 0.1

• Convection resistance > Conduction resistance

147
Scenarios in Heat Conduction
• Typical examples
I. Cooling of a small metal casting

II. Cooling of a billet in quenching bath after removal from the furnace

III. Heating or cooling of a fine thermocouple wire due to change in

ambient temperature.

148
Scenarios in Heat Conduction
• Scenario 2
• Transient Heat Conduction In Solids with Finite Conduction and
Convective Resistance

• (0.1 < Bi < 100)

• Conduction and convection resistances are almost of equal
importance
• Use Heisler charts

149
Scenarios in Heat Conduction
• Scenario 3
• Transient Heat Conduction in Infinite (Semi Infinite) Thick Solids
• Bi →∞
• Use Error Function solution

150
Lumped Parameter Analysis (Bi < 0.1)
• For the lumped parameter analysis.
ℎ𝐿
• 𝐵𝑖𝑜𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐵𝑖 = < 0.1
𝑘
• Presumed the solid has infinitely large thermal conductivity.

• Internal conduction resistance is so small that heat flow to or from

the solid is controlled by the convective resistance

• Transient response can be done by relating the rate of change of

internal energy with the convective heat exchange at the surface

151
Lumped Parameter Analysis (Bi < 0.1)
• For a body with

• Surface area = A
• Volume = V
• Density = ρ
• Thermal conductivity = k
• Specific heat capacity = Cv
• Initial temperature = Ti
• Ambient temperature = Ta

152
Lumped Parameter Analysis (Bi < 0.1)
• Heat exchange is given as
𝑑𝑇
• −𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑣 = ℎ𝐴 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑎 −−− −(1)
𝑑𝑡

• Separating the variables

𝑑𝑇 ℎ𝐴
•‫׬‬ = − ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑡
𝑇−𝑇𝑎 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑣

• Evaluating we have
𝑇−𝑇𝑎 ℎ𝐴𝑡
• 𝑙𝑛 = −
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑣

153
Lumped Parameter Analysis (Bi < 0.1)
• Or
𝑇−𝑇𝑎 ℎ𝐴𝑡
• = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑣
• The dimensionless argument of the exponential can be rewritten as
ℎ𝐴𝑡 ℎ𝑉 𝐴2 𝑘𝑡
• =
𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑣 𝑘𝐴 𝜌𝑉 2 𝐶𝑣

ℎ𝐴𝑡 ℎ𝑙 𝛼𝑡
• =
𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑣 𝑘 𝑙2

ℎ𝐴𝑡
• = 𝐵𝑖 𝐹𝑜 = 𝐵𝑖𝑜𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟)
𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑣

154
Lumped Parameter Analysis (Bi < 0.1)
• l is a characteristic length given by the ratio of the volume of the solid
to its surface area.

• For simple geometrical shapes, characteristic lengths are given as

• Sphere
4 3
𝜋𝑅 𝑅
•𝑙= 3
=
4𝜋𝑅 2 3

• Cylinder
𝜋𝑅 2 𝐿 𝑅
•𝑙= =
2𝜋𝑅𝐿 2

155
Lumped Parameter Analysis (Bi < 0.1)
• Cube
𝐿3 𝐿
•𝑙= =
6𝐿2 6

• For a flat plate (thickness δ, breadth b, height h) heat exchange occurs

from both sides. Area exposed for heat transfer is 2bh. Characteristic
length therefore is

𝛿𝑏ℎ 𝛿
•𝑙= = = ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
2𝑏ℎ 2

156
Lumped Parameter Analysis (Bi < 0.1)
• Fourier number, Fo
𝛼𝑡
• 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 =
𝑙2
• It signifies the extent of heating or cooling effect through a solid.

• For instance, a large time t is required to obtain a significant

temperature change for small values of (α/l2)
𝑘
•𝛼=
𝜌𝐶𝑣

ℎ𝐿
• 𝐵𝑖𝑜𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐵𝑖 =
𝑘

157
Lumped Parameter Analysis (Bi < 0.1)
• Biot number, Bi
ℎ𝑙
• 𝐵𝑖 =
𝑘

• It gives an indication of the ratio of internal (conduction) resistance to

the surface (convection) resistance.

• Small value of Bi implies the system has small conduction (internal)

resistance.
• This implies a small temperature gradient or existence of practically
uniform temperature within the system.
158
Lumped Parameter Analysis (Bi < 0.1)
• Convective resistance then predominates, and the convective heat
exchange controls the transient phenomenon.

• Small Biot number can hold with

• (i) thin plates and
• (ii) solid with large thermal conductivity k and
• (iii) situation with small heat transfer coefficient h.

• Acceptable value of Biot number for lumped parameter analysis is

• Bi <0.1.
159
Lumped Parameter Analysis (Bi < 0.1)
• For Instantaneous Heat Flow Rate in a body
ℎ𝐴
• 𝑄𝑖 = −ℎ𝐴 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − 𝑡 −−− −(1)
𝜌𝑉𝑐

• Total Heat Flow (loss or gain) is obtained by integrating equation (1)

above over time t = 0 to t = t,

𝑡 ℎ𝐴
• 𝑄𝑖 = ‫׬‬0 −ℎ𝐴 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜌𝑉𝑐

160
Lumped Parameter Analysis (Bi < 0.1)
• This gives
ℎ𝐴
• 𝑄𝑖 = −ℎ𝐴 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − 𝑡 −−− −(2)
𝜌𝑉𝑐
•
ℎ𝐴
• 𝑄𝑖 = 𝜌𝑉𝑐 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − 𝑡 − 1 −−− −(3)
𝜌𝑉𝑐

161
Lumped Parameter Analysis (Bi < 0.1)
• Example
• A cylindrical stainless steel (k = 25 W/mK) ingot, 10 cm in diameter
and 25 cm long, passes through a heat treatment furnace which is 5
meter in length. The initial ingot temperature is 90°C, the furnace gas
is at 1260°C and the combined radiant and convective surface
coefficient is 100 W/m2K. Determine the maximum speed with which
the ingot moves through the furnace if it must attain 830°C
temperature.

• Take thermal diffusivity α = 0.45 x 10-5 m2/s.

162
Lumped Parameter Analysis (Bi < 0.1)
• Solution:
• The characteristic linear dimension = ratio of the volume to its surface
area is worked out as

𝜋𝑟 2 𝐿 𝑟𝐿 5 𝑥 25
•𝑙= = = = 2.08 𝑐𝑚
2𝜋𝑟(𝑟+𝐿) 2(𝑟+𝐿) 2(5+25)

ℎ𝑙 100 𝑥 0.0208
• 𝐵𝑖𝑜𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝐵𝑖 = = = 0.0832 < 0.1
𝑘 25

163
Lumped Parameter Analysis (Bi < 0.1)
• Thus we can use the lumped-parameter solution for transient
conduction which is stated as

𝑇−𝑇𝑎 ℎ𝐴𝑡
• = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑣

ℎ𝐴𝑡 𝑘 ℎ 𝐴 ℎ 𝐴
• = 𝑥 𝑥 =𝛼𝑥 𝑥
𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑣 𝜌𝐶𝑣 𝑘 𝑉 𝑘 𝑉

𝐴 1 1
• = = = 0.48 𝑐𝑚−1
𝑉 𝑙 2.08

164
Lumped Parameter Analysis (Bi < 0.1)
ℎ𝐴𝑡 ℎ 𝐴
• Thus =𝛼𝑥 𝑥
𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑣 𝑘 𝑉
ℎ𝐴𝑡 100
• = 0.45 𝑥 10−5 0.48 𝑥 102 = 8.64 𝑥 10−4
𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑣 25

𝑇−𝑇𝑎 ℎ𝐴𝑡
• Solving therefore = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑣

830−1260
•∴ = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −8.64 𝑥 10−4 𝑡
90−1260

1.00097
•𝑡= = 1158.53 𝑠
8.64 𝑥 10−4
165
Lumped Parameter Analysis (Bi < 0.1)
• The required ingot velocity then becomes

𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 5.0

• 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑉 = = = 4.32 𝑥 10−3 𝑚/𝑠
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 1158.53

166