PRACTICAL FEEDING OF POULTRY

by Harry W Titus^

IN THIS ARTICLE the four principal systems of poultry

feeding—all-mash, mash-grain, pellet, and grain-milk—are described, and
numerous combinations of feedstuifs are given, with recommendations
for quantities, to fit various farm conditions. There is a discussion of
nutritional disturbances from the standpoint of cause and cure, and of
the relation of certain management practices to good nutrition in poultry.
Tables at the end of the article give analyses of most of the common
feedstuffs available to poultrymen.

WHEN POULTRY is kept primarily as a source of income, as it is in

most instances, it is desirable to have as much knowledge as possible
of the factors that influence the cost of production. The various
studies that have been made of the economics of poultry keeping
indicate that feed accounts for 50 to 60 percent of the total cost of
producing poultry meat and eggs. The prices of feeding stuffs vary
from year to year and even from season to season ; and so it sometimes
happens that a feeding stuff which it is economical to use at one
time may not be economical at some other time. Thus, it is readily
apparent that careful thought should be given to the nutritive value
of the feeding stuffs used, their cost, their mutual replaceability, and
their suitability.
In general, if a profit is to be made, all the necessary nutritive
elements must be supplied in adequate quantities and as cheaply as
possible. Frequently the cost of the feed may be reduced appreciably
by the substitution of one feeding stuff' for another; but there are
times when a certain feeding stuff' can be replaced only by a combina-
tion of two or more other feeding stuffs. Whenever substitutions are
made, the resulting diet should be carefully checked to find out
whether or not it contains enough of all the necessary nutrients,
especially protein, minerals, and vitamins. The tables in the appen-
dix will aid poultrymen materially in making substitutions.
3 Harry W. Titus is Senior Biological Chemist, in charge of Poultry Nutrition Investigations, Bureau of
Animal Industry.
819
820 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939

SUPPLYING THE NUTRITIVE ELEMENTS

In selecting the ingredients to be used in compounding any diet,
consideration should be given to their palatability. Of two feeding
stuffs of equal cost and apparently equal nutritive value, the more
palatable should be chosen. Palatability is of great importance
because any marked reduction in feed consumption usually residts in
slower growth or a reduced egg production.
The so-called texture of a feed mixture is also of great importance.
The fineness to which the several ingredients are ground is one factor
influencing both texture and palatability. Feed mixtures that are too
finely ground or that would form a sticky mass in the mouth and be
swallowed with difficulty should not be used. A granular, loose-textured
mixture of feeding stuffs is nearly always palatable and therefore to be
preferred. Of course, the feed particles in a diet intended for very
young chicks should be smaller than those in a diet intended for older
chickens, but in no case should they be of a flourlike fineness.
As a result of our knowledge of the nutritive properties of feeding
stuffs it is possible to choose the ingredients of a diet on the basis of
their ability to serve as sources of one or more specific nutrients. For
example, the cereal grains are used as sources of readily digestible
carbohydrates, but generally yellow corn is preferred to all the others
because it is a better source of vitamin A. Dried skim milk is used be-
cause it is a relatively good source of vitamin G (riboflavin) and of
protein of excellent quality. Fish meal and meat scrap are also good
sources of protein of very good quality and in addition supply rela-
tively large quantities of calcium and phosphorus. Bran and mid-
dlings are sources of several of the vitamins and vita.minlike factors
and tend to improve the texture of a mixture of feeding stuffs. Alfalfa
meal and alfalfa-leaf meal are good practical sources of vitamins A
and G and some others as well. Cod-liver oil and other fish oils are
used as sources of vitamin D and sometimes of vitamin A. Linseed
meal is a source of certain so-called essential fat acids and, if the proper
quantity is used, tends to impart desirable physical properties to the
feed masses in the intestines and to the excreted fecal masses so that
they are less likely to soil the eggs,
THE ENERGY-PRODUCING NUTRIENTS
Although all the usual ingredients of typical diets for poultry,
except salt, limestone, and oystershell, supply some energy, the chief
sources of energy are the cereal grains and the grain sorghums. The
latter, however, are not used so extensively in the feeding of poultry
as are the former.
A fairly large number of experiments have been conducted to deter-
mine the relative value of the difl'erent grains when they are fed at the
same level in otherwise similar diets. The results show little diflerence
in the gains of growing chicks regardless of which grain is used, provided
the diets contain all the necessary protein, vitamins, and minerals. Oat-
meal is somewhat more efficient in producing gains in live weight than
corn, wheat, barley, or whole oats, but usually it is also more expensive.
For laying hens corn appears to be slightly superior and oats slightly
inferior to barley and wheat. For chickens being finished for market,
there seems to be little or no difference between diets that contain
 PRACTICAL FEEDING OF POULTRY 821

equal quantities of corn, wheat, oats, or barley. There is some evi-

dence, however, that the flesh of chickens finished on diets containing
chiefly corn or barley is superior to that of those finisheà on diets
containing chiefly wheat or oats. White corn and oats are widely
used in finishing diets because they do not tend to color the skin
yellow as does yellow corn.
Notwithstanding the statements just made, the relative nutritive
values of the cereal grains and grain sorghums are roughly indicated
by their content of total digestible nutrients. Selected data on the
digestibility in the chicken of a small number of feeding stuffs are given
in table 8 (p. 842). As has been pointed out, however, many feeding
stuffs are included in the diet because they possess certain specific
properties, so it is clear that the content of total digestible nutrients
should not be used as the sole criterion in deciding whether or not to
make a substitution of one feeding stuff for another. For example,
if a diet that contains yellow corn supplies only slightly more vitamin
A than is needed, it would be inadvisable to substitute oats, wheat,
or barley for the yellow corn, even though they may be considerably
cheaper as sources of digestible nutrients. The substitution should
be made only if sufficient vitamin A is supplied through the use of
some other suitable feeding stuff, such as alfalfa-leaf meal, and the
advisability of the change would be determined by the cost of the
resulting diet as compared with the cost of the original diet.
THE PROTEIN
There are many different proteins, but all of them are composed of
a relatively small number of comparatively simple compounds known
as amino acids. The chicken is able to make in its own body some,
but not all, of these amino acids, and unless most of those which it
cannot make are present in the feed normal nutrition is impossible.
A protein is said to be of good quality if it contains a sufficient quan-
tity of the amino acids the animal is unable to make but which it
requires for normal growth and reproduction. In the practical feed-
ing of animals two classes of proteins are commonly referred to—those
derived from plants and those derived from animals, or plant proteins
and animal proteins. In general the animal proteins are superior in
quality to the plant proteins.
Owing to the variability of the several protein supplements used in
compounding diets for poultry, it is not possible to state their relative
values for growth or reproduction in precise terms. Nevertheless, it
is possible to indicate their relative values in a qualitative way by
using a system of numbers in which 1 represents the highest value,
2 the next highest, 3 the next, and so on. According to studies of
Mussehl and Ackerson {832y and data obtained at various times by
the writer and his associates, the more common protein supplements
may be rated as follows:
Dried skim milk 1 Soybean meal 2
Dried buttermilk 1 Peanut meal 2-3
Fish meal (best grades) 1 Cottonseed meal 3
Meat scrap 2 Linseed meal 4
Fish meal (poorer grades) 2 Corn-gluten meal 4
Hempseed meal 2 Soybeans 4
i! Italie numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited, p. 1076.
822 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939

According to data obtained by Wilgus, Norris, and Heuser {1221),

the best grades of fish meal are whitefish meal (either vacuum or
steam dried) and the domestic sardine meal. Flame-dried menhaden
fish meal usually has been the poorest of those used in feeding chickens,
but since 1935 there have been marked improvements in it. The
domestic fish meals are usually greatly superior to the imported.
Wilgus, Norris, and Heuser (1221) also obtained data on the relative
'^protein efficiency'' of several kinds of meat scrap that diftered from
one another in their protein content. Apparently the best was the
one that contained about 55 percent of protein, although it apparently
was but little better than the one that contained 60 percent. How-
ever, the protein content of meat scrap cannot be used as a reliable
indicator of the protein efficiency of this product because the propor-
tion of the different materials that are used in its manufacture varies
according to the demand for them for other purposes. During the
last year or two, as a result of a change in the demand for some of
these materials, particularly those used in the manufacture of glue
and gelatine, meat scrap that contains the higher percentages of
protein has tended to be of better quality than it was when Wilgus,
Norris, and Heuser obtained their data.
It is a well-established fact that some proteins supplement each
other—that is, give better results when fed together than when fed
alone. The experiments of Ackerson, Blish, and Mussehl (12) indi-
cate that one-third of a mixture of fish meal and meat meal may be
replaced by soybean meal without any decrease in the relative value
of the mixture as a protein supplement, unpublished data obtained
at the Department's Southwest Poultry Experiment Station, Glendale,
Ariz., have shown that a mixture of equal parts of meat scrap and
hempseed meal has about the same value as meat scrap.
It is not possible to give hard and fast rules for selecting protein
supplements, because they vary in their nutritive value. However,
in order to insure that the protein in the diet is of suitable quality, it
is a good practice to derive between 20 and 40 percent of it from feed-
ing stuffs of animal origin, such as dried skim milk, dried buttermilk,
fish meal, and meat scrap.
THE MINERALS
In order to supply all the mineral elements that the chicken re-
quires, it usually is necessary to include in the diet some calcium car-
bonate, salt, and manganous sulfate. Occasionally it is desirable to
add some steamed bonemeal as a source of phosphorus.
The best sources of calcium carbonate are high-calcium limestone
and oystershell. Limestones that contain not less than 39 percent of
calcium are to be preferred to all other grades, but those that contain
between 32 and 39 percent may be used. Oystershell that has been
obtained in the shucking of oysters is ordinarily better than the so-
called oystershell that is obtained from shell deposits, because the
former nearly always has a higher calcium content. Good grades of
properly cleaned oystershell contain approximately 38 percent of cal-
cium. If a given lot of oystershell contains appreciably less than this
percentage of calcium, it is an indication that it may have been
obtained from shell deposits.
Any good grade of common salt may be used. It is desirable.
 PRACTICAL FEEDING OF POULTRY 823

however, that it be finely granular and free flowmg. If lumps are

present, the salt should be passed through a fine-meshed sieve in
order to insure that there will be no lumps in the feed. Iodized salt
may be used if desired.
Anhydrous manganous sulfate is the form in which manganese
is most commonly added to feed mixtures for poultry, and it is also
one of the most suitable forms. If it is not readily obtainable,
manganous sulfate tetrahydrate may be used, but this supplies only
about two-thirds as much manganese as the anhydrous product so
that almost half again as much must be used.
When the diet contains little or none of the animal protein supple-
ments, it is desirable and sometimes necessary to add some form of
calcium phosphate. The most suitable form is steamed bonemeal.
Raw rock phosphate should not be used unless it is definitely known
that it contains no fluorine.
THE VITAMINS
Vitamin A
In formulating diets for chickens, it is necessary to give special
attention to the matter of supplying vitamin A. There are two
reasons for this: (1) The chicken's vitamin A requirements for growth
and reproduction are relatively high, and (2) vitamin A is not very
stable in feed mixtures.
Fraps and Kemmerer (388) found that under the climatic conditions
at College Station, Tex., practically all the vitamin A, added to
feed mixtures in the form of cod-liver oil, other fish oils, or cod-liver-
oil concentrates, was lost after about 4 weeks of storage. They also
found that the addition of the antioxidant, hydroquinone, delayed
the destruction by only a week or two. Although climatic conditions
are probably somewhat more conducive to the destruction of vitamin
A in mixed feeds at College Station, Tex,, than throughout the rest
of the country on the average, the fact remains that under ordhiary
conditions during the warmer months of the year the destruction
of vitamin A, when added in the form of fish-liver oils, fish oils, or
concentrates of these oils, may be virtually complete after 4 months.
The richest source of vitamin A used in feed mixtures for poultry
is so-called fortified cod-liver oil, which is cod-liver oil to which
vitamin A and vitamin D concentrates from other fish oils or fish-
liver oils have been added. It contains, on an average, somewhat
more than 1,300,000 International Units of vitamin A per pound.
Straight cod-liver oil, which averages a little more than 340,000
units per pound, is the next richest source. Although some lots of
dehydrated alfalfa-leaf meal may contain over 200,000 units of
vitamin A activity per pound, the average for alfalfa-leaf meals in
general is about 60,000. Sardine oil has a vitamin A activity of
about 45,000 units per pound. Other feeding stuffs that may be
used as important sources of vitamin A activity are, in decreasing
order of potency: Corn-gluten meal made from yellow corn, garden
peas, yellow corn, field peas, wheat-germ meal, and cowpeas. Under
the various conditions under which poultry are kept, the most practical
source of vitaimin A activity is high-grade alfalfa-leaf meal; yellow
corn is also a good practical source but its potency is much less than
824 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939

that of alfalfa-leaf meal. Fresh green grass is an excellent source^

having on an average about 107,000 International Units of vitamin
A per pound, but it is not always available. The vitamin A content
of a number of feeding stuffs is given in table 9 (p. 842).^
The situation in regard to the precursors of vitamin A—those
substances in the feed which most animals are able to convert into
vitamin A in their bodies—is somewhat different from that of vita-
min A itself. For example, carotene, one of these precursors, is
relatively more stable than vitamin A, even when it is extracted from
plant materials and then added to the feed in the form of an oil
solution. Moreover, the precursors of vitamin A are much more stable
in the feeding stuffs in which they occur than they are in oil solutions.
Although corn may lose about 50 percent of its vitamin A activity
and dehydrated alfalfa-leaf meal as much as 85 percent after 9 or
10 months of storage, some samples of these feeding stuffs may retain
some vitamin A activity after 18 months or more of storage. The
important point, however, is that all feeding stuffs tend to lose
vitamin A activity with age. Furthermore, the rate of loss is in-
creased if they are ground and mixed with other feeding stuffs to
make a feed mixture.
Vitamin Bi
Vitamin Bi appears to be rather stable in feeding stuffs and in
feed mixtures. Inasmuch as the minimum vitamin l^^ requirement
of the chicken is only about 90 International Units per pound of feed,
and most if not all grains, seeds, and their byproducts contain at
least 200 International Units per pound, there is little likelihood that
typical diets of poultry will be deficient in this vitamin.
Vitamin D
Under the usual conditions of brooding, the chicks may not receive
enough vitamin D unless some is added to their diet. Likewise,
laying stock may not get enough of this vitamin if they do not get
plenty of sunshine. Accordingly, it is necessary to add some vitamin
D to the diet of laying stock kept in confinement. Even if the chickens
are given access to range, they may not get enough sunshine during
the winter months to meet their vitamin D requirements. In general,
it is a good practice to add some vitamin D to all diets fed to chickens
unless the chickens have access to plenty of sunshine—and this rarely
happens except during the late spring, summer, and early fall. It is
especially desirable to add some vitamin D to the diet of growing
chicks during their first 8 weeks no matter what season of the year
they are brooded and whether or not they have access to sunshine.
Vitamin D is much more stable in feed mixtures than is vitamin A;
feed mixtures may be kept for 6 months or longer without any serious
loss of vitamin D occurring. Most feeding stuffs contain little or none
of this important vitamin. As in the case of vitamin A, the richest
source of vitamin D used in feed mixtures for poultry is fortified cod-
liver oil. It contains on an average somewhat more than 180,000
A. O. A. C. chick units ^ per pound. Straight cod-liver oil averages
about 45,000 units per pound and cannot legally be sold as such if it
3 The standard unit of the A. O. A. C—the Association of Oíñcial Agricultural Gheniists. See footnote
9, p. 797.
 PRACTICAL FEEDING OF POULTRY 825

contains less than 85 units per gram, which is about 38,590 units per
pound. Sardine oil has about the same vitamin D potency as straiglit
cod-liver oil and is widely used in feed mixtures for poultry.
Vitamin E
So far as is known, vitamin E is quite stable under ordinary condi-
tions but it is quickly and almost completely destroyed by contact
with rancid fats. For this reason, it is inadvisable to use feeding
stuffs or feed mixtures that show any indication of being rancid.
There are few truly quantitative data on the vitamin E content of
feeding stuffs; however, this vitamin is widely distributed in nature.
Green leaves and the germs of seeds are the best of the known sources ;
it is also found in some fresh fats and oils. The approximately relative
vitamin E content of about a score of feeding stuffs is given in table 9
(p. 842).
Vitamin G (Riboflavin)
Vitamin G (riboflavin) is also quite stable under the usual conditions
of feed storage. The richest sources are liver and other glandular
tissues, yeast, dried whey, and dried skim milk. Alfalfa, if properly
harvested and cured, is a very good source and, in general, alfalfa-
leaf meals contain more than straight alfalfa meals. Fish meals, meat
scrap, and wheat-germ meal are fair sources. The cereal grains con-
tain relatively very little. The most practical sources of vitamin G
are alfalfa-leaf meal, dried skim milk, dried buttermilk, and dried
whey. Alfalfa-leaf meal is a particularly desirable source of this
vitamin because it also is a very good source of vitamins A, E, and K,
and a fair source of vitamin Bi, the chick antidermatosis factor, and
the anti-gizzard-erosion factor.
Vitamin K
Vitamin K has been found in such diverse materials as hog-liver
fat, hempseed meal, tomatoes, kale, and dried alfalfa. As yet, its
occurrence has not been cataloged for a very large number of feeding
stuffs.
AntI-Gizzard-Erosion and Chkk Antidermatosis Factors
The anti-gizzard-erosion factor has been found in a number of
materials, among which are wheat bran, alfalfa products, lung tissues,
kale, pork liver and kidney, wheat middlings, and oats.
The chick antidermatosis factor is present in grain, grain products,
and various other feeding stuffs. Three of the richest sources are
dried yeast, liver meal, and cane molasses. Other very good sources,
in the approximate order of their relative content, are peanut meal,
dried whey, dried buttermilk, dehydrated alfalfa-leaf meal, dried
skim milk, alfalfa meal, wheat bran, rice bran, and soybean meal.
WATER AND GRIT
Water is an essential constituent of all animal tissues and is abso-
lutely essential for all life processes, yet because it is so commonplace
its importance is frequently overlooked. A constant supply of fresh,
clean water should be kept before poultry all the time. Although the
water requirements are greater during hot weather than during cold,
826 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939

there is a greater likelihood of poultry getting too little water during

periods of low temperature than at other times. This is because the
birds are unable to break any ice that may form on the surface of the
water and because of the chilling effect of ice-cold water. For these
reasons, simple water-warming devices are usually a good investment.
Although grit is not absolutely essential, it permits chickens to
make more efficient use of whole grains and of coarse, fibrous feeding
stuffs. Apparently, grit also tends to prevent gizzard erosion in chicks
when finely ground feed that contains little fiber is fed. Coarsely
crushed oystershell and limestone may serve as grit but their use is
not recommended because of the danger of the chickens consuming
too much calcium in their effort to get enough grinding material.
Therefore, it is desirable to feed all the required calcium in the feed
and not permit the chickens to have access to grit that contains
calcium. In choosing a grit, care should be taken to select one that
is insoluble and nonfriable—that is, cannot be crumbled. Ordinarily,
the best materials for use as grit are river gravel and native pebbles ;
granite, feldspar, and quartz may also be used.
TONICS, MINERAL MIXTURES, AND MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS
Much money is spent unnecessarily by poultrymen each year for
tonics, conditioners, ^^egg-makers,'' so-called complete mineral mix-
tures, and other similar preparations. The best WùJ to have healthy
chickens is to feed them a well-balanced diet, keep them free of lice
and mites, and keep their houses clean and sanitary. Tonics, condi-
tioners, and egg-makers are of little or no value and merely serve to
increase the total cost of producing poultry products. It is not pos-
sible to prepare a complete mineral mixture suitable for use in all
diets, and the use of such mixtures is not recommended.
VICES AND NUTRITIONAL DISTURBANCES
Although there is some evidence that the three common vices, feather
picking, cannibalism, and egg eating, are in part the result of dietary
deficiencies, overcrowding is undoubtedly also important among the
causes. Feather picking is usually the first of these vices to appear
when birds are overcrowded. The exact nature of the nutritional
deficiency involved is not know^n, but it has been found that feather
picking is less likely to occur if the diet contains about 20 percent of
barley or oats. Trimming back the beak is an effective means of
curbing this vice.
''Cannibalism'' is a term used by some poultrymen in referring to
the habit sometimes developed by chickens of picldng one another's
toes, combs, vents, feathers, and other parts of the body. Used in
this sense, the term also includes feather picking; it is, however,
more common to restrict its use to those cases where blood is drawn.
Cannibalism is of most frequent occurrence in overcrowded flocks,
but it may be due to some as yet unkuown deficiency of the diet
because the feeding of oats and barley appears to be of some value in
prevention. As in the case of feather picking, trimming back the
upper beak is an effective curb, but the use of ruby-colored window
panes and ruby-colored electric lamps in the poultry house is often a
simpler and cheaper means of preventing cannibalism.
 PRACTICAL FEEDING OF POULTRY 827

Egg eating is also likely to develop as a result of overcrowding;

however, the tendency to eat eggs is markedly stimulated by a defi-
ciency of calcium in the diet. It has been observed also that this vice
is likely to develop when the chickens do not get enough vitamin D.
Other dietary deficiencies also may be contributing causes.
In general, properly fed chickens grow well, lay well, and are
healthy. If growth is slow, egg production poor, or mortality heavy,
the cause may be an improperly balanced diet that supplies either
too little or too much of certain nutrients. It is important, therefore,
that the poultryman be able to recognize the symptoms of nutritional
deficiency and excesses. Unfortunately, many nutritional deficiencies
produce the same general symptoms and it is not always possible to
recognize the cause from the symptoms. However, there are a few
deficiencies that produce more or less characteristic symptoms and
these will be discussed briefly.
A condition known as nutritional roup, which is sometimes mistaken
by the layman for contagious catarrhal roup, is caused by a deficiency
of vitamin A. It may appear in chickens of any age. The symptoms
are a cessation of growth in young chickens, lameness or a staggering
gait, discharge from the nostrils, swelling beneath the eyes, and dis-
charge from the eyes; in severe cases blindness and, finally, death
result. Examination after death shows swollen follicles in the esoph-
agus, pale kidneys, and frequently white accumulations of urates in
the kidneys and ureters.
The symptoms of a deficiency of vitamin Bi are seldom observed
under practical conditions, but they may be produced rather easily
in the laboratory. These symptoms are a loss of appetite, emaciation,
general weakness and inability to stand, and spasmodic movements of
the head and limbs.
A deficiency of vitamin D in the diet of growing chickens produces
rickets; but rickets may also be caused by a marked deficiency of
either calcium or phosphorus or by a marked imbalance of these
elements in the diet. The symptoms are poor growth, lameness
accompanied by a stiff-legged gait, thickened leg bones and hock
joints, and beading at the ends of the ribs. Spinal curvature and
crooked breast bones may also be observed. In mature birds the
symptoms of a deficiency of vitamin D are not so obvious, but a care-
ful examination will show that the breast bones have become less
rigid. The first symptom of a deficiency of vitamin D in the diet of
laying stock is a thinning of the shells of the eggs. A marked defi-
ciency causes a decrease in both egg production and hatchability.
There are no easily recognized external symptoms of vitamin E
deficiency in the chicken. Recently, it has been claimed that a
deficiency of vitamin E causes chickens to become more susceptible
to range paralysis but adequate proof that this is so is definitely lack-
ing. It is possible to prepare in the laboratory diets so deficient in
vitamin E that they will seriously affect hatchability; however, in
actual practice poor hatchability is much more likely to be the result
of other deficiencies than it is of a deficiency of vitamin E.
The chief symptoms of a deficiency of vitamin G are a retardation
of the growth of chicks and a decrease in the hatchability of eggs. In
growing chicks, a marked deficiency of vitamin G causes a twisted or
828 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939

Figure 1.—This rooster lived more than 4 years without a gizzard, thus proving that
the gizzard is not au essential organ.
 PRACTICAL FEEDING OF POULTRY 829

flexed condition of the toes that is referred to as '^curled toe'^ paralysis.

The symptoms of a deficiency of vitamin K have been produced in
the laboratory but they are seldom if ever observed under practical
conditions. The symptoms, which are easily recognized, are the occur-
rence of hemorrhages under the skin and throughout the various tis-
sues of the body, and laboratory tests show a marked increase in the
clotting time of the blood.
There are no external symptoms of the condition known as gizzard
erosion. This condition can be diagnosed only after the bird dies or is
killed. (It has been proved, incidentally, that the gizzard is not an
essential organ in the chicken. Figure 1 shows a rooster that lived
more than 4 years after surgical removal of the gizzard.) There are
several types of erosion; in one type there are a number of threadlike,
shaJlow fissures in the gizzard lining; in another there are small holes
in the linings; and in still another type, there are small ulcers on the
muscular wall at the site of the holes in the lining.
The symptoms of a deficiency of the chick antidermatosis factor in
the diet of growing chicks are sores and incrustations at the corners of
the eyes and mouth, on the bottoms of the feet, and on the joints of the
toes. Also, the feathering is rough and there is a failure of growth.
Perosis (slipped tendons or hock disease) is caused by a deficiency of
manganese in the diet. The gross symptoms are an enlargement
of the hock joints, bending and rotational twisting of the leg bones,
and, in advanced cases, a slipping of the tendons from their normal
positions.
At times laying chickens may consume too much calcium and when
the excess is great enough the hatchability of the eggs may be appre-
ciably decreased. The consumption of too much oystershell or lime-
stone grit may also cause a slight diarrhea. The obvious remedy is to
control the calcium intake by not giving the chickens grit that con-
tains calcium and by using feed mixtures that supply just enough
calcium for high egg production.
Another cause of diarrhea is too niuch salt, which may be introduced
into the diet by a mistake in weighing it out or by the inclusion of a
fish meal of abnormally high salt content. The diarrhea may be slight
or quite pronounced, depending on the quantity of salt consumed.
Diarrhea may be caused also by feeding too much bran or too much
milk. When egg soilage is excessive as a result of too moist or watery
droppings, the various possible causes should be investigated, because
even though the health of the birds may not be noticeably affected the
market value of their eggs is decreased.
It has been claimed that a high protein intake produces gout in
chickens, but there is no good evidence that this is so. At any rate too
much protein is to be avoided because it tends to reduce the rate of
growth and, if the excess is great enough, it may be a cause of damage
to the kidneys. SYSTEMS OF FEEDING
Nearly every poultryman has his bwn system of feeding,^ but most
of the various systems may be classified as one of the following or as a
modification of one of them: (1) All-mash, (2) mash-grain, (3) pellet,
and (4) grain-milk. It cannot be said that one system is better than
another under all conditions, but it is true that under certain condi-
830 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939

tions one system may be superior to the others. In any case, it sliould
be pointed out with as much emphasis as possible that it is far more
important to supply poultry with adequate quantities of all the neces-
sary nutrients than it is to follow^ any given system. Any system that
insures adequate supplies of all the necessary nutrients is almost cer-
tain to be successful from the standpoint of nutrition. How^ever, any
system that ignores the principles of sanitation and economics may
fail, no matter how well the poultry may be nourished.
THE ALL-MASH SYSTEM
The all-mash system of feeding derives its name from the fact that
all the feeding stuffs used are suitably ground and mixed together to
form a mash. In some cases, oystershell or limestone grit is fed in
separate hoppers as a supplementary source of calcium; but it is gen-
erally best to use an all-mash diet in wdiich all the necessary calcium is
included in the form of finely ground oystershell or limestone.
In one simple modification of the all-mash system a part of the mash
is moistened and fed as a crumbly wet mash in an effort to increase—
or sometimes to maintain—feed consumption. Another modification
is to omit dried milk from the all-mash mixture and to feed an equiva-
lent quantity (roughly 10 times as much by w^eight) of liquid skim
milk or liquid buttermilk. When there is a sufficient supply of liquid
skim milk or buttermilk, some of the other protein supplements may
be omitted from the all-mash mixture and the birds given all the liquid
milk they will drink.
It is generally accepted that the all-mash system of feeding is best
for the first 4 to 6 weeks. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated
repeatedly that this system is suitable for the entire period of grow^th.
Nevertheless, man}^ poultrymen prefer to begin feeding cracked grain
some time betw^een the fourth and eighth wrecks, that is, to change to
the mash-grain system. This, of course, is not necessary and perhaps
is undesirable if the all-mash system is to be used after the pullets
come into production, but it is the proper thing to do if the mash-
grain system is to be used.
One of the chief advantages of the all-mash system in the feeding
of laying stock is that it permits the poultryman to control the color
of the yolks of the eggs produced. This is of considerable importance
because on some markets a premium is paid for eggs w^th light-colored
yolks. Another point is that this system tends to insure a greater
uniformity of yolk color, which also'^is of great importance from the
standpoint of the market value of the eggs; it appears likely that in
future uniformity of color will be of much greater importance than
lightness of color. Furthermore, there is some evidence that wheu
the all-mash system is used, the hatchability of the eggs is more
uniform. In any case, the all-mash system is satisfactory for caged
or confined birds (fig. 2), as well as for those that have access to sun-
shine and green range. This system is usually the best one for the
inexperienced poultryman.
THE MASH-GRAIN SYSTEM
As its name implies, the mash-grain system involves the feeding of
both mash and grain. It yields the best results in the hands of the
 PRACTICAL FEEDING OF POULTRY 831

Figure 2.—The all-niasli Fvsteni is satisfactory for caged or coiiiined birds, as well as
for those that have access to sunsliine and green range. This system is usually the
best one fur the inexperienced {loultryuian.
832 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939

skilled feeder. It is more flexible than the all-mash system aiui

permits the poiiltryman who is familiar with the feed requirements
of his birds to feed them accordingly.
There are several modifications of this system. As in the all-mash
system, the oystershell or limestone grit may be fed separately or it
may be ground fine and inchided in the mash. Likewise, wet mash
may be fed for the purpose of maintaining or increasing feed consump-
tion. When cod-liver oil or a similar source of vitamin D is required,
it may be mixed and fed with the mash, as it usually is, or it may be
mixed fresh each day with a portion of the grain. Yolk color may be
controlled by using a mash and a grain mixture that have very nearh^
the same effect on it.
THE PELLET SYSTEM
The pellet system of feeding is in effect a modification of the all-
mash system in that an all-mash diet is first prepared and then made
into pellets. It may be modified in the same ways as the all-mash
system. The advantages claimed for it are that it does not permit
the birds to pick out some of the ingredients and leave the others,
and that it tends to reduce the quantity of feed thrown from the hop-
pers and wasted. It does insure that all the birds will eat the same
Idnd of feed, but at times the quantity of feed wasted may be as great
as when the all-mash system is used.
THE GRAIN-MILK SYSTEM
When the grain-milk system is used the birds are usually given
nothing but liquid skim milk or buttermilk to drink and are permitted
to eat all the grain or grain mixture they want. Oystershell or lime-
stone grit is fed in hoppers. The system is not suitable for feeding
caged birds or birds otherwise confined. In general it is not recom-
mended, but it may be used when plenty of good range is available
and there is an abundance of liquid milk that, if not used in this manner,
would have to be thrown away. This system may be used for both
growing and laying chickens, but the former should be started on an
all-mash diet. The feeding of the grain should be begun after the
fourth week, the quantity being increased as rapidly as possible.
The starting mash should not be discontinued abruptly but should be
decreased gradually between the fourth and tenth weeks so that none
is being fed by the end of the tenth week.
FEED FORMULAS
Some typical formulas are given in tables 1-4 for all-mash diets
and mashes with which grain or a grain mixture is to be fed. In
preparing these feed mixtures, careful attention should be given to
the selection of the ingredients. Only feeding stuffs of good quality
should be used. Except in the case of oats, barley, and feeding stuffs
of high fiber content, the ingredients should not be finely ground.
MIXING THE INGREDIENTS
All the ingredients should be thoroughly mixed so that there will be
a uniform distribution of those present in relatively small quantities.
It is best to weigh out first the more bulk}^ ingredients and those that
are used in greatest quantity, and then the other ingredients may be
 PRACTICAL FEEDING OF POULTRY 833

added. It is a desirable practice to mix the salt and the other mineral
supplements with some of the bran or middlings before adding them
to the other ingredients. All oils should be mixed thoroughly with
a suitable portion of the bran or ground corn before they are added.
If pulverized or very finely ground oats are an ingredient, it is prefer-
able to mix the oil with a portion of them, because finely ground oats
tend to prevent destruction of the vitamin A in the oil.
ALL-MASH DIETS
Diets for Growing Chickens
The all-mash diets given in table 1 are suitable for the production
of broilers and for the raising of breeding stock. Male birds to be
marketed as roasters may be kept on these diets until they are of
the proper weight. These diets may be fed to capons until they are
3 or 4 months old, after which, for the sake of economy, the protein
content should be gradually reduced by the addition of increasing
quantities of grain until the grain amounts to as much as 60 percent
of the mixture. Pullets may be kept on these diets until within 5
or 6 wrecks of the time egg production is expected to begin, at which
time a suitable all-mash laying diet should be substituted at such
a rate that nothing else is fed for the last week or two. Males that
are to be used for breeding may be kept on these diets until they are
placed with the females. However, if the males are not to be placed
with the females until they are more than 9 months old, they may
be fed diets that contain considerably less protein, minerals, and vita-
mins after the eirfith or ninth month.
TABLE ].—AU-mash starting and growing diets

Ingredients Diet 1 Diet 2 Diet 3 Diet 4

Percent Percent Percent Percent

Ground yellow corn 31.0 30.0 39.0 32.0
Finely ground oats or barley 10.0 10.0 10.0
Wheat middlings 20.0 10.0 16.0 20.0
Wheat bran 6.0 10.0 15.0
Dried slcim milk or dried buttermilk. 6.0 10.0 10.0 5.0
Meat scrap (55-percent protein) 5.0 10.0 5.0 5.0
Fish meal 5.0 5.0 5.0
Alfalfa-leaf meal 7.0 8.0 5.0 6.0
Soybean meal 6.0 10.0 5.0
Corn-gluten meal 5.0
Cottonseed meal 8.0
Linseed meal 2.0
Ground limestone or oystershell 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Salt mixture i .5 .5 .5
Cod-liver oil 2 .6 .5 .5
Total.

1 A mixture of 100 parts of common salt and 1.7 parts of anhydrous manganous sulfate (or 2.5 parts of
manganous sulfate tetrahydrate).
2 If a fortified cod-liver oil that contains 400 A. 0. A. C. chick units of vitamin D and 3,000 International
Units of vitamin A per gram is used, only 0.125 percent need be included in the diet,

A number of substitutions may be made in mixing the diets of

table 1. Any of the cereal grains or grain sorghums may be substi-
tuted for the yellow corn and oats. Meat scrap and fish meal may
be used interchangeably, but a good grade of fish meal is to be pre-
ferred to meat scrap unless it costs appreciably more. Cottonseed
meal, peanut meal, corn-gluten meal, and soybean meal may be
141394°—39- -54
834 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939

substituted one for the other^ but soybean meal is preferable to the
others. Sardine oil may be used in place of the cod-liver oil.
Diets for Laying and Breeding Chickens
As pointed out in the article on Practical Nutritive Requirements
of Poultry (p. 787) it probably is always best to feed laying stock diets
that will permit the production of eggs of high hatchability no matter
whether the eggs are to be used for hatching or not. Accordingly all
the diets given in table 2 are formulated for the production of eggs of
high hatchability. However^ good egg production may be obtained
with diets that contain the quantities of vitamins A, D, and G that
are suggested for laying stock in table 4 (p. 836).
TABLE 2.—All-mash diets for laying and breeding stock

Ingredients Diet 5 Diet 6 Diet 7 Diet 8

Percent Percent Percent Percent

Ground yellow corn 37.2 41.0 44.0 39.5
Finely ground oats or barley 10.0 10.0 10.0
Wheat middlings 20.0 10.0 10.0 20.0
Wheat bran 6.0 Ï0. 0 15.0
Dried skim milk or dried buttermilks 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
Meat scrap (So-percent protein) 2.0 4.0 2.0 2.0
Fish meal 2,0 2.0 2.0
Alfalfa-leaf meal 7.0 7.0 7.0 6.0
Soybean meal 2.5 4.5 5.0 2.0
C orn-gluten meal : 2.0
Linseed meal (old process) 2.0 2.0 2.0
Ground limestone or oystershell 3.3 3.0 2.5 3.5
Special steamed bonemeal 1.0 J.5 1.0
Salt mixture ^ .0 .6 .6
Cod-liver oil -' 1.4 ].4 h4

Total. 100,0

1 A mixture of 100 parts of common salt and 1.7 parts of anhydrous manganous sulfate (or 2.5 parts of
manganous sulfate tetrahydrate).
2 If a fortified cod-liver oil that contains 400 A. O. A. C. chick units of vitamin D and 3,000 International
Units of vitamin A per gram is used, only 0.35 percent need be included in the diet.

Several substitutions may be made in mixing the all-mash laying

and breeding diets in table 2. If it is desirable to lighten the color
of the yolks of the eggs, white corn or any of the other grains or grain
sorghums may be substituted for the yellow corn. If the color of the
yolks is to be further lightened, the alfalfa-leaf meal may be reduced
to 5 percent by substituting an equal weight of dried skim milk or
dried whey for the amount omitted. Meat scrap and fish meal may
be used interchangeably. Peanut meal, corn-gluten meal, and soy-
bean meal may be substituted one for the other.
MASHES WITH WHICH GRAIN IS TO BE FED
In compounding mashes with which grain is to be fed, it is necessary
to make suitable allowance for the fact that the various grains are
relatively poor sources of vitamin G. Likewise, when grains other
than yellow corn are used, the vitamin A content of the mash should
be somewhat greater than it need be otherwise. Because grains
supply virtually no vitamin D, all mashes that are to be fed with grain
should contain about twice as much vitamin D as all-mash diets.
Care must also be taken to insure that the combination of mash and
grain supplies the proper quantities of calcium and phosphorus.
 PRACTICAL FEEDING OF POULTRY 835

Mashes for Growing Chicks

The starting- and growing mashes given in table 3 are intended for
use when the mash-grain system of feeding is used. Finely cracked
corn or other grain may be fed simultaneously with these mashes any
time after the chicks are 2 weeks old. Only a small quantity of grain
should be fed at first, but the quantity may be gradually increased
until approximately equal quantities of grain and mash are being fed
b}^ the time the chickens are 14 to 16 weeks old. Any suitable mixture
of grains may be used, such as one consisting of equal parts by weight
of corn and wheat, of corn and oat groats, or of corn, wheat, and oat
groats. After the chickens are 6 to 8 weeks old, whole oats may be
used in place of the oat groats and coarsely cracked corn may be used
in place of the more finely cracked corn. After the chickens are
about 12 weeks old whole corn ma}^ be fed.
TABLE 3.—Starting and growing mashes with which grain or a grain mixture is to be fed

Ingredients Mash 9 Mash 10 Mash 11 Mash 12

Percent Percent Percent Percent

Ground yellow corn 17.7 18.9 25.3 17.5
Finely ground oats or barlôv 10.0 12.0 10.0
Wheat middlings _ . _ 20.0 12.0 20.0 30 0
Wheat bran .-_ .. 8.0 12.0 10 0
Dried skim milk or dried buttermilk 10.0 10.0 10.0 10 0
Meat scrap (55-percent x^rotoin) 6.0 10.0 5.0 5.0
Fishmeal --- --- 6.0 S.O 4 0
A-lfalfa-leaf meal 10.0 10.0 10.0 10 0
Soybean meal . -.- 4.0 10.0 4.0
Corn-gluten meal -- -- 4 0
Cottonseed meal _ - .-- 10.0
Linseed meal (old process) . - - __ -- - 3.0
Ground limestone or oystershell _ 1.3 1.1 1.7 2 0
Special steamed bonemeal ..-- ._ __ 2.0 2.0 1.0 1 6
Salt mixture 1. --- 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Cod-liver oil 2 _ 1.0 1.0 1.0 1 0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100 0

1 A mixture of 100 parts of common salt and 1.7 parts of anhydrous manganous sulfate (or 2.5 parts of
manganous sulfate tetrahydrate).
2 If a fortified cod-liver oil that contains 400 A. 0. A. C. chick units of vitamin D and 3,000 International
Units of vitamin A per gram is used, only 0.25 percent need be included in the mash,

In mixing the mashes given in table 3, any grain, grain sorghum, or

a mixture of grains and grain sorghums may be used in place of the
yellow corn; meat scrap and fish meal may be used interchangeably;
cottonseed meal, peanut meal, corn-gluten meal, and soybean meal
may be substituted one for the other; and sardine meal may be used in
place of cod-liver oil.
Mashes for Laying and Breeding Stock
For the best results, an equal quantity of grain should be fed with
the laying and breeding mashes given in table 4. Oystershell or
limestone grit should never be given to the chickens when these mashes
are used. Either whole or cracked corn may be fed with these mashes ;
but, if desired, mixtures of corn and oats or of corn, wheat, and oats,
or mixtures containing the grain sorghums may be used.
A few substitutions may be made in mixing the mashes given in
table 4, Any grain may be substituted for the oats or barley in
mashes 13, 14, and 15. Either meat scrap or fish meal may be used
to the exdusion of the other. Peanut meal, corn-gluten meal, and
836 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939

soybean meal may be substituted one for the other; but if light-
colored yolks are desired^ corn-gluten meal should not be used. If
it is desirable to lighten the color of the yolks, a grain mixture that
contains no yellow corn may be used. Further reduction of yolk color
may be had by replacing a third of the alfalfa-leaf meal with an
equal weight of dried skim milk or dried whey. Sardine oil may
replace the cod-liver oil.
TABLE 4.^—Laying mashes with which grain or a gram mixture is to be fed

Ingredients Mash 13 Mash 14 Mash 15 Mash 16

Percent Percent Percent Percent

Finely ground oats or barley 17.5 19.0 23.3
Wheat middlings._ 15.0 15.0 20.0 31 5
Wheat "bran_ .__ . _ ___ __ _. _._ 12.0 10.0 20 0
Dried skim milk or dried buttermilk_._ __ __ _ 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
Meat scrap (55-percent protein)__ __ 4.7 10.0 6.0 4 5
Fish meal 4.7 5.0 5 0
Alfalfa-leaf meal 14.0 15.0 15.0 12 0
Soybean meal _ _ _ 5.5 5.0 5.3 '> 3
Corn-gluten meal _- __- _ _ 2 4
Linseed meal (old process) _ 4.0 4. Ó 4.0
Ground limestone or oystershell .._ 5.9 5.3 6.8
Special steamed bonemeal- _ 2.7 2.4 3.1 1.5
Saltmixture 1- __. . _ _ ._ _ 1.2 1.2 1.2 1 2
Cod-liver oil 2 _ 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

1 A mixture of 100 parts of common salt and 1.7 parts of anhydrous manganous sulfate (or 2.5 parts of
manganous sulfate tetrahydrate).
s If a fortified cod-liver oil that contains 400 A. 0. A, C. chick units of vitamin D and 3,000 International
Units of vitamin A per gram is used, only 0.7 percent need be included in the mash.
FEED MIXTURES FOR TURKEYS
Inasmuch as turkeys are usually raised under somewhat different
conditions from those under which chickens are raised, and as
very young turkeys require somewhat more protein, vitamin A,
and vitamin D, a series of special formulas of feed mixtures for this
species is given in table 5.
TABLE 5.—Feed mixtures for turkeys

Growing mashes All-mash laying

c<j.„_j-; ..^, _ „V. „ „
diets
Ingredients No Fair Good No
range range range range Range

17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent
Ground yellow corn .. ^. 18 15 20 84 25 30.0 30 0
Finely pulverized oats or barley. . . .. 15 20 15 12 25 20.0 20 0
Wheat middlings or shorts - _- 12 12 15 12 20 22.0 24 5
Wheat bran 12 10 10 12 10 5.0 6.0
Dried skim milk or dried buttermilk-- __ _ 10 7 10 10 5.0 4 0
Meat scrap (55-percent protein) _,_ 13 7 5 13 ig' 4.0 3 5
Fish meal (preferably sardine) __ 8 7 3.0 2 0
Alfalfa-leaf meal- .. 10 10 10 6 5.0 4 5
Corn-gluten tneal _ ___ 10 10
Ground limestone or oystershell .- . _. 2 4.0 4 0
Special steamed bonemeal 2
Salt or salt mixture 1 ._ . 1 1 1 1 1 .5 5
Cod-liver oil 2 _ 1
1 1.5 1 0 )
Total 100 100 100 100 1 100 100.0 100.0

' To prevent perosis, it is desirable that the starting mashes and the all-mash laying diets contain some
added manganese. To supply this manganese, use a mixture of 100 parts of common salt and 1.7 parts of
anhydrous manganous sulfate (or 2.5 parts of manganous sulfate tetrahydrate).
2 If a fortified cod-liver oil that contains 400 A. O.A. C. chick units of vitamin D and 3,000 International
Units of Vitamin A per gram is used, only one-fourth as much need be included in the mashes and all-mash
diets.
 PRACTICAL FEEDING OF POULTRY 837

A starting mash should be fed until the poults are 8 weeks old and
then a suitable growing mash should be fed. It is desirable to begin
the feeding of cracked corn, or a mixture of cracked grains, after the
poults are 2 weeks old. After changing to the growing mashes, any
grain or grain mixture may be fed, but it is desirable to use a grain
mixture that contains 50 to 75 percent of oats. No grain should
be fed with the all-mash laying diets. It is unnecessary and un-
desirable to feed ground limestone or oystershell grit w^ith any of these
feed mixtures; however, it is desirable to supply gravel or other in-
soluble grit.
MANAGEMENT
Management is an important factor in the economical and efficient
feeding of poultry. Abrupt changes in diet, insufñcient hopper space,
the use of stale feed, and poorly lighted houses all tend to decrease
feed consumption and hence to retard grow^th or slow up the rate
of egg production. Thus, attention to what may be considered as
minor details may at times mean the difference between success and
failure in poultry raising.
When poultry is kept without access to the soil and to sunshine,
much more attention must be given to the diet. This is accounted
for in part by the facts that sunshine may serve as a source of some
or even all the vitamin D that is required and that the green growing
grass and other plants may serve as sources of all the other vitamins.
Furthermore, poultry that has access to the soil (fig. 3) is less likely
to suffer from a deficiency of some of the mineral elements, for example,
manganese, than is poultry that is kept off the soil.
Feed left in the hoppers from the preceding day is usually not so
palatable as fresh feed; therefore it is good practice to give the birds
only a little more feed each day than they will eat. The fresh feed
should be mixed in the hoppers with the small residues from the pre-
vious feedings so that there will be no accumulation of old feed at the
bottoms of the hoppers. Furthermore, if the feed mixture contains
cod-liver oil or other fish oil, no more than can be fed within 10 days
or two weeks should be mixed at one time. This precaution should
be observed very carefully when the oil is depended on as the chief
source of vitamin A.
Abrupt changes in the diet are to be avoided in the feeding of laying
stock, especially after the peak of production is reached, because they
may cause the birds to begin molting somewhat earlier than they would
otherwise. If for any reason a change in diet must be made, it should
be made gradually over a period of at least a week or 10 days.
It is very important that there be sufficient hopper space, otherwise
the birds may not be able to get all the feed they require. If through-
out the day the birds are crowded around the hoppers, more hoppers
should be used. Careful observation of the birds at the feed hoppers
is the best guide to follow in providing hopper space.
It is a common practice, when grain or a grain mixture is used, to
feed it in the litter in order to give the birds some exercise in obtaining
their feed. Experience gained by feeding chickens in batteries
indicates, however, that the value of this exercise has been overrated
very much. In any case, the feeding of grain in the litter is to be
 «o
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73
na
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o

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Figure 3.—(»ooil r;iti¡;i' iiiav be used to cut the cost of production and make feeding easier. Experimental fçrass plots for poultry at the
Agricultural Research ('enter, Beltsville. Md.
 PRACTICAL FEEDING OF POULTRY 839

condemned as an insanitary practice. The better practice is to feed

all grain, or so-called scratch feed, in hoppers.
When birds are confined in houses, attention should be given to
lighting. If the houses are poorly lighted, feed consumption may be
adversely affected. Artificial lighting is sometimes used to increase
the length of the feeding day during the fall and winter. Properly
used, artificial lighting tends to increase the production of eggs during
the fall and to maintain it during the winter. Apparently, however,
it has little effect on the total annual egg production. If artificial
lighting is to be used, it should be started about the first of October,
and at times it may be advantageously started somewhat earlier. The
total period of light from both natural and artificial sources should be
about 14 hours. Both morning and evening lighting may be used to
lengthen the feeding day, but unless dimming devices are used to end
the evening lighting, it is best to use artificial light only in the morning.
APPENDIX
TABLE 6.—Average composition of some feedstuff s used in the feeding of poultry

Carbohydrates

Mois- Crude Fat, or

Feedstufí Ash other
ture protein Nitrogen-
Crude extract
free
fiber
extract

Grains and seeds Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent

Barley. _ _ . _ _ - 10.4 2.9 11.8 5.9 66.9 2.1
Barley (Pacific Coast States) 10.1 2.6 8.7 5.7 71.0 1.9
Beans, navy 13.4 3.6 22.7 5.8 53.0 1.5
Beans, pinto 9.1 4.5 22.7 4.5 58.0 1.2
Bread .__ 33.8 1.6 7.9 .7 55.4 .7
Brewers' grains, dried 7.0 3.7 26.2 14.7 41.8 6.6
Broomcorn 11.6 3.1 10.5 8.3 63.0 3.5
Buckwheat __ 11.9 1.8 10.1 10.4 63.5 2.3
Buckwheat middlings - _ -- 11.4 4.7 28.6 6.0 42.2 7.1
Coconut meal (old process) _. .. _ .-- 9.3 6.1 20.5 11.1 44.7 8.3
Corn 11.9 1.3 9.3 2.1 71.2 4.2
Corn, Argentine 11.0 1.7 11.0 1.8 68.8 5.7
Corn bran - -- 9.9 2.3 9.9 9.6 61.6 6.7
Corn meal - ____ 11.2 .9 8.8 1.1 75.5 2.0
Corn-gluten feed - - - - 9.7 6.1 25.9 7.2 48.5 2.6
Corn-gluten meal _ _-- --- 8.9 1.5 43.0 2.6 42.1 1.9
Cottonseed meal (41-percent protein) 7.5 5,8 41.8 11.4 27.1 6.4
Cowpcas 11.1 3.5 23.5 4.1 56.3 1.5
Distillers' grains (corn) 7.0 2.3 31.2 11.5 37.5 10.5
Durra - - 10.0 2,0 10.2 1.7 72.6 3.5
Feterita - - - -- 10.2 1,6 13.2 1.8 70.2 3.0
Field peas ___ -_ -__ -- - 9.3 3.3 23.3 5.9 57.0 1.2
Flaxseed - - - - 10.3 4,4 22.3 7.1 23.1 32.8
Garden peas _ _ -- __-- 11.8 3.0 25.6 4.4 53.6 1.6
ITempseed __ .- _- 7.6 5.9 22.9 18.6 18.4 26.6
Hempseed meal -- - -- 7.3 7.8 31.7 23.9 25.3 4.0
Hominy (pearled) - -- -- 11.8 .7 7.4 .6 77.6 1.9
Hominy feed -- - -- 8.8 2.9 11.0 5.1 65.5 6.7
Kafir 11.7 1.6 11.5 2.0 70.1 3.1
Linsoed meal fold orocess) - 9.4 5.8 35.3 8.5 35.0 6.0
Malt sprouts - - 7.9 5.9 26.0 13.0 45.7 1.5
Millet (proso) __ -- - - --- 9.6 3.4 11.6 8.7 63.1 3.6
Milo 11.0 2.0 11.0 2.2 70.9 2.9
Oats - - _ - -- 10.1 3.4 11.2 11.3 59.5 4.5
8.6 2.2 16.2 2.1 64.2 6.7
Peanuts (hulls on) _ 6.0 2.8 24.8 17.8 14.0 34.6
Peanut kernels . - 5.4 2.3 30.4 2.7 11.6 47.6
Peanut meal (no hulls) (old process) 6.9 5.6 45.7 9.2 24.0 8.6
Rice (whole) 10.3 4.7 7.9 8.8 66.3 2.0
Rice fnolished) __-__ 11.8 .5 7.5 .4 79.4 .4
liifiG bran 8.8 10,9 13.0 12.5 41.1 13.7
Rye 10.7 2.0 11.5 2.1 72.0 1.7
Soybeans - 8.8 4.8 37.9 5.0 26.6 16.9
Soybean meal _ --- 9.1 5.6 43.9 5.9 30.0 5.6
840 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939

TABLE 6.—Average composition of some feedstuff s used in the feeding of poultry—Con.

Carbohydrates

Mois- Fat, or
Feedstufí Ash Crude
ture other
protein Crude Nitrogen- extract
free
fiber extract

Grains and seerii—Continued Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent

Sliallu. 10.0 1.8 12.9 ].8 70.0 3.5
Sunflower seed 7.4 3.4 16.0 28.6 21.4 23.2
Sunflower seeds (hulled) 5.0 3.8 28.0 6,0 16.2 41.0
Velvetbeans 10.0 3.0 24.8 6,2 50.8 5.2
Wheat 11.0 L8 12.4 2,4 70.5 1.9
Wheat bran 10.2 15.6 9,0 55.1 4.2
Wheat flour 12.9 10.7 ,4 74,2 1.4
Whear-flour middlings 10.5 17.0 5,1 59,3 4,6
Wheat-germ meal 8.7 4.6 28.9 2.7 44,7 10.4
Wheat middlings, standard. 11,1 4.1 16.9 6,6 56,6 4.7
Wheat red-dog flour 10.2 2.7 16.9 3.2 62.6 4.4
Wheat shorts (gray) 10.3 4.1 17,6 5.5 58.0 4.5
Feeds of animal, origin
Beef scrap 0,5 21.5 68.0 2,2 ,7 11.1
Bonemeal, steamed 3.1 73.8 13,0 .8 2.8 6.5
Bonemeal, special steamed 3.1 85.1 6.5 2.6 2.1 ,6
Buttermilk 90.8 .8 3.2 .0 4.6 ,6
Buttermilk, condensed 71.6 3.5 10.6 .0 12.2 2,1
Buttermilk, dried 7.1 10.1 33.4 .4 44.0 5.0
Crab meal 8.1 40,1 34.7 8.5 6.5 2.1
Fish meal (average of unidentified fish meals). 8.0 19.7 60.4 .7 3.5 7. 7
Fish meal, herring 9.1 12.1 66.0 3.0 9,2
Fish meal, menhaden 8.0 20.4 57.5 4.1 9.2
Fish meal, whitefish (high ash) 7.8 26.0 61.6 .4 1,2 3.0
Fish meal, whitefish (low ash) 12.1 17.6 60,9 .6 ,1 8.7
Fish meal, sardine 8.0 15.0 67.0 .4 3.6 6,0
Fish meal, tuna 5.0 20.2 60.7 .4 5,1 8,6
Liver meal, Argentine 5.0 5.0 65.4 .8 9.8 14,0
IVTeat scrap (55-percent protein) 6.7 24.2 55.2 2.2 1.0 10,7
Keat-and-bone scrap (50-percent protein) 6.0 29.2 50.0 2,1 1.8 10.9
Pork liver, dried 4.8 5.3 63.7 .4 15.0 10.8
Pork cracklings 5.0 2.3 56.4 ,0 4.1 32.2
Shrimp meal (or bran) 11.0 33.9 42.0 9,5 1.4 2.2
Skim milk 90.5 .7 3.5 ,0 5.1 .2
Skim milk, dried 6.0 7.9 35,0 .0 50.0 1.1
Tankage (60-pereent protein) 8.0 19.5 59.8 2.7 1.8 8.2
Whey 93.7 .6 .8 .0 4.9 .0
W^hey, dried 6.3 8.5 12.5 .3 71.7
I
Green feeds, etc.
Alfalfa, fresh ', 2.5 4.6 7.5 10.7
.\lfalfa-leaf meal 12.0 20.4 17.1 40.1 2,6
Alfalfa meal 8.7 16.0 27,3 37.2 2,5
Beet pulp, dried 3,3 9.3 19.1 58.5 ,8
Cabbage 1.8 1.1 5.2 .3
Cane molasses 24.8 8.2 3.0 .0 64.0 .0
Carrots 88.4 1.1 ].l 1.2 7.9 .3
Grapefruit refuse, dried 9.3 4,3 4.8 11.6 68.7 1.3
Kale. 88.4 1.9 2.4 1,5 5.3 .5
Mangels 90.1 ].l 1.5 ,8 6.4 .1
Orange peel, dried 14.0 4.1 5.8 10,6 64.8 .7
Orange-pulp meal 10.8 3.4 7.5 8,9 67.9 1.5
Potatoes 78.8 .9 2.0 .5 17.7 .1
Rape 84.6 2.2 2.6 2.4 7.6 .6
Red clover hay 12.3 6.7 12,7 25.7 39.6 3,0
Rutabagas 88.8 1.0 1,2 1.5 7.3 ,2
Turnips 90.6 .8 1.3 1.1 6.0 ,2
Yeast, brewers', dried. 7.0 7.3 46.5 1.1 35,3
 PRACTICAL FEEDING OF POULTRY 841

TABLE 7,—Average calcium, phosphorus, and manganese contení of some feed stuffs used
in the feeding of poultry

Cal- Phos- Manga- Cal- Phos- Manga-

Feedstufî cium phorus nese Feedstuff cium phorus nese
(Ca) (P) (Mn) (Ca) (P) (Mn)

Parts Feeds of animal origin—

Grains and seeds per Continued Parts
Percent Percent mil/ion per
Barley - -- -- 0. 05 0.36 16 Fish mea] (average of un- Percent Percent million
Beans, navy .16 .45 13 identified fish meals)-.- 6.50 3.60 45
Bread - .03 .10 4 Fish meal, herring 3.83 2.50 (1'
Brewers' grains, dried .20 .46 20 Fish meal, whitefish
.06 .43 80 (high ash) 9.09 4.70 (1)
Coconut meal (old proc- Fish meal, whitefish
.29 .64 85 (low ash) 5.84 3.04 (')
Corn .01 .29 5 Fish meal, sardine 4.73 2.63 40
Corn bran .03 .20 16 Fish meal, tuna -._ 6.25 3.46 0)
Corn-gluten feed . - .13 .64 24 Liver meal, Argentine... .11 .90 4
C orn-gluten meal .06 .40 4 Meat-and-bone scrap (50-
Corn mefîl .01 .30 4 percent protein) 10. 20 4.91 10
Cottonseed meal (41-per- Meat scrap (55-percent
.23 1.18 18 protein) 8.25 4.00 18
.10 .46 30 Pork liver, dried .06 L12 4
Distillers* grains (corn), Skim milk, liquid... .13 .11 Trace
dried ,04 .30 20 Skim milk, dried 1.27 .96 0.6
Feterita - .02 .32 Tankage (60-percent pro-
Field peas .08 .40 30 tein) 7.16 3.53 14
.25 .66 35 Whev, liquid .05 .04 1
.08 .40 30 Whev, dried-. .83 .70 14
Hempseed meal .22 .87 (0
Hominy._ _ _- - .01 .08 2 Oreen feeds, etc.
Hominy feed .03 .51 16
Kafir .03 .35 16 Alfalfa (green)... .42 .07 7
Linseed meal (old proc- Alfalfa-leaf meal. _ __ 1.90 .22 30
.33 .74 40 Alfalfa meal 1.44 .21 26
Malt sprouts .18 .70 35 Beet pulp, dried .70 .07 23
\'Tillpt i^nro^o^ .01 .33 35 Cabbage. .07 .04 21
Milo .04 .32 15 Cane molasses ..56 .06 (n
Oats .10 .36 34 Carrots .06 .07 (0
Oatmeal, or rolled oats. _. .0« .44 20 Grapefruit refuse, dried-. .74 .10 (1)
Peanut kernels .07 .39 (1) Kale .18 .07 (1)
Peanut meal (old proc- Orange peel, dried .73 .11
ess) - - -- .18 .56 (0 Orange-pulp meal .64 .10 ^
Rice (polished) .01 .09 12 Potatoes .02 .06 3
.10 1.84 280 Rape .34 .07 50
Rye .05 .36 40 Red clover hay 1.17 .18 40
20 .53 31 Rutabagas .06 .04 0)
.29 .60 30 Turnips .05 .05 (1^
.41 .99 (0 Yeast, dried 1.2fi 1.21 2
Wheat .04 .39 39
Wheat bran. _.. - . _ _ _ .11 1.21 119 Calcium, phosphorus, and
Wheat flour . -. .02 .11 4 manganese supplements
Wheat-flour middlings. __ .07 .69 113
Wheat-germ meal .07 1.01 160 Bone, fresh. . 22.95 10. 42 12
Wheat middlings, stand- Bonemeal 27.00 13.00 13
ard .08 .93 119 Bonemeal, steamed 28.80 13.34 6
Wheat red-dog flour .07 .69 35 Bonemeal, special steamed. 31.30 14.49 2
.08 .93 60 Crab shell 23.74 2.55 300
G vDsum 25.00 Trace 0)
Feeds of animal origin Limestone, high-calcium. 39.20 .00 200
Oystershell, washed 38.00 Trace 100
Beef scrap 7.23 3.73 5
Buttermilk, liquid .18 .10 Trace Manganous sulfate, an- Percent
Buttermilk, condensed.._ .56 .33 0.2 hydrous .00 .00 36.3
Buttermilk, dried 1.56 1.05 .4 Manganous sulfate, tet-
Crab meal 13. 25 .50 (0 i rahydrate .00 ,00 24.6

Information lacking.
842 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939
TABLE 8.—Average digestibility in the chicken of some Jeedstuffs used in the
feeding of poultry

Organic Crude Crude Nitro- Fat, or Total

Feedstuñ" matter protein fiber gen-free ether digestible
extract extract nutrients

Grains and seeds Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent

Barley 76 75 62 68
Buckwheat 72 59 65
Corn, whole or cracked 87 76 SO
Corn, ground 88 79 81
Corn meal 87 74 80
Corn, Argentine, whole or cracked._. 83
Corn, Argentine, ground 84
Cottonseed meal 69
Cowpeas 65
Feterita 82
Field peas 66
Garden peas 72
Kafir 81
Millet 72
Milo 80
Mixed feed (laying mash) 83
Oats 62
Oatmeal, or rolled oats 85
Rice (whole) 65
Rice bran 41
Rye 60
Soybeans 86
Soybean meal 71
Shallu 83
Wheat 73
Wheat bran 41
Wheat middlings
Wheat shorts
Feeds of animal origin
Beef scrap 77
Buttermilk, dried 72
Fish meal 71
Meat scrap and meat-and-bone meal 70
Skim milk, dried 76
Tankage 69
Green feeds, etc.
Alfalfa-leaf meal
Alfalfa meal 25
Beet pulp, dried 15
Potatoes 16
Clover hay 36 20

TABLE 9.—Average vitamin content of some feedstuffs used in the feeding of poultry

Vitamin Chick
Vitamin Vitamin Vitamin G (ribo- antider-
Feedstuff A per Bipcr D per Vitamin flavin) matosis
pound 1 E2 factor
pound pound per per
pound pound

Modified
Interna- Interna- A.O.A.C. Micro- JukeR-
tional tional chick grams Lepkovsky
Orain and seeds Units Units units 3 (gammas)' units 5
Barley
Beans, navy
400 250 Trace ++ 400 0.7
(Ö) 250 (8) .1
Beans, pinto (6) 2,270 (Ö) (S) (Ö)
Bread 50 10 (6) (Ö)
Buckwheat («) 500 300 (6)
Corn, yellow 3,180 270 ++ 450 .7
Corn, white 0 270 450 .7
Corn-gluten iiical (yellow) 6, 800 ( 0 («)
Cottonseed meal (41-percent protein). 600 1,800 (S) 300 1.0
Co wpeas- 1,360 450 («) 350 1.3
Field peas 2,720 450 (8) (S) («)
Garden peas 4, 540 450 («) 1.5
Hempseed meal -- . («) ++ 1,100 1.0
See footnotes at end of table.
 PRACTICAL FEEDING OF POULTRY 843
TABLE 9.—Average vitamin content of some feedstuff s used in the feeding of poultry-
Continued

Vitamin Chick
Vitamin Vitamin Vitamin antider-
Feedstuff A per Bi per D per Vitamin ^Ä" matosis
pound pound pound 1 i per factor
pound per
pound

Modified
Interna- Interna- A.O.A.C. Micro- Jukes-
tional tional chick grams Lepkovsky
Qrain and ^eíds—Continued Units Units units 3 (gammas)^ units ó
Kafir 250 (8) (6) (8) (8)
Linseed meal (old process)
Milo
200
250
2,000 + 900 0.1
(Ö) (6) 400 .7
Oats 80 270 400
Oatmeal, or rolled oats (6) 230 (8)
Peanuts (hulls on) (Ö) 900 950
Peanut kernels (<•) 1,500 1,200 4.0
Peanut meal, no hulls (old process) _ 250 900 1.200 4.0
Rice bran (') 1,500 (6) 900 1.8
Rye
Soybeans
(6) 250 ++ (6) (8)
600 1,100 (6) 1, 300 1.0
Soybean meal 170 900 Trace (8) 1,400 1.0
Wheat 140 340 ++ 400 .7
Wheat bran 150 450 ++ 1,000 1.8
Wheat flour («) 10 (8) (8) (8)
Wheat-germ meal 1,900 1,930 +++ + 1,800
Wheat-flour middlings 100 800 ++ 700
Wheat middlings, standard 120 1,000 +++ 900
Wheat red-dog flour 60 («) («) 450 (8)
Wheat shorts 120 1,000 +++ 900
Feeds of animal origin
Buttermilk, liquid 25 40 (6) (8) 1, 200 .3
Buttermilk, dried 200 400 Trace + 9,000 3.0
Buttermilk, sweet cream, dried-.
Cod-liver oil
200
340,190
400 Trace
< 45, 360
+ 14, 000 3.0
0 0 0
Cod-liver oil, fortified 362,000 0 181, 600 (8) 0 0
Fish meal, white (6) («) (ß) (6) 4, 500 .2
Fish meal, sardine (Ö) (6) («) (8) 3,200 .2
Fish meal, menhaden (Û) (0) (6) (8) 2,250 .2
Liver meal, Argentine («) (Ö) («) (8) 18, 500 8.0
Meat scrap (6) (8) (6) 2,700 .2
Pork liver, dried 47, 670 170 200 (8) 45, 360 10.0
Sardine (pilchard) oil 45, 240 («) 45, 360 (8) 0 0
Skim milk, liquid 15 40 + 1,000 .3
Skim milk, dried
Tankage
130 400 + 9, 500 2.5
(8) (8) (6) 800 (8)I
Whey, dried («) (8) (ß) 12,000 4.0
Green feeds, etc.
Alfalfa (green) 63, 560 225 ++ 2,000 .1
Alfalfa-leaf meal, dehydrated 95, 000 450 +++ 8,000 3.0
x\.lfalfa-leaf meal 32, GOO 400 + ++ 7,000 2.0
Alfalfa meal 13,000 400 +++ 5,000 1.5
Cabbage 200 100 100 (8)
Cane molasses (8) (8) 2,000 6.0
Carrots 18, 200 100 120 .1
Kale 181, 400 100 2.240 (8)
Potatoes 220 80 55 (8)
Red clover hay
Turnips
9,000 450 +++ (8) (8)
(Ö) 70 (8) 45 (8)
Yeast, brewers', dried (8) 4,500 16, 000 15.0
1 Leaders (_ ) mean that the feedstuff contains no appreciable quantity of vitamin D.
2 The symbols in this column have the following meanings: + Fair source of vitamin E; -f-h Good
source of vitamin E; ++-1- Very good source of vitamin E; H-+-f+ Excellent source of vitamin E.
3 This is the official unit of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. It is equivalent to 1 inter-
national Unit of the kind of vitamin D found in pure cod-liver oil.
^ A microgram, or gamma, is one-millionth of a gram; it is equal to approximately one twenty-eight mil-
lionth of an ounce.
5 The modification consists in giving the same value to a pound of the feedstuff as was originally given to
a gram. In order that a diet may supply enough of the chick antidermatosis factor, it should contain not
less than 0.9 modified Jukes-Lepkovsky unit per pound.
6 Information on vitamin content is lacking.
" Cod-liver oil, if it is to be sold legally as such in interstate commerce, must contain at least 272,150 Inter-
national Units of vitamin A and 38,590 International Units of vitamin D per pound. The vitamin A
content of cod-liver oil varies from 272,150 to about 1,000,000 International Units per pound and the vitamin D
content from 38,590 to about 160,000 units per pound. Cod-liver oil and other vitamin-bearing fish oils
should be purchased only from reliable sources and should be used according to the manufacturer's guarantee
of their vitamin potency.