48 Chapter 2 Shell Momentum Balances and Velocity Distributions in Laminar Flow

This difficultycan be overcome if we expand the two exponentials in Taylor series (see §C.2),
as follows:

-
- pgs2cos p .-[(-+-a+
Po 0-0
1 1
2 3
. . a ) - ( L~-II',+
282 383 .. I).
which is in agreement with Eq. 2.2-18.
From Eq. 2.2-27 it may be shown that the average velocity is
pgs2cos p
(vz> =
Po [.(A -$+ 4) 21
- -

The reader may verify that this result simplifies to Eq. 2.2-20 when a goes to zero.

s2.3 FLOW THROUGH A CIRCULAR TUBE

The flow of fluids in circular tubes is encountered frequently in physics, chemistry, biol-
ogy, and engineering. The laminar flow of fluids in circular tubes may be analyzed by
means of the momentum balance described in 52.1. The only new feature introduced
here is the use of cylindrical coordinates, which are the natural coordinates for describ-
ing positions in a pipe of circular cross section.
We consider then the steady-state, laminar flow of a fluid of constant density p and
viscosity p in a vertical tube of length L and radius R. The liquid flows downward under
the influence of a pressure difference and gravity; the coordinate system is that shown in
Fig. 2.3-1. We specify that the tube length be very large with respect to the tube radius,
so that "end effects" will be unimportant throughout most of the tube; that is, we can ig-
nore the fact that at the tube entrance and exit the flow will not necessarily be parallel to
the tube wall.
We postulate that v, = v,(r), vr = 0, v, = 0, and p = p(z). With these postulates it may
be seen from Table B.l that the only nonvanishing components of 7 are rrz= rZr=
-p(dv,/dr).
We select as our system a cylindrical shell of thickness Ar and length L and we begin
by listing the various contributions to the z-momentum balance:
rate of z-momentum in (2~Ar)(#41z=0 (2.3-1)
across annular surface at z = 0
rate of z-momentum out (2~rAr)($,,)J,=~ (2.3-2)
across annular surface at z = L
rate of z-momentum in (2d)($,)(, = (2flL$,)(, (2.3-3)
across cylindrical surface at r
rate of 2-momentum out ( 2 d r + Ar)L)(+J/r+Ar = (2mL$J/r+Ar (2.3-4)
across cylindrical surface at r + Ar
gravity force acting in (2wArL)pg (2.3-5)
z direction on cylindrical shell
 Flow Through a Circular Tube 49

4zz),=o=flux Fig. 2.3-1 Cylindrical shell of fluid

of z-momentum over which the z-momentum bal-
ance is made for axial flow in a cir-
cular tube (see Eqs. 2.3-1 to 5). The
z-momentum fluxes 4, and +,, are
given in full in Eqs. 2.3-9a and 9b.

4rzI r + A r = flux
of z-momentum
out at r + Ar

+ Tube wall

of z-momentum
outatz=L

The quantities +,,and +,, account for the momentum transport by all possible mecha-
nisms, convective and molecular. In Eq. 2.3-4, (Y + Ar) and (r)l,+,, are two ways of writ-
ing the same thing. Note that we take "in" and "out" to be in the positive directions of
the Y- and z-axes.
We now add up the contributions to the momentum balance:

When we divide Eq. (2.3-8)by 2.irLAr and take the limit as Ar + 0, we get

The expression on the left side is the definition of the first derivative of r4,, with respect
to r. Hence Eq. 2.3-7 may be written as

Now we have to evaluate the components 4, and +,, from Eq. 1.7-1and Appendix B.l:

Next we take into account the postulates made at the beginning of the problem-namely,
that vz = v,(r), V, = 0, v g = 0, and p = p(z). Then we make the following simplifications:
50 Chapter 2 Shell Momentum Balances and Velocity Distributions in Laminar Flow

(i) because v, = 0, we can drop the term pqv, in Eq. 2.3-9a; (ii) because v, = v,(r), the term
pvzvz will be the same at both ends of the tube; and (iii) because vZ = vZ(r),the term
-2pdv,/dz will be the same at both ends of the tube. Hence Eq. 2.3-8 simplifies to

in which 9 = p - p g z is a convenient abbreviation for the sum of the pressure and gravi-
tational terms.' Equation 2.3-10 may be integrated to give

The constant C1 is evaluated by using the boundary condition

B.C. 1: at r = 0, =
T , ~ finite (2.3-12)
Consequently C1must be zero, for otherwise the momentum flux would be infinite at the
axis of the tube. Therefore the momentum flux distribution is
1

This distribution is shown in Fig. 2.3-2.

Newton's law of viscosity for this situation is obtained from Appendix B.2 as
follows:

Substitution of this expression into Eq. 2.3-13 then gives the following differential equa-
tion for the velocity:

Parabolic velocity
distribution uz(r)

Linear momentum-
flux distribution
~,,(r) Fig. 2.3-2 The momentum-flux
distribution and velocity distribu-
tion for the downward flow in a
I circular tube.

+
' The quantity designated by 9 is called the modified pressure. In general it is defined by 9 = p pgh,
where h is the distance "upwardv-that is, in the direction opposed to gravity from some preselected
reference plane. Hence in this problem h = -z.
 52.3 Flow Through a Circular Tube 51

This first-order separable differential equation may be integrated to give

The constant C2is evaluated from the boundary condition

B.C. 2: at r = R, v, = 0
From this C, is found to be (Yo - 9 , ) ~ ~ / 4 p L
Hence
. the velocity distribution is

We see that the velocity distribution for laminar, incompressible flow of a Newtonian
fluid in a long tube is parabolic (see Fig. 2.3-2).
Once the velocity profile has been established, various derived quantities can be
obtained:
(i) The maximum velocity v,,,,, occurs at r = 0 and is

(ii) The average velocity (v,) is obtained by dividing the total volumetric flow rate by
the cross-sectional area

(iii) The mass rate of flow w is the product of the cross-sectional area ,rrR2,the density
p, and the average velocity (v,)

This rather famous result is called the Hagen-~oiseuille~equation. It is used, along

with experimental data for the rate of flow and the modified pressure difference,
to determine the viscosity of fluids (see Example 2.3-1) in a "capillary viscometer."
(iv) The z-component of the force, F,, of the fluid on the wetted surface of the pipe is
just the shear stress 7,,integrated over the wetted area

This result states that the viscous force F, is counterbalanced by the net pres-
sure force and the gravitational force. This is exactly what one would obtain
from making a force balance over the fluid in the tube.

G. Hagen, Ann. Phys. Chern., 46,423442 (1839);J. L. Poiseuille, Comptes Rendus, 11,961 and 1041
(1841).Jean Louis Poiseuille (1799-1869) (pronounced "Pwa-zd-yuh," with d is roughly the "00" in
book) was a physician interested in the flow of blood. Although Hagen and Poiseuille established the
dependence of the flow rate on the fourth power of the tube radius, Eq. 2.3-21 was first derived by E.
Hagenbach, Pogg. Annalen der Physik u. Chemie, 108,385-426 (1860).
52 Chapter 2 Shell Momentum Balances and Velocity Distributions in Laminar Flow

The results of this section are only as good as the postulates introduced at the begin-
ning of the section-namely, that v, = v,(r) and p = p(z). Experiments have shown that
these postulates are in fact realized for Reynolds numbers up to about 2100; above that
value, the flow will be turbulent if there are any appreciable disturbances in the sys-
tem-that is, wall roughness or vibration^.^ For circular tubes the Reynolds number is
defined by Re = D ( V , ) ~ /where
~, D = 2R is the tube diameter.
We now summarize all the assumptions that were made in obtaining the Hagen-
Poiseuille equation.
(a) The flow is laminar; that is, Re must be less than about 2100.
(b) The density is constant ("incompressible flow").
(c) The flow is "steady" (i.e., it does not change with time).
(d) The fluid is Newtonian (Eq. 2.3-14 is valid).
( e ) End effects are neglected. Actually an "entrance length," after the tube entrance,
of the order of L, = 0.035D Re, is needed for the buildup to the parabolic profile.
If the section of pipe of interest includes the entrance region, a correction must
be a ~ p l i e dThe
. ~ fractional correction in the pressure difference or mass rate of
flow never exceeds L,/L if L > L,.
(f) The fluid behaves as a continuum-this assumption is valid, except for very di-
lute gases or very narrow capillary tubes, in which the molecular mean free path
is comparable to the tube diameter (the "slip flow region") or much greater than
the tube diameter (the "Knudsen flow" or "free molecule flow" regime).5
(g) There is no slip at the wall, so that B.C. 2 is valid; this is an excellent assumption
for pure fluids under the conditions assumed in (0.See Problem 2B.9 for a dis-
cussion of wall slip.

.
Glycerine (CH20H.CHOH CH20H)at 26.5"C is flowing through a horizontal tube 1 ft long
and with 0.1 in. inside diameter. For a pressure drop of 40 psi, the volume flow rate w / p is
Determination of 0.00398 ft3/min. The density of glycerine at 26.5"C is 1.261 g/cm3. From the flow data, find the
Viscosity from viscosity of glycerine in centipoises and in Pa. s.
Capillary Flow Data
SOLUTION
From the Hagen-Poiseuille equation (Eq. 2.3-211, we find

dyn/cm2)(0.05 in. X
Ibf/in.2 12 in.
ft3 X -
0.00398 - min
1 ---
min 60 s

A. A. Draad [Doctoral Dissertation, Technical University of Delft (199611in a carefully controlled

experiment, attained laminar flow up to Re = 60,000. He also studied the nonparabolic velocity profile
induced by the earth's rotation (through the Coriolis effect). See also A. A. Draad and F. T. M.
Nieuwstadt, J. Fluid. Mech., 361,207-308 (1998).
9.H. Perry, Chemical Engineers Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York, 3rd edition (1950), pp. 38S389;
W. M. Kays and A. L. London, Compact Heat Exchangers, McGraw-Hill, New York (19581, p. 49.
Martin Hans Christian Knudsen (1871-19491, professor of physics at the University of
Copenhagen, did key experiments on the behavior of very dilute gases. The lectures he gave at the
University of Glasgow were published as M. Knudsen, The Kinetic Theory of Gases, Methuen, London
(1934);G. N. Patterson, Molecular Flow of Gases, Wiley, New York (1956).See also J. H. Ferziger and H. G.
Kaper, Mathematical Theory of Transport Processes in Gases, North-Holland, Amsterdam (19721, Chapter 15.