DISASTER- defined as a serious disruption of the functioning of the society, causing widespread human, material, or

environmental losses, which exceed the ability of the people to cope using their own resources.

 Disastre (French) / des- bad and aster-star

HAZARD- a dangerous phenomenon substance human activity or condition that may cause loss of life, injury or other
health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption or environmental
damage.

DISASTER RISK- a potential loss of life, injury or destroyed or damaged assets which could occur to a system,
society or a community in specific period of time, determine probability and capacity.

INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE

 INTENSIVE- the exposure of large number of people in a specific geographic area.

 EXTENSIVE- dispersed population.

“NATURE OF DISASTER”
1. NATURAL DISASTER
2. HUMAN-MADE DISASTER

NATURAL DISASTER- These originated from the different ‘forces’ of nature. Natural disasters such as
earthquake, volcanic eruption, typhoons, and cyclones affect many countries in Asia particularly the Philippines.

HUMAN-MADE DISASTER- These disasters occur due to people’s actions against human, materials, and the
environment. These include transport and industrial accidents, such as air and train crashes, chemical spills, and building
collapses. Terrorism is also categorized as a human-made disaster.

“RISK FACTORS UNDERLYING DISASTER”

Severity of exposure- measures those who experience disaster firsthand which has the highest risk of developing
mental problems.
Gender and family- The female gender suffers more adverse effect. This worsens which children are present at
home.
Age- Adults in the age range 40-60 are more stressed after disasters but in general, children exhibit more stress
after disasters than adults do.
Low or negative social support-
Developing countries- Evidences indicates that severe mental problems resulting from disasters are more
prevalent in developing countries like the Philippines.

RISK= HAZARD X EXPOSURE X VULNERABILITY

DISASTER=

RISK= HAZARD X EXPOSURE X VULNERABILITY X COST

AREAS EXPOSED TO HAZARD

AREAS / LOCATION EXPOSED TO:

Coastal areas Storm surge, tsunami, tidal waves
Reclaimed areas Flooding, sinkhole
Near fault line Earthquake
On foot of denuded mountains Landslide / mud
Near volcanoes Volcanic eruption
Riverbanks and esteros Flooding/flash flood
Open field Thunderstorm, hailstorm, blizzard

Risk Factors
1. Exposure- The elements at risk from a natural or man-made hazard event.
2. Hazard- A potentially dangerous physical occurrence, phenomenon or human activity that may result
loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation.
3. Vulnerability- The condition determined by physical, social, economic and environmental factors or
processes, which increase the susceptibility of community to the impact of hazard.

CATEGORY OF HAZARD

NATURAL HAZARD – Are naturally occurring physical phenomenon caused by Geophysical, Hydrological,
meteorological, climatological, or biological events.

 GEOPHYSICAL HAZARDS- Driven by geologic processes, specifically plate tectonics.

 CLIMATOLOGICAL HAZARDS- Caused by atmospheric processes ranging from intraseasonal to
multidecadal climate variability.
 HYDROLOGICAL HAZARDS- Driven by water processes.
 METEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS- Driven by weather processes related to temperature and wind.
 BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS- Driven by biological processes.
 ANTHROPOGENIC HAZARDS- Result from human interaction with the environment.

Effects of Disasters on One’s Life

1. Displaced population
2. Health Risk
3. Food scarcity
4. Emotional aftershocks
DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVE OF DISASTER
PHYSICAL PERSPECTIVE- Calamities are phenomena that cause great physical damage in a community,
infrastructure. It’s people and their properties, e.g., houses and environmental sources of living. These cited effects of
disaster can be easily measured and most common.

PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE- Victims of disaster may suffer from Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
and other serious mental health conditions, which are not being given much attention to by the authorities or even by
the victims, themselves.

SOCIO-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE- Disaster is analyzed based on how people respond having as parameter
their social conditions and cultural settings.

ECONIMIC PERSPERCTIVE- Disasters affect the economic condition of a community because they reduce local
and international trade.

POLITICAL PERSPERCTIVE- Commonly thought to be less politically argumentative than armed conflicts, yet a
closer look shows that both the effects of a natural disaster and the resulting distribution of humanitarian aid are
profoundly linked to politics.

 Government interventions should be present in the ff. phases of DRRM: PREVENTION, MITIGATION,
PREPAREDNESS, and RECOVERY.

EXPOSURE-Refers to the elements at risk from a natural or man-made hazard event.

ELEMENT AT RISK:

 Human
 Dwellings
 Buildings
 Transport system
 Agricultural commodities
 Environmental assets

VULNERABILITY- Defined as the “the characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset that
make it susceptible to the damaging effects of hazard.

Is also situation specific – The vulnerability of different towns or cities or even provinces differ in a way prepare
for the hazard and the amount and type of resources they have in order to prevent and manage it.
Is also hazard specific- A community that is vulnerable to earthquake hazard does not necessarily mean that it is
also vulnerable to typhoons.

REPUBLIC ACT 10121- “Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act of 2010”

- Vulnerability is defined as the characteristics and circumstances of a community,

system or resources that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard.
Demographic Factors

 POPULATION DENSISTY
 AGE OF POPULATION-From younger to older
 DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION

Socio- economic Factors

 WEALTH
 EDUCATION
 NATURE OF SOCIETY
 UNDERSTANDING OF THE AREAS

Community Preparedness

 BUILDING CODES
 SCIENTIFIC MONITORING
 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
 EMERGENCY PLANNING (MAKE A PLAN, BUILD A KIT, BE INFORMED)

Dealing with the after- effects

 INSURANCE COVER
 AID REQUEST
 EMERGENCY PERSONNEL

TYPES OF VULNERABILITY

PHYSICAL VULNERABILITY- Includes population density levels, place of settlement, the site design, and
materials used for infrastructure and housing. when hazardous events occur, normally physical elements are severe
damaged.

SOCIAL VULNERABILITY- Happens due to inability of people, organization and societies to prevent serve
affects from hazards because of the expected behavior in social interactions, institutions, and system of culture values.

ECONOMIC VULNERABILITY- Level of economic is based on the economic status of individuals, communities
and nations.

ENVIRONMENTAL VULNERABILITY- Caused by natural resources depletion and destruction. Organisms like
humans, animals, and plants are all dependent on the environment for survival.
Defining Hazard, vulnerability and Risk.

HAZARD- Harmful condition, substance, human behavior or condition that can cause loss of life, injury or other health
any risk which is imminent is threat.

VULNERABILITY- Means the characteristics and circumstances of a community, system, or asset, that make it
susceptible to the damaging effects of a community to prevent, mitigate, prepare for the respond to hazardous event.

RISK- Implies the probability of possible adverse effects. This results from the interaction of social and environmental
system, from the combination of physical danger, and exposed item vulnerabilities.

EXPOSURE- Is the presence of the elements at risk or chance of being harmed from a natural or man-made hazard
event. Elements include the individuals, households, or communities, properties, buildings and structures, agricultural
commodities, livelihood and public.

Exposure to hazard can make a community vulnerable. But not all communities that are exposed to hazard can
be considered vulnerable.

ELEMENTS AT RISK IS ABOUT EXPOSED TO THE HAZARD

ASSETS- OR ELEMENTS AT RISK

 Is a generic term that signifies everything that might be exposed to hazards and ranging from buildings to the
economy and from individual persons to communities.
 All assets have a “value” which can be expressed in monetary terms, in number of persons affected or in less
quantifiable units such as cultural importance or environmental quality.
 Assets can be identifiable objects such as persons, buildings, cars etc. but also include systems and services such
as a community, utilities and the economy.

General Classification of Elements at Risk

PHYSICAL ELEMENT

BUILDINGS: Urban land use, construction types, building height, building age, total floor space, replacement costs,
monuments and cultural heritage.

ESSENTIAL FACILITIES: Emergency shelters, school, hospitals, fire brigades, police.

TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES: Roads, railway, metro, public transportation systems, harbor facilities, airport
facilities.

LIFELINES: Water supply, electricity supply, gas supply, telecommunications, mobile telephone network, sewage
system.

POPULATION: Density of population, distribution in space, distribution in time, age distribution, gender distribution,
handicapped, income distribution.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS: Organization of population, governance, community organization, government

support, socio-economic levels, cultural heritage and traditions.
ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES: Spatial distribution of economic activities, input-output table, dependency, redundancy,
unemployment, economic production in various sectors.

ENVIRONMENT ELEMENTS: Ecosystems, protected areas, natural parks, environmentally sensitive areas, forests,
wetlands, aquifers, flora, fauna, biodiversity.

HAZARD- Is something that has the potential to harm you.

RISK- Is the likelihood of a hazard causing harm.

HAZARD AND ITS TYPE

HAZARD- Are “those elements of the physical, harmful to man and caused by forces extraneous to
him”. (Burton et. Al 1978).

“A natural event that has the potential to cause harm or loss”. (ADPC).
“A phenomenon or situation, which has the potential to cause the disruption or damage to people, their
property, their services, and their environment.” (USGS)

TYPES OF HAZARDS

1. ATMOSPHERIC (SINGLE ELEMENT)

 Excess rainfall
 Freezing rain (glaze)
 High and speeds
2. ATMOSPHERIC (COMBINED ELEMENT)
 Hurricanes
 Thunderstorm
 Tornadoes
3. HYDROLOGIC
 Floods
 Drought
 Glaciers
4. GEOLOGIC
 Landslide
 Earthquake
 Volcanic eruption
5. BIOLOGIC
 Epidemic diseases

6. TECHNOLOGICAL
 Accidents
 Industrial explosions
 Cyber terrorism
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARD

 NATURAL HAZARD- Arise from natural processes in the environment.

 QUASI-NATURAL HAZARD- Arise through the interaction of natural processes and human activities.
 TECHNOLOGICAL HAZARD- These arise directly as a result of human activities.

HAZARDS SIGNS AND SYMBOLS

HAZARD IMPACTS, IDENTIFICATION AND RISK ASSESSMENT
One way to classify hazard impacts is by means of general impact themes namely:

 Danger to life which includes physical and psychological harm and diseases.
 Denial of access like energy, water, communication and transport access.
 Damage to the physical environment like building and land.
PHYSICAL IMPACT
 Physical injuries
 Destruction and loss of vital infrastructure like transportation system and communication lines.
 Widespread destruction of housing and buildings.
PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACTS
 Grief and psychological illness
 Marital conflict
 Depression due in loss of loves ones and properties
 Chronic anxiety
SOCIO-CULTURAL IMPACTS
 Displacement of population
 Loss of cultural identity
 Forced of adoption of new sets or culture ethnic conflicts
 Ethnic conflicts
ECONOMIC IMPACTS
 Loss of job due to displacement L
 Loss of harvest and life stock
 Loss of harm, fish cages and other source of food
  Loss of money and other valuables
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
 Loss of forest due to forest fires
 Loss of fresh water due to salination
 Disturbance of biodiversity
 Loss of actual rivers
BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS
 Epidemic to people, flora and fauna
 Chromic and permanent illness caused by biological agents.
 Proliferation of different vocal diseases

IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARD AND RISK ASSESSMENT

HAZARD IDENTIFICATION- Is the process of determining all physical and non-physical agents in the workplace
or specific environment.

RISK ASSESSMENT- Is a way to determine which hazards and risk should prioritized by taking into consideration
the probability and severity of impact.

“STEPS IN HAZARD IDENTIFICATION AND RISK ASSESSMENT”

1. IDENTIFY THE HAZARDS

a. Observation
b. Material Safety Data sheets (MSD’s)
c. Hazard and Risk Surveys
d. Discussion groups
2. ASSESS THE RISK
3. MAKE THE CHANGES
4. CHECKING THE CHANGES MADE

SEVERITY- 4 PTS. SCALE

SEVERITY- Is the amount of damage or harm a hazard could create and it is often ranked on a four-point scale as
follows:

 CATASTROPHIC (4)- Operating conditions are such that human error, environment, design deficiencies,
element, subsystem or component failure or procedural deficiencies may commonly cause death or major
system loss, thereby requiring immediate cessation of the unsafe activity or operation.
 CRITICAL (3)- Operating conditions such that human error, environment, design deficiencies, element,
subsystem or component failure or procedural deficiencies may commonly cause severe injury or illness or
major system damage thereby requiring immediate corrective action.
 MARGINAL (2)- Operating conditions may commonly cause minor injury or illness or minor system damage
such that human error, environment, design deficiencies, element, subsystem or component failure or
procedural deficiencies can be counteracted or controlled without severe injury, illness or major system
damage.
 NEGLIGIBLE (1)- Operating conditions are such that personnel error, environment, design deficiencies,
element, subsystem or component failure or procedural deficiencies will result in no or less than minor, illness,
injury or system damage.
PROBABILITY- 5 PTS. SCALE

PROBABILITY- Is the likelihood of the hazard occurring and it is often ranked on a five-point scale:

 FREQUENT (5)- Likely to occur often in the life of an item.

 PROBABLE (4)- Will occur several times in the life of an item.
 OCCASIONAL (3)- likely to occur sometime in the life of an items.
 REMOTE (2)- Unlikely but possible to occur in the life of an item.
 IMPROBABLE (1)- So unlikely, it can be assumed an occurrence may not be experienced.

RISK MATRICES come in many shapes and sizes.

LIKELIHOOD

1. Improbable (unlikely, though possible)

2. Remote (could occur occasionally)
3. Probable (not surprised, will occur in given time)
4. Frequent (likely to occur, to be expected)

SEVERITY

1. Negligible (the hazard will not result in serious injury or illness, or has a remote possibility of damage)
2. Marginal (the hazard could cause illness, injury, or equipment damage but its effects would not be serious)
3. Critical (the hazard can result in serious injury or illness, property or equipment damage)
4. Catastrophic (the hazard is capable of causing death and illness)

Earthquake Hazards
Earthquake – is a vibration of the Earth produced by the rapid release of energy within the lithosphere.
-Is a weak to violent shaking of the ground

 Ground Rupture – (Cut) creation of new or the renewed movements of old fractures, oftentimes with the
two blocks on both sides moving in opposite directions.
 Liquefaction – (very soft soil) a process that transforms the behavior of a body of sediment from solid to
liquid.
 Earthquake-Induced Landslide – slope failure
 Tsunami – giant sea waves due to large-scale displacement of the sea floor. Is a series of waves with
speed of 45-80 kph in shoreline.
- Can be near field or far-field
-Local Tsunamis could reach shorelines 5-10 mins or as early as 1 min.
-Can move up to 600 high in deep ocean

Tsunami Generators
1. Large Magnitude off-shore earthquakes
2. Coastal And underwater landslides and volcanic eruptions
3. Meteor Impacts
 Ground Shaking – the destructive up & down &sideways motion experienced during an earthquake.
 Secondary Hazard: Fire
Earthquakes cause fire that can break gas & electrical lines , fuel lines and overturn stoves.
Elastic Rebound – is the tendency for the deformed rock along a fault to spring back after an earthquake
Active Fault – a fault which has moved within the last 10,000 years..
Aftershock – is an earthquake that occurs sometime soon after a major earthquake.
Seismograph – is a device used to record the motion of the ground during an earthquake.
Role of PHIVOLCS in Earthquake Disaster Mitigation

1. Seismic Monitoring
2. Seismic hazards mapping
3. Active fault mapping
4. Public awareness programs and trainings

 1960 Great Chilean Earthquake – the world’s strongest earthquake ever.

 August 17, 1976 Moro Gulf Earthquake &Tsunami – strongest earthquake and tsunami in the
Philippines, occurred in Cotabato City. (4000 casualties)
 November 14, 1994 Mindoro Earthquake – 78 Casualties

Types of Natural Earthquakes

Tectonic – earthquake produced by sudden movement along faults and plate boundaries.
Volcanic – earthquakes produced by movement of magma beneath volcanoes.

Major Tectonic Plates in the World

 Antarctic Plate
 Indo-Australian Plate
 American Plate
 Pacific Plate
 African Plate
 Eurasian Plate
Seismicity of the Philippines

 Average of 20 earthquakes recorded per day

 100-150 felt earthquakes per year
 90 destructive earthquakes for past 400 years.
Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake
Magnitude (energy)

 Measured by instruments
 It is the energy released at the focus
 Arabic Numbers (1,2,3)
Intensity (shaking)

 Felt and observed

 Based on relative effect to people and structures
 Generally higher than epicenter
 Uses roman numerals
 Methods of Reducing Earthquake Risks Logical Impact

1. Effective recording and interpretation of ground motion.

2. Constructing seismic hazard maps.
3. Developing resistant structures

Tsunami Hazard
Tsunami – from the Japanese term meaning “harbor waves”. It is a series of waves generated by various
geological processes.

- Danger Continues for hours

- High fatality hazard.
- Global Impact blind to political boundaries.
Recent Tsunamis In the Philippines

1992 Eastern Mindanao Tsunami

1976 Moro Gulf Tsunami
1994 Mindoro Tsunami

Tidal Wave/ Storm Surge – Gravitational Attraction between earth and a heavenly body.
Wind Generated Waves – Surfs & Storm Surges.
The Science of Tsunami

Generation
Propagation
Inundation
Tsunami Generation

 Generally by Earthquakes
 Less common by sub-aerial to submarine landslides
 Infrequently by volcanic eruptions
 Very Rarely by Meteorite Impacts.

EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS AND RISK

REDUCTION METHOD
An earthquake is the vibration of earth produced by the rapid released of energy within the lithosphere.

EATHQUAKE HAZARDS refers to earthquake agents which have the potential to cause harm to vulnerable targets
which can either be humans, animals or even environment.

The effects of an earthquake can be classified as primary and secondary.

 Primary effects are permanent features an earthquake can bring out. Examples include fault scarps, surface
ruptures, and offsets of natural or human-constructed objects.
 Secondary effects happen when ground movement results to other types of destruction. Examples include
landslides, tsunami, liquefaction and fire.
4 EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS WHICH ARE CONSIDERED AS SECONDARY EFFECTS OF AN
EARTHQUAKE:

1. LANDSLIDE- Seismic vibration is common triggering mechanism for landslides.

2. TSUNAMI- A tsunami is a huge sea wave triggered by a violent displacement of the ocean floor. Underwater
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or landslide can cause tsunami.
3. LIQUEFACTION- Earthquake motion can turn loosely packed, water-saturated soil to liquid “liquefaction”.
4. FIRES- Earthquakes cause fires.

MOST COMMONLY USED METHODS OF REDUCING EARTHQUAKE RISK:

1. Effective recording and interpretation of ground motion
2. Constructing seismic hazard maps
3. Developing resistance structures

NATURAL SIGNS OF AN IMPENDING TSUNAMI

TIDAL WAVE OR STORM SURGE

 Tsunami waves are not “tidal waves.”

- Gravitational attraction between earth and a heavenly body (e.g. moon, sun & other planets)
 Wind-generated waves
-surfs
-storm surges

TSUNAMI PROPAGATION

 Heights depends on water depth.

-Small in deep ocean (few cm to 1)

-Grows near shore (can be >30m)

 Speed depends on water depth.

-Fast in deep ocean (>1000 kph)
-Slows near shore (30-50 kph)

RUN-UP & INUNDATION

 Last stage of the evolution of a tsunami.

TSUNAMI HAZARD ASSESSMENT

 Compile complete catalogue for earthquakes and tsunamis. Understand local and regional geology and
tectonics.
 Identify most hazardous tsunami source areas and its tsunami-generating mechanism (earthquake, landslide,
volcanic eruption)
 Identify most vulnerable coastal locations from sources (historical or expected)
 For these coastal locations, conduct modelling for inundation and run-up to determine impact.
TSUNAMI IN THE PHILIPPHINES

 About 44 earthquakes from 1589 to present generated tsunamis.

 Enclosed bays are the usual sites where tsunami waves are observed.
 Some areas have more than one tsunami reports (ex. Songsong Bay, Manila Bay, Caluag Bay, Caraga Bay, Moro
Gulf area)
 Minimum earthquake magnitude is 5.4
 Largest tsunamis occurred in the Zamboanga-Cotabato-Sarangani areas.

TSUNAMI WARNING SYSTEM

 Sensors / instrumentation for seismic and tidal data

-Seismographs
-Wet Sensors
-Tidal Gauge
-Pressure Gauge
-Deep-sea bottom pressure gauge

* PHIVOLCS Proposed Deployment of Tsunami Wet Sensors

 LESSON LEARNED

 EDUCATION IS ESSENTIAL FOR LOCAL TSUNAMIS

-Hard shell
-All hazards approach
 LAND USE MANAGEMENT IS LEAST EXPENSIVE WAY TP MITIGATE TSUNAMI DAMAGE
-Rebuild or relocate?
 SURVEYS OF TSUNAMI DAMAGE IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE TSUNAMI PROVIDES VITAL DATA FOR NUMERICAL
MODEL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION

TSUNAMI: EDUCATION AND SAFETY

 Inundation maps
 Tsunami evacuation procedures
 Tsunami education materials
 Tsunami markers
 Tsunami awareness month
-Tsunami safety drills
-Essay contests
 Tsunami museums

NATURAL SIGNS OF AN IMPENDING

TSUNAMI
 Animal behavior
 Drawback

SIGNS OF AN IMPENDING TSUNAMI

 Large off-shore earthquake

 Unusual rise or fall of coastal waters.
 Exposure of corals and underwater rocks
 Sound of approaching train

SAFETY PROCEDURES

 If any news of a nearby earthquake, stay alert and be ready to move to higher ground;
 If you feel an earthquake wherein you cannot stand, immediately move to higher ground;
 If the water receded, immediately move to higher ground;
 Never attempt to watch an approaching tsunami;
 Listen to instructions and do not return until authorities issue an all’s-clear bulletin;

STRUCTURAL COUNTERMEASURES

 Sea walls at breakwaters

 Tide control gates
 Flood gates
 Elevated structure

NON-STRUCTURAL COUNTERMEASURES

 Planting of trees and preservation of mangrove

  Sufficient road networks and paths to elevated areas

PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES FOR

EARTHQUAKE
BEFORE EARTHQUAKE

 KNOW THE HAZARDS. Familiarize yourself with earthquake hazards in your area.
 KNOW THE EVACUATION AREA. Check the nearest routs going to identified evacuation areas.
 PREPARE YOUR HOUSE OR WORKPLACE
 PREPARE AN EMERGENCY SUPPLY KIT. Make it accessible all times.
 LEARN TO USE. The first aid kit, fire extinguisher, alarms, switching off waterlines, gas tanks, and circuit
breaker.
 PARTICIPATE DURING DRILLS. Regularly practice the evacuation procedure.
DURING EARTHQUAKE

 RESPONSE during shaking.

-DROP
-COVER
-HOLD ON

Of stay in safer part of the room.

 STAY CALM AND ALLERT. Watch out for falling objects, glass windows, shelves,
cabinets, and other heavy objects that may cause injury.
 IF OUTSIDE. Move to an open area.
 IF NEAR SHORE. Move quickly to higher grounds.
 MOVE AWAY FROM STEEP SLOPES
 STOP IF INSIDE A MOVING VEHICLE. Do not cross bridges, overpasses, or flyovers.
AFTER EARTHQUAKE

 EVACUATE. As soon as the shaking stops, take the fastest and safest way out.
 EXPECT AFTERSHOCKS.
 BE UPDATED. Monitor the situation from the radio.
 PUT OUT SMALL FIRES USING EXTINGUISHER
 CHECK YOURSELF AND OTHERS FOR INJURIES.

MAPS

 Are two-dimensional (2-D) representation of 3-D world.

 There are different kinds of maps depending on the purpose.
 MAP INTERPRETATION is the process looking at the map in order for us to be guided to a direction or
place where we wanted to go using the different symbols or elements of the map.

There are seven important components of a map. These components will help you interpret a map.

1. Compass rose. This will give you the proper direction. This is also called it “orientation’’.
2. Title. It tells what the map is about.
3. Symbols. These are pictures instead of symbols.
4. Legends or Key. It explains the meaning of symbols and colour.
5. Colour. It highlights the important information to help interpret maps.
6. Scale. It shows the proportion of map to real life.
7. Grid Reference. These are interpreting lines to help locate specific places on the map. In some maps, it is
called “border”.