Stability of Synchronous Machines

Effect of Armature Circuit Resistance

BY C. A. NICKLE* and C. A. PIERCE*
Associate, A. I. E. E. Non-member

Synopsis.-The theory of synchronous machines as developed than the critical limiting value, the damping torque is positive; if
by Doherty and Nickle1 has been extended to include a determination greater, negative.
Of the effect of armature circuit resistance on damping torque. The damping of a generator increases in the positive direction
Equations are developed for the damping torque of synchronous ma- with increase in load. Thus a salient-pole generator with amortis-
chines in general, i. e., both the salient-pole and round rotor types. seur winding, if stable at no load, will be stable under any steady load
These equations assume an exciting winding in the direct axis and within its steady-state power limit. With 8' 0, and normal
an amortisseur winding in the quadrature axis, and further assume excitation, the critical limiting value of armature resistance for
that all damping is due to currents induced in these two windings. a machine with an amortisseur winding is
The effect of an amortisseur winding in the direct axis is not con- I d
sidered because its damping action at the low frequency of hunting r = b d + - (Xd -a)2
is small compared to that of the exciting winding. It is shown that b
the damping torque of any synchronous machine can become negative, where xd is the direct synchronous reactance and a, b, d are constants
giving instability, if the armature resistance is increased beyond a depending upon the design of the machine. This formula is useful
critical limiting value. This fact has been known,2 but an actual for determining the constants of an amortisseur winding which would
determination of the value of the critical resistance in terms of con- prevent sustained or cumulative oscillations of a generator.
stants of the machine has not, to the authors' knowledge, been The analysis also shows that a round-rotor generator with identical
available. This value, for a salient-pole generator with normal field windings in the direct and quadrature axes may be made un-
excitation and no amortisseur winding, is stable by too much resistance in the armature circuits. This fact
had been previously established by Dreyfus.2
r = xq tan 8' The relations for inherent stability in synchronous motors are not
so simple as for generators, but definite relations involving armature
where r is armature circuit resistancet, xq is quadrature synchronous resistance will be found in the article.
reactance, and 8' is the steady-state displacement angle. If r is less The mathematical analysis is checked with laboratory experiments.

INTRODUCTION i. e., that negative damping is possible. He showed,

T HE problem of sustained and cumulative oscilla- furthermore, that the conditions favorable for negative
tions due to an impressed periodic exciting torque damping are high excitation, low line frequency, and a
has been fully treated in the literature of syn- large value of armature resistance. In the conclusion
chronous machines.3 It is further known, as shown by to the paper, it is stated that the oscillations of the
Dr. Ludwig Dreyfus,2 that sustained and cumulative exciting current due to transformer action between
oscillations can occur without the presence of a periodic armature and field help to stabilize the machine, and a
exciting torque. He called these oscillations self well-designed amortisseur winding in the quadra-
excited, because they can be started by an impulse of ture axis will completely suppress the self-excited
momentary duration; and once started become self oscillations.
sustaining, provided conditions favorable to such While Dr. Dreyfus initially considers both salient-
oscillations exist in the circuits of the machine. pole and round-rotor machines in his paper, the part
His method of attack was to set up and solve the of the mathematical analysis dealing with self-excited
differential equations for the magnetic fields of a round- oscillations in an actual machine is based on a machine
rotor machine under the conditions of small forced with a uniform air gap. It is desirable to extend the
oscillations. The final equations of this analysis are analysis to include salient-pole machines. The neces-
based on a round-rotor machine with a damping wind- sity for considering this type is proved by engineering
ing in the quadrature axis having the same constants experience. Certain instances of troublesome hunt-
as the d-c. field winding. He showed by means of these ing with salient-pole generators have come to notice
equations that self-excited oscillations may be set up, from time to time that were difficult to explain. It was
believed that too large armature resistance was to
*Both of the Engineering General Dept. of the General Elec- blame, but no analysis of the effect of this resistance was
tric Company, Schenectady, N. Y.
tArmature circuit resistance includes the resistance of arma- available with which to check the belief. This paper
ture phase and line wire back to the system bus. Likewise,' is the direct outcome of this problem. It takes up the
synchronous reactance includes the reactance of line wire as well mathematical analysis and solution for the effect of
as the synchronous reactance of thephase. These quantities will armature circuit resistance on damping torque of the
usually be referred to as armature resistance and synchronous salient-pole machine, and includes experimental verifi-
reactance. cto ftemteaia ouin swl sapi
1. Fsor references see Bibliography,c to.ftemteaia ouin swl sapi
Presented at the Great Lakes District Meeting of the A. I. E. E., cation of the conclusion to a practical problem.
Chicago, Ill., December 2-4, 1929. The mathematical analysis is based on the vector
338

29-162
Jan. 1930 NICKLE AND PIERCE: STABILITY OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
diagram rather than on the original differential equa-
tions for the machine, and is an extension of an Insti-
tute paperlb on torque-angle characteristics of synchro-
nous machines under transient conditions. In the
paper just referred to, equations for both synchronizing
and damping torque were developed for salient-pole
machines based on the assumption of zero armature cir-
cuit resistance. This assumption, in so far as it affects
torque angle characteristics, had been justified in an
earlier Institute paperla by the same authors. The
mathematical analysis will now be extended to show the
effect of armature circuit resistance on damping torque.
In the mathematical analysis, the synchronous
machine is considered to have a main-field winding in
the direct axis and a damping winding in the quadrature
axis. Although the ordinary amortisseur winding gives
damping in both axes, its effect in the direct axis is
neglected, since at the low frequency of oscillation
usually encountered, the damping of the main-field
winding predominates. This method of attack gives
a solution that can be readily simplified to apply when
there is no amortisseur winding. Since a great many
machines have no amortisseur winding, this case has
been considered in some detail.
Damping due to means other than the main-field
winding and the amortisseur winding is not considered.
Any external damping that may exist can be added to
the inherent damping of the two windings if it is
desired to determine the total damping acting on the
rotor.
Saturation of the magnetic circuits is not considered.
To include the effects of saturation would unduly
complicate the mathematical analysis, if it did not make
a solution impossible.
ASSUMPTIONS
In order to simplify the mathematical work, certain
assumptions are made which do not seriously impair
the usefulness of the conclusions derived. The assump-
tions are:
1. The machine is assumed to be connected to a
relatively large power system so that hunting of the
machine will cause no appreciable variation in the
bus voltage; i. e., an infinite bus is assumed.
2. The polyphase voltages impressed on the arma-
ture circuits of the machine and the currents flowing
therein are assumed to be balanced and to vary sinu-
soidally with respect to time. Thus the usual vector
diagram for voltage and current per phase may be
used to represent the steady-value voltages and cur-
rents of the machine.
3. The machine is assumed to be in a state of sus-
tamned oscillation about a constant average value of
displacement angle. The electromagnetic torque is
then a function of time and contains two components,
viz., one component in time phase with the angular
velocity of oscillation, and the other in phase with the
angular displacement. These components are the
damping torque and the synchronizing torque, respec-
339
tively. The assumption is further made that the
differential equations at the point considered are linear.
Thus this analysis of damping applies rigorously only
when the oscillations are of very small amplitude, i. e.,
when voltage, current, torque, etc., vary proportionately.
The motion of the rotor is assumed to consist, then, of a
steady rotation at synchronous speed upon which is
superimposed a sinusoidal oscillatory, or alternating
motion.
4. The angular velocity of oscillation is assumed
to be very small compared with the steady-value angu-
lar velocity; hence torque and power may be assumed
numerically equal in the per-unit system.4
5. The alternating component of motion of the
rotor causes the amplitude of the polyphase currents
to vary periodically in time at the frequency of oscil-
lation. It is assumed that the peak value of the arma-
ture current pulsates, or is modulated, in such manner
that the envelope of the peak values can be represented
as a sinusoidal function with respect to time, having
a period equal to the period of hunting. If the actual
modulation is more complex than assumed, the analysis
will hold in so far as the fundamental of the modulation
is concerned.
PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS
An outline of the reactions produced by the modu-
lated polyphase armature currents is set down in order
that the mathematical analysis may be more easily
followed. The currents in the several phases produce
the armature reaction, or armature m. m. f., which
can be resolved under steady-state conditions into space
fundamental and space harmonic components.la Only
the space fundamental component will be considered.
The steady-value space fundamental component of
armature reaction revolves around the air gap syn-
chronously with the field poles, and cannot induce cur-
rent in either of the two field windings. But the
modulated armature reaction does induce current by
transformer action in each of the rotor windings. The
current in the main field winding, i. e., in the direct
axis, is made up of two components. One component
is the steady-value current which is set up by the
exciter; and the second component is alternating cur-
rent induced by the modulated armature reaction.
Only alternating current flows in the quadrature
winding. The frequency of the currents induced in
both windings is the same as the frequency of hunting
of the machine. Thus the modulation of the peak
value of the armature current produces a modulation
of the total rotor voltage, i. e., of the nominal voltage
of the armature winding.
As the permeance of the air gap of a salient-pole
machine is different in the two axes, in order to make
the analysis perfectly general, it is necessary to deal
with the direct and quadrature components of voltage
and current.la It is evident that these components of
the armature current will be modulated if the total
current is modulated, and that the modulation will
340 NICKLE AND PIERCE: STABILITY OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES Transactions A. I. E. E.

appear in the direct and quadrature components of the corresponding to the hunting, can be represented as
nominal voltage by transformer action. a = a/ + [A ]
Since the modulation of the steady peak value id' T=The alternating components [Ai] [A iq], [A ed], eq] (5)
of the direct component of armature current causes
its amplitude to vary sinusoidally at the frequency of
[hid]f [t
and [A 3] all vary in time with the frequency of hunting.
hunting, the peak value id at any instant is a function These values of armature current, nominal voltage,
of time and can be represented as and load angle can be combined by means of the
id = Ad' + A id cos s t = idt + [i(1) relations shown in the vector diagram, Fig. 2, for a
where s is +
agl teldi [A-m + d] salient-pole machine to give relations from which the
as a fraction of normal angular velocity, and damping torque can be determined. The mathematical
[A id] = A id COS s t iSthe value of the modulating wave analysis isI given the
in Appendix I. Equation (56) of
value of damping torque for a
instant. Using the per-unit system of units, Appendix gives
synchronous machine having an exciting winding in
a id cos st *, Jthe direct axis of the rotor and an amortisseur winding
EAid in the quadrature axis.
r /1 ! I 0 R X X y Xid STUDY OF DAMPING TORQUE
It is not immediately apparent from inspection
StW t tt t W It me + lt Iof Equation (56) how much effect armature resistance
r has on damping torque Td, because r appears not
only as seen in the equation, but also in the equations
for the constants, a, B, C, and D. Equation (56) can
be reduced to a simpler form, however, by letting
FIG. 1-ARMATURE CURRENT WITH HARMONIC MODULATION c = 0 = d (compare (26) and (27)), which means
considering a machine that has no amortisseur winding,
frequency and its corresponding angular velocity are
numerically equal. CFig. 1 shows the current repre-
sented by Equation (1). It will be assumed that the
angular velocity s is small compared with c, the
angular velocity corresponding to line frequency, so /
that the modulation will not distort the wave form of xV
the current during a cycle enough to make the use
of the usual vector representation of polyphase cur-
rents inaccurate.
In like manner the peak value i, of the quadrature /
component of armature current is a function of time
and can be represented as
i, = iq' + A iq cos (s t + a) = iq' + [A iq] (2) e
introducing the time-phase angle a because the modu-
lating waves for the direct and quadrature components
of current will not in general vary in time phase with i Xi i
each other. In Equation (2) iq' is the average value FIG. 2-VECTOR DIAGRAM FOR SALIENT POLE MACHINE,
of iq and [A iq] = A iq cos (s t + a) is the value of the ON INFINITE BUS UNDER CONDITIONS OF MECHANICAL
modulating wave. OSCILLATION
The peak value of the nominal voltage, ed, due to
the main field winding, is a function of time and can be in which case damping is due to the current induced
represented as in the main field winding.
ed = edl + [A ed] (3) Substituting c = 0 = d in (5Q), (41), and (56),
where ed' is the average peak value and [A ed] is the
modulation, or alternating, component introdued by D (58)
the hunting. As there is no d-c. excitation in the
quadrature axis, the peak value of the nominal voltage rtnc'+(d-a
e,, can be represented as coansa+=xz-a
eql = [A e,,] (4) -b
where [A\ e,,] is a function of time. B D e sin c3' [D b Xd + r (b cos a -a sin a)]
The displacement angle 65, which is made up of two Td = s[(r sin a - b D)2 + {r cos aX + D(xd -a) }2] (60)
component angles, the steady value 5' corresponding
to,the average load, and an alternating value [A\ 8] The damping torque for this case can be written more
-Jan. 1930 NICKLE AND PIERCE: STABILITY OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 341

simply by substituting (58) and (59) in (60) and re- GRAPHICAL ILLUSTRATION OF RESULTS OF
ducing; thus obtaining MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS
Bbe (r2 + Xd Xq) (xq tan 8' - r) cos 8' Several curves have been determined by means of
Td S [{b Xq}2 + {r2 + Xq (X d- a) }2] (61) the preceding equations to show the effect that armature
and cos' areallresistance
has on damping torque of a synchronous
The quantities e, a, b, Xd, Xq, r, s, and
The quantities e,a, b,X~Xq,r, cos

are all machine which is connected to an infinite bus and carries

positive. Thus the sign of the damping torque is a constant load. The machine constants were chosen
determined by the quantities B and (xq tan 8'- r) for illustrative purposes alone, and do not represent an
Hence Equation (61) for damping torque of a synchro- actual machine. The two curves in Fig. 3 show the
nous machine can be rewritten as variation of damping torque for a synchronous generator
Td = K B (xq tan 8'- r) (62) which has no amortisseur winding, when the armature
where K is a positive constant including various con- resistance is varied from zero to 0.75, i. e., to 75 percent.
stants of the machine. The values in the per unit system4 of the constants
Inspection of Equation (47) shows that the quantity
B can become negative in value with positive values of
displacement angle 8' if the nominal voltage e'd is 4 _ 111111141l11l1l -
sufficiently small, i. e., if the excitation is sufficiently 2- - - - - L.LL..LIL
reduced. However, under usual conditions of operation e'd=i.o=e
as a generator, the quantity B is positive in value. 0
__ -5 Xmd=0.8
Thus Equation (62) shows that a generator without Xd=l.o
amortisseur winding will be negatively damped and will .2 A xq=O5Xda4J2
oscillate at no load unless stabilized by positive damping - - _ _ _- -
external to the main-field winding. The relation
that must exist in order for the machine to show inher- -| | - - - _
ent positive damping, i. e., damping due to the main - - - - - - - f I - - - - --
field winding, is -8 -_- _
r < x,qtan8t (63) -o i --
-10---------
The critical valueofresistanceisr =xqtan 6'; if the 11
resistance is greater than this value, the inherent damp- -12 3 04 05 06 07
ing becomes negative in value. r
The case is somewhat different for a synchronous FIG. 3-CURVES OF DAMPING TORQUE AS A FUNCTION OF
motor. Inspection of Equation (47) shows that the ARMATURE RESISTANCE-NO DAMPING WINDING
constant B may be positive or negative in value depend- (A) Field resistance, Rda, in armature terms = 0.05
ing on the values of the armature resistance r, displace- (B) Field resistance = 0.01
ment angle 8', which is negative for a motor, and the
amount of excitation, which determines ed'. With
negative values of 8', the quantity (xq tan 8t -r) is which were used for the curves are s = 0.02, ed' = 1 =e
negative in value. Thus for a motor in which all Xd = 1, xq = 0.5, Xmd = 0.8, Xlda = 0.2, 8' = 15 deg.
damping is due to current induced in the main field Curve A is for a main field resistance of Rda = 0.05 and
winding, the damping will be positive or negative as Curve B is for Rda = 0.01. These curves are computed
determined by the value of B. If B is negative, the bymeansofEquations(61)and(47).
damping is positive; if B is positive, the damping is Since the damping for the conditions of Fig. 3 is
negative. Further inspection of Equation (47) shows caused by absorption of power in resistance loss due to
that the character of the damping in a motor also de- current induced in the main field winding, it is to be
pends on the armature resistance r; compare Fig. 6. expected that less resistance in the field circuit will give
The difference between the action of positive and of greater damping, as shown by the two curves. But
negative damping should be clearly understood. The until Equations (62) and (63) were derived, there had
action of positive damping tends to reduce the magni- been no way of determining, so far as the authors know,
tude of the oscillation. Cumulative hunting can occur that the damping of a salient-pole machine would be-
with positive damping only when the power which sets come negative in value for an armature resistance
up the oscillation is greater than the power dissipated greater than a certain critical value which the analysis
as heat. But negative damping acts otherwise. If an shows to be r =Xq tan 8'. The value of main-field re-
oscillation is started, as by a change in load, for instance, sistance is important in determining the amount of
it will be cumulative unless the action of the negative damping but does not determine whether it is positive
damping is neutralized by other sources of positive or negative in value; this is determined by the value of
damping. the armature resistance.
342 NICKLE AND PIERCE: STABILITY OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES Transactions A. I. E. E.

The critical armature resistance for the constants the change in the values of damping torque and the
assumed is r = 0.134, which is a much larger value than constant B when the load, which is a function of 8', is
wouldbefoundinthewindings of an armature, but is not varied from large positive values to zero, the generator
an unusual value when the line back to the infinite bus is range, and from zero to large negative values, the motor
considered. Furthermore, Equation (63) shows that range. The five curves are based on armatureresistance
the critical value is increased proportionally to the r = 0, r = 0.05, r = 0.1, r = 0.2, and r = 0.4. The other
increase in the tangent of the steady-load displacement constants are the same as in Curve A, Fig. 3. The
angle. Thus a generator may hunt badly on light loads excitation is held constant at unit value, ed' = 1.
and yet run satisfactorily under larger loads. These curves show that the damping torque passes
The curves in Fig. 4 are based on Equations (56), through zero to negative values at (xq tan 8' - r) = 0
-0
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - in the generator range, and passes through zero to
50F - X ; X ; - - X X I~
- - - - | positive valueswhenB =0 n the motor range, as the
40H e - +- - +- displacement angle changes from large positive values
-C- - - S- 0.02 - through zero to large negative values. Compare
-Equation (62) for the relation between damping torque,
30 -
__ _ ___ _ --the constant B, and the displacement angle 8'. Under
normal conditions of excitation the constant B is a
positive throughout tothe generator
quantityfrom range of
load; but passes positive negative values some-
o where in the motor range of load. So long as B is a
-x
_ A _ _ _ =_ _ -=c- positive quantity, the damping of motor or generator
-10 has the sign of (x tan '- r). Therefore, to obtain
positive damping in a motor, where ' is negative, B
0.2 04 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 must be a negative quantity.
j
FIG. 4-SAME AS CURVE A OF FIG. 3 EXCEPT WITH AMORTISSEUR ~~~~~~~Fig.7 is similar to Fig. 6 and is based on Equations
WINDING PRESENT (61) and (47); but the four curves are for different amounts
(A) Rda = 0.05, Rqa = 0.1, Xlqa = 0.1 of excitation; namely, ed' = 0.25, e'd = 0.5, ed' = 1,
(B) Rda = 0.05 = Rqa Xlqa = 0.2 and ed' = 1.5. The armature resistance is r = 0.1
for all the curves. The other constants are the same
(47), and (48), and show the change in damping brought as for Fig. 6. These curves bring out the fact that the
about by adding an amortisseur winding in the quadra- general deductions as to damping based on Fig. 6 are
ture axis to the generator assumed for Curve A, Fig. 3.
The constants of the damping winding for Curve A, -
Fig. 4, are Rqa = 0.1, xmq 0.3, and Xl,a
= = 0.1. For 0.4 Td 4e' o4
Curve B the quadrature damping winding is given the '=115l
same constants as the main field circuit. The effect 02- --2O
of the amortisseur winding is seen to be two fold; 0- i-
namely, to increase the amount positive
of damping, B_
and to increase the critical value of the armature 0.2-
resistance. But comparison of Fig. 4 with Fig. 3 - - - njc11 4-14 .pI44{II 3
shows that the general form of the damping torque- 0o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
characteristic has not been changed
armature resistance .. . . . . , ~~~FIG. 5-..........CUJRVES r
OF DAMPING TORQUE AND FACTOR B AS
by the addition of the damping winding. Evidently, FUNCTIONS OF ARMATURE RESISTANCE
any synchronous generator can be made unstable by
same as for Curve A, Fig. 4, except that the excitation is
adding enough resistance to the armature circuits. zoeroConditions
and the field winding is short-circuited
Compare, Hunting of Round-Rotor Synchronous
Machines. independent of the value of the excitation in the range
Curve Td in Fig. 5 was computed for conditions and covered. Calculations show that the constant B can
constants the same as for Curve B, Fig. 4, except that become negative in the generator range of load only for
the excitation was removed, the field winding remain- exceedingly low values of excitation.
ing short-circuited through the exciter. This curve is
based on Equations (56), (47), and (48). The curve DAMPING AT ZERO LOAD
shows that there is no value of armature resistance The design engineer is occasionally asked if an
which will cause hunting. This condition is easily amortisseur winding will prevent some particular
understood, because the generator is operating essen- generator from hunting. The generator will probably
tially as an induction machine, have been in service for some years, and the instability
Fig. 6 is based on Equations (61) and (47), and shows develops when the machine is used under new
Jan. 1930 NICKLE AND PIERCE: STABILITY OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 343

conditions. The new conditions may be brought about This equation shows that the critical value of armature
by connecting it to a power system through a trans- resistance for zero damping can be found by equating
mission line. The problem is to determine whether the numerator to zero; giving
an amortisseur winding can be added which can be
guaranteed to make the machine run without hunting. r = I b d + b (Xd - a)2 (65)

-4 F -F IF 8=0.02
14 - - - - - -

100
[ ]iILIIiL
xq =0.5
-e--o= e If the armature resistance is less than this critical
value, the damping is positive. Thus the condition for
-0.05RXd=da=0.05 Xmd=0.8 no sustained or cumulative hunting is
r= 1.0 Xlda=0.2
2 02 - - - r < +
bbd (Xd-a)2 (66)
r-0.4 =_
-2_ _A T _- -_- _- -- - - As an example of the use of Equation (64), an old three-
6- -I---------- phase salient-pole synchronous generator, rated at
Motor Generator 312 kw. and 2300 volts, became unstable on fractional
o I l _ 80 loads when connected to a power system. It was
-80 ^40 0 40
assumed that the point at which the generator is con-
A nected to the system could be considered to be an
1.8 - - infinite bus; then the combined constants of alternator
-' -r=0.4
1I4 ~~~I---
14-
I.oI i.o=eded
e= e | |
I 2 t
I I I i 16---I | | ] | ] |I
| ezi Xd= 1.O
S=0.02 XqO.5
os =0.2 12 S=002 Xq=05|
1.0 Rda= 0.06 Xm&0.8 7 I-
-002
_r
X=
Rda=oo5 r=o.i
ed=o25e_ xmdj=8
Xdl 0 Xlda|0.2 0 8 Xida=0.2
=o5-Md-
5 Xd=
0.6 - -
- _ _ _ _ -~~~~~~~~~~r r o e
ed- A
0.2.- - - - -e d i5e

H Motor MotorG| | | | Geneinerator

-80 -40 0 40 80
-0.8 ~Motor Generator A

-1.21 80
-80 -40 0 40 1.6- rr -

B 1.2- ---------
0e1 Xd 1.0
FIG. 6-CURVES OF DAMPING TORQUE AND THE FACTOR B AS 08 S-002
0 xq=0.5 |- |
FUNCTIONS OF LOAD ANGLE WITH ARMATuRE RESISTANCE AS A 0.8 Rda=--o6 r= 01
i

PARAMETER. CONSTANT EXCITATION AND No AMORTISSEUR - - Xmd-08 Xlda=0.2 1

WINDING--
C - -

A study of Equation (56) shows that if the damping r - -

of a generator is positive at zero displacement angle, 04 - l
it will remain positive at all angles. Thus the problem I - 5e
can be reduced to adding an amortisseur winding which - - Motor - -
will eliminate hunting under no-load conditions. - ne ato
1.2-80
Equation (56), when used to determine the value of the 40 0-, 40 80
damping torque at zero load, gives an indeterminate B
form which must be evaluated. Equations (56) for
damping torque, Td, (41) for cot a, and (50) for the FIG. 7-CURVES OF DAMPING TORQUE AND THE FACTOR B AS
constant D, can be combined for the condition ed' = e, FUNCTIONS OF LOAD ANGLE WITH EXCITATION AS A PARAMETER.
i. e., for normal excitation, to give a determinate CONSTANT ARMATUJRE RESISTANCE AND NO AMORTISSEUR
result at no load. WINDING
The equation thus obtained is
Td=
Td = ~~~~~~~~~~~and
connecting line were measured and found to have
~~~~~~~~~~~~~the
following values, viz.,
e2r br2_-b2d-d (Xd--a)2
s L[b (x0-c) +d(xd- a)12 + [b d-r2_ (x0-C) (xd-a)]2i
1 Xd-1.12
xqg = 0.92
a= 0.370
b = 0.0256
(64) r = 0.73 s =0.04
344 NICKLE AND PIERCE: STABILITY OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES Transactions A. I. E. E.

As the machine had no damping winding, Equation torque zero, without the added line reactance. The
(62) could be used to determine whether the generator curve is plotted between values of Td and equivalent
might be expected to operate without hunting. Substi- Xd of line and alternator for ed' = 1 = e. The direct
tuting the values of the constants for the machine, synchronous reactance of the machine is Xd- 1.12.
Equation (62) shows that the machine has negative The curve shows that the damping can be increased
damping for all load angles below 6' 38 deg. A
= positively by adding line reactance; but the amount of
generator will have some positive damping due to positive damping that can be obtained in this manner
losses in pole faces, etc.; but even with an allowance is limited, as indicated by the curve tending to bend
parallel to the Xd axis. No such limitation is found
o - - - - - - - to exist when an amortisseur winding is used, as shown
- -_--- - / by the curve in Fig. 8, where Td is seen to increase in
0.1 d X - - i direct proportion with the constant d of the amortisseur
winding.
o'C EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF MATHEMATICAL
ANALYSIS
---
_7 __ __ _ The verification can be divided into two parts, viz.,
-0.2 ----- qualitative and quantitative. The first tests were
0 0 - - - - made with a three-phase, four-pole, 15-kw., 1800-rev.
d0d * per min., 220-volt salient-pole synchronous machine
FIG. 8-VARIATION OF DAMPING TORQUE WITH THE FACTOR d connected to a bus of relatively large power capacity.
FOR MACHINE RATED The machine was used both as motor and generator,
being direct connected to a d-c. machine which was
for this extra damping, it seems that the generator used as generator or motor, as needed. The syn-
might be expected to hunt for loads up to perhaps 50 chronous machine could be made to hunt either as
per cent of full load. motor or generator by adding sufficient resistance in
Setting e = 1 in Equation (64), the problem is to the line wires connecting the a-c. machine and bus.
find values of the, constants (c) and (d) of an amortis- Most of the tests were made using the a-c. machine to
seur winding which will make Td positive. The value drive the d-c. machine, which was loaded with a resistor.
of (c) for a squirrel-cage winding is so small that it At first the power of the d-c. machine was fed back into
can be taken equal to zero without introducing serious a d-c. system, but this arrangement added so much
error. Substituting the values of the constants for the damping that the a-c. machine was made relatively
machine in Equation (64), a relation is established stable under all conditions.
between Td and d. It is convenient to assume values
of d and solve for corresponding values of Td. The 0.2 _.
curve in Fig. 8 was plotted with values of Td and d | - |o.o24
determined in this manner. o.:
The curve in Fig. 8 shows that the damping torque - - - -
Tdpasses from negative to positive values at d = 0.024. 0 -
A damping winding can be easily designed for this - _
machine that will give a value of d 50 per cent greater -0- I
than the critical value. Thus calculations indicated 0 V
- -_
that an amortisseur winding would stop the hunting,
although it was never tried.
Inspection of Equation (62), which holds for a genera- /
70_3
tor with no damping winding, suggests that Td can be
increased positively by increasing the value of xq, the 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
quadrature synchronous reactance of the generator. FIG. 9-CURVE SHIOWING EFFECT OF LINE REACTANCE ON
Inspection of Equation (64) suggests that an increase in DAMPING TORQUE. SAME MACHINE AS FOR FIG. 8
Xd and xq might increase Td positively in a generator
with an amortisseur winding. These values cannot be A series of tests was run to show the effect of varying
changed after a generator is built, but reactance can be the excitation with a constant value of armature line
added in the line. The effect of adding line inductive resistance and with a constant input of 6 kw. to the
reactance is to increase Xd and Xq by the same amount. synchronous motor. The line resistance was chosen
The curve in Fig. 9 shows the variation of damping of such value that one extreme of excitation gave high
torque Td of the generator for which an amortisseur positive damping and the other extreme gave high
winding was recommended when the line reactance is negative damping. Hunting was determined by in-
varied, if the machine is assumed to be equipped with specting indicating instruments connected in the a-c.
an amortisseur winding which will make the damping leads and by taking oscillograms of armature and field
Jani. 1930 NICKLE AND PIERCE: STABILITY OF SYNChIRONOUS MACHINES 345

currents. An excitation of 1.100, the per unit system,
gave high negative damping; an excitation of 0.641 gave
high positive damping. An excitation of 0.458 gave
so high positive damping that an initial swing was
damped out aperiodically. Critical excitation was
0.814. As the excitation was increased over this value,
the damping became negative and of increasing value;
as the load is increased, the value of excitation necessary
to just make the machine stable also increases.
As a quantitative check, the critical excitation as
the load is changed was determined by test and com-
pared with values determined by substituting constants
of the machine in equations developed by the mathe-
matical analysis. The broken curve in Fig. 12 shows

FIG. 10-OSCILLOGRAM SHOWING CUMULATIVE HUNTING PRODUCED BY INTIRODUCTION

OF RESISTANCE IN THE ARMATuRE LINES OF A MOTOR

FIG. 11-OSCILLOGRAM SHOWING EFFECT OF EXCITATION UPON DAMPING

Conditions the same as for Fig. 10 except that excitation was reduced from 1.1 to 0.733.
curve (a)-armature current
curve (b)-lfeld current

as decreased, the damping became positive and of the test results; the solid curve the theoretical results.
increasing value. The degree of positive damping was It was not expected that these two curves would coin-
judged by the time it took an oscillation started by a cide because of the extra damping in the motor and
definite impulse to die away, or to become of constant connected d-c. generator. Further tests showed that
amplitude. The degree of negative damping was the greater part of the extra damping was due to the
judged either by the amount of hunting developed, or
by the time it took the machine to drop out of step, 1-
after the extra line resistance was connected into the
circuit.
The oscillogram in Fig. 10 indicates the degree of S0E -
1till
cumulative hunting when the excitation was 1.1. The - - __ ,
machine started hunting as the extra line resistance
was connected into the circuit. The oscillogram in
To.E _f
_ _ _ _st
_
Fig. 11 for an excitation of 0.733 shows positive damp- _ _
ing; but the damping is small enough so that there is Z E _ __ _ _ f _ l l
practically sustained hunting. i __ __ _ /_l l _ .
Further tests showed that the value of excitation - 2 3 o4 5 6 7
which would just make the motor stable for a constant POWER INPUT IN KILOWATTS
value of line resistance increased as the load was in- FIG. 12-TEST AND CALCULATED CURVES OF EXCITATION,
creased. That tests would show these results could FORt ZERO DAMPING, AS A FUNCTION OF POWER INPUT. ARMA-
be anticipated from the mathematical analysis of damp- TURE RESISTANCE CONSTANT
ing torque. In Fig. 7A, where load can be assumed
proportional to displacement angle 6', since the curves d-c. generator and did not vary with load. The amount
are for a salient-pole machine, the curves for negative of this constant extra damping was not determined; but
values of a', the motor range, show that with a constant inspection of Fig. 12 shows that if the whole calculated
load damping increases positively with a decrease in curve, the solid curve, is moved up on the sheet by a
excitation. And furthermore, these curves show that constant amount, the two curves can be made to come
346 NICKLE AND PIERCE: STABILITY OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES Transactions A. I. E. E.

into fairly close agreement. That extra damping will into two parts. The value of the phase angle a, which
raise the solid curve in Fig. 12 is seen to be true by is the angle between the currents induced in the rotor
inspection of Fig. 7A, which shows that if the damping windings in the direct and quadrature axes by the
torque Td iS increased by a constant amount, higher modulated armature current, will be derived first.
excitation will be needed to produce a given amount of Then the values of the damping and synchronizing
negative damping for a constant load. components of torque will be determined.
A further quantitative check will be found under Referring to Fig. 2, which shows the peak values of
Hunting of Round-Rotor Synchronous Machines. armature voltage and current for a salient-pole syn-
HUNTING OF ROUND-ROTOR SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES chronous generator with no excitation in the quadrature
The mathematical analysis, with Xd = Xq, indicates axis, it is seen that the nominal voltages are
that a round-rotor synchronous machine can be made ed = e cos 8 + iq r + id Xd (6)
unstable by increasing the armature resistance. For a and, eq = i, x,-e sin 8-id r = 0 (7)
round-rotor machine symmetrical with respect to both where r is armature resistance, Xd and xq are the direct
axes, Equation (66) becomes, and quadrature synchronous reactances, and e is termi-
r < v/ b2r <++/(Xd
b2+- a)2
xd-a)2 (67) voltage.
nalSince tghe modulation is assumed to be slow enough
since b d. To show by test that such
= a machine can since the moltiond cument be slo enog
be made unstable by adding line resistance, 20-hp.
a so that the voltage and current are accurately repre-
induction motor, with wound rotor as well as wound sented at each
tions (1), instant
(2), (3), in Fig. 2, Equa-
may beassubstituted
(5)vectors,
and by in (6)
stator, was run as a synchronous motor. The rotor
was wound two-phase, and d-c. excitation was supplied giving
to both phases of the rotor from a storage battery. e cos 8' cos [A 8]-e sin 8' sin [A 8]
This machine with not too high excitation was very = ed' + [A ed] -q' r - [A Q] r - id Xd - [A d] Xd (8)
stable with minimum resistance between stator and If the alternating component of the displacement
a-c. bus; but it could be made very unstable without angle is assumed to be small, meaning that the rotor
changing the excitation by increasing the a-c. line hunts through a small angle, then at any instant
resistance sufficiently. Using adjustable resistors in cos[A8] 1 (9)
the line, the degree of stability or instability was under and sin [A 8] [A 8] (10)
complete control. With sufficient line resistance, the Substituting (9) and (10) in (8) and solving, the
machine was so unstable that it could not be kept on alternating component of the torque angle is
the line.
SUMMARY [ ]
The results given in the paper show that the calcu-
lated curves of negative damping under various condi-
e cos e'ed'+iq r+id Xd.i
e sin 8
ed]+[A ] r+[A td Xd
tions of loading, excitation, etc., are in essential agree- (11)
ment with results obtained from test. The calculated The vector diagram in Fig. 2 shows that
curves are correct in form and the magnitudes check e cos 6' - ed' + iq r + id' Xd = 0 (12)
test values reasonably well to allow of practical accuracy whence (11) reduces to
in the use of the general expressions developed in the [A iq] r + [A id] Xd - [A ed]
paper. More recent tests further confirm the theoret- [A 8] = e sin 8' (13)
ical formulas.
This article furnishes an explanation for those many Substituting the values given in (1), (2), (4), and (5)
cases encountered in the field in which machines cannot in (7),
be kept in synchronism when operated over long lines, e sin 8' cos [A 8] + e cos 8' sin A 6
or are unstable for no apparent reason. - q' Xq + [A iq] Xq - id'r- [A id] r - [A eq] (14)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Substituting (9) and (10) in (14) and solving for the
The authors gratefully acknowledge the valuable modulating angle,
assistance of Messrs. S. R. Pritchard, Jr., R. C. Small, iq' XQ-id' r-e sin 8'+[iq] Xq-A id] r-[A eJ]
and S. A. Loukomsky in the preparation of experimental [ 8] = e cos 8'
data on the salient pole machine. They also wish to
acknowledge the helpful suggestions of Messrs. R. E. (15)
Doherty and R. H. Park. The vector diagram in Fig. 2 shows that
- . ~~~~~~~~~~~~iq'
xa- ilr- esin86' = 0 (16)
Appendix I whence (15) reduces to

DETERMINATION OF THE PHASE ANGLE a IA 8] =[A i] xq,- [A id] r- [A eq,] (17)

The mathematical analysis which follows is divided e cos 8
Jan. 1930 NICKLE AND PIERCE: STABILITY OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 347

The modulating components of the direct component = A iq [c cos a - d sin a + j (c sin a + d cos a)] (33)
of current id and the quadrature component i, from These equations determine the values of the modulated
(1) and (2), are nominal voltages in the direct and quadrature axes in
[A id] = A id cos S t (18) terms of the corresponding modulating components of
and [A q] = A iq cos (s t + a) (19) current.
Writing (13) in vector notation, the value of the
Changing from instantaneous to vector notation, and alternating component of the torque angle is
choosing [A id] as the reference vector, (18) and (19)
become become A88A>\q r + A d Xd-Aed ~~~~~~~~~~~~~
A d =A id < O = A id (20) e sin 8'
and, Substituting (20), (21), and (32) in (34),
A iq = A iq < a = A iq (cos a + j sin a) (21)
These modulating components of current flow~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
in A = iq
* ~ trcos
r a+ Aid Xd- Aid a+j(Aiq r sina- idb)
esino'
the armature windings and induce alternating com-
ponents of current A Id and A Iq, in the two field wind- (35)
ings. It has been shownlb that Changing (17) to vector notation,
A Id= A d (a+jb) = Aid(a+jb) (22) 8 AiqXq A dr - A(3
and AIq= Aiq(c+ jd) (23) A 5 e cos 8' ~~~~~~~~(36) =

where the values of the constants are Substituting (20), (21), and (33) in (36),
s2 Xmd2 (Xmd + Xlda) (Xd - Xq ) 32 Td42
R2
+-2
Rda
)2 _2
(Xmd + Xlda)2
+ (24) A8 £ Aiqxqcosa Ad r-/Aq (ccosa- dsina)
Tdo2
+ S 1 + S2 \ > i\ ° = e cos 8

b b= R
S
( 2Rda
SXmd )= (Xd Xd')
X
T(25)
s T do sin ax + d cos az)
A\ iq xq sin a - A~iq (ccia+cs) (7
da S2(Xmd+ Xlda)2 1 + 2 Tdo2 (2) e cos 8
S2 Xmq2 (Xmq + Xiqa) (Xq- Xq') s2 Tqo2 (26) Equations (35) and (37) give two relations for A °.
Rqa2 + S2 (Xmq + Xlqa)2 1 + S2 Tqo2 Equating the real terms in the two equations,
(x x') A iq a + A id Xd- id a
a s Tqoq
r cos A
d m Rqaae
SXmq2 -
(27) e sin o'
Rqa2 + m2
(Xmq + XIqa)2 1 + S2 Tqo2

Xmd + Xlda = q[(X osa+dsia]d-(3)

c

Rda
Rda = Tdo and Xmd2 = (Xmd + Xda) (Xd Xd') - ceos (38)
and equating the imaginary terms in the same two
In these equations A Id and A Iq are the alternating equations,
currents in the two field windings, Xmd and xmq are the
mutual reactances between the armature winding and tq r si a Ad b A q [(Xq-c) si -d cos a]
the two field windings, Xlda and Xlqa are the leakage e sin 8' e cos 8'
reactances of the two field windings in armature terms,
and Rda and Rqa are the resistances of the two field Solving (39) for the alternating component of the
windings in armature terms, Rda including the resis- armature current in the direct axis,
tance of the armature circuit of the exciter.
The modulating components of field current, A 'd
and A Iq, induce modulating components of nominal
rAid r sin a
Aq L b
{ (x,-c) sin a-d cos a} tan 8']
b J
voltage, A ed and A eq, therein. Using per unit quan-
tities, (0
ed = A (28) Substituting (40) in (38), the value of the phase angle a
and Id is determined as
Aeq=
e AIq (29) cota =
Substituting these values of A Id and A Iq in (22) [b d-r2+ (xd-a) (xq-c)]tan 8'-r(xd-a) +r(x,-c)tan2 8'
and (23), [d (Xd-a)- b (Xq c)] tan8b' ± b r + d rtan28't
A\ed =A d (a + jb) (30) (41)
and A\ e, = A 1'q (c + j d) (31) DETERMINATION OF DAMPING AND SYNCHRONIZING
Substituting (20) in (30) and (21) in (31), TORQUES
A\ ed = A td (a + j b) (32) Equations for the electrical output and armature
A eq = A tq (c + j d) (cos a + j sin ax) copper loss of a synchronous machine connected to an
348 NICKLE AND PIERCE: STABILITY OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES Transactions A. I. E. E.

infinite bus have been previously developed.la Since [,A e] to vector notation and collecting terms, (44)
in the per unit system of units torque and power are becomes
numerically equal, if the angular velocity of rotation is A T = A A 5 + B A ed + C A eq (45)
substantially constant at normal value, these equations where the constants A, B, and C have the following
can be used to determine torque. Letting T represent values:
the torque due to the combined electrical output and
ed' (xq cos a' r sin V') ± e2 (Xd - xq) cos 2 a'
copper loss in the machine, e -
A =
(e ede,-e eqr) sin 6+(e edr+e eqXd) cosa r2 + Xd Xq
e2 2 r (r2 + Xq2) (e ed' sin 6'- e2 sin 3' cos 6')
+ 2 (Xd X) sin 2 -e2 r + 2 r (r2 + xd2) e2 sin 6' cos 6'
r2 + xd Xq + (r2 + xd Xq)2

r(r2+x,2)(ed-e cos 6)2+r(r2+xd2) (eq+e sin 6)2 2 r2 (Xd -xq) (e2 sin2 6' - e2 cos2 6a + e ed' cos
+ (r2 + zx)2 + (r2+xdx)2
2 r2 (Xd - Xq) (ed- e cos 6) (eq + e sin () (46)
±
(r2 + Xd Xq)2 (42) e (xqsin a' + r cosa')
where the term with r2 + Xd Xq in the denominator is r2-+Xdxq
the torque corresponding to the electrical output, and 2 r(r2 +Xq2) (ed'- e cos ') +2 r2(xd-x,) e sin 6'
the other terms give the torque corresponding to copper + (r2 + Xd Xq)2
loss in the armature.
The modulation of angular velocity of the machine (47)
causes a modulation [AAT] of the steady-value torque e (Xd cos '- r sin 5')
T', so that the torque at any instant is c - +
T = T' + [A T] (43)
The value of T may be found by substituting (3), (4), 2 r(r2+xd2) e sin 6'+2 r2(xd-xq)(ed'-e cos 6')
and (5) in (42) and then placing cos [A 6] = 1 and + (r2 + Xd Xq)2 (48)
sin [A 6i = [A 6], which means that the machine is
assumed to hunt through a small angle only. Making A physical meaning can be ascribed to the constants
the substitutions indicated, neglecting all products A, B, and C if they are derived directly by differentia-
such as [A ed] X [A 6], because they are infinitesimals of tion. The complete differential of T in (42) is,
second order, the remaining terms may be grouped to aT 6T 6T
give T' and [A T]. The value of the alternating dT = 66 d a + d ed + d eq
component of torque is bed eq
eed xJ6] cos5'+e X ed] sin -e r[A ej sin5' .
= Ad6
+Bded+Cdeq
[A T = e e +2
[AT r2+xdxq which can bed Twritten
= A Aa5 + B Aed + CA eq
e ed r [A 6] sin 6'+e r [A ed] cos a'+e Xd [A eq] cos a' to correspond to the form used in Equation (45).
+ ' r2 ± Xd xq Thus the constant A is equal to the variation in the
torque T when the angle a is varied and the voltages
e2 (Xd - Xq) [A 6] cos 2 6' ed and eq are held constant. Similar mesanings can be
+ r2 +XdXq ascribed to the constants B and C.
Equation (40) can be written in the form,
r (r2 + Xq2) [[A ed] (2 ed' -2 e cos 6') Aid = D A iq (49)
+[A 6](2 e ed' sin 6'- 2 e2 sina' cos 6')] where the constant D has the value
+
(r2 + Xd Xq)2 r sisin a
a [(x,-c)
(X sina- dcos a] tan 6' (50)
r (r2 + Xd2) [2 [A eq] e sin 6' + 2 e2 [A 6] sin 6' cos 6']DIb b
+ (r2 + Xd Xq)2 Substituting (49) in (30),
Aed = DAl\ q (a +Ijb) (51)
2 r2 (Xd- Xq) [[A\ eq] (ed' -e cos 6') ± [A ed] e sin 6' Substituting (49) in (35),
+ + [A 6] (e2 sin2 6'- e2 cos2 6' + e ed' cos 6')] coa+ ( -a) jrsn-b ]
+ ~~~(r2 +XdXq)2 Aa = tq [reo(rsin6
+D(da+ JgbD

Changing the quantities [A\ T], [A 6], [A\ ed], and (52)
Jan. 1930 NICKLE AND PIERCE: STABILITY OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 349

Substituting (51), (33), and (52), in (45), the value of C e sin 8' [D { C (Xd-a)-b d} COS a
the alternating component of the torque is + - D {d (XdI-a) ± b c} sin + r c]
ATAAAq[~r cos a+D(Xd-a)+j(r
e sin '~ sin a-b D)] + (rsina-is bD)2 + {rcosa +D (Xd- a)}2
where T,' equal to the synchronizing torque at the
+ B D A iq (a + j b) average displacement angle 8' due to steady-state
+ C A iq [(c cos a - d sin a) + j (c sin a + d cos a)] conditions. It is interesting to note that the synchro-
nizing torque of a machine in a sustained state of oscil-
A A i, [r cos a + D (Xd- a)] lation is equal to the value for zero frequency of
e sin 8' oscillation, i. e., steady-state value, plus an increment
+ B D a A iq + C A iq (c cos a- d sin a) which is a function of the actual frequency of oscilla-
tion. Equation (56) gives the value of the damping
[ Aiq[rSin a- D] torque of a polyphase synchronous machine which is
+
e sin 8'
connected to a bus with large enough power capacity
to maintain the bus voltage constant when the machine
+ B D b A i, + C A iq (c sin a + d cos a) 1 (53) hunts. The damping is assumed to be due entirely to
currents induced in the main field winding in the direct
axis and in the amortisseur winding in the quadrature
The damping and synchronizing components of axisbytemdledaaurcrens
torque may be determined from the electromagnetic by the modulated armature currents.
motional impedancelb of the generator to hunting. NOMENCLATURE
The real part of the vector expression for motional Peak values are used for voltage and current.
impedance is equal to the damping torque Td, and the Primed quantities indicate steady-state values. The
T8 symbol A indicates variation of the quantity which
imaginary part is equal to - S where T, is the syn- follows the symbol. Per unit values are used for all
equations and numerical work.
chronizing torque. The motional impedance Zm can e = terminal voltage.
be found by dividing the alternating component of ed = nominal voltage due to excitation in the direct
torque A T by the corresponding angular velocity cow axis.
of hunting. The angular velocity can be found as the eq = nominal voltage due to excitation in the
time rate of change of the alternating component, quadrature axis.
A , of displacement angle. Thus differentiating (52) i = armature current.
with respect to time, id direct component of armature current.
d i = quadrature component of armature current.
dt l\ 6Id = field current, direct axis, in field terms.
*d t Iq = field current, quadrature axis, in field terms.
A'iq (rsin a-bD)-j [rcos a + D (Xd-a = time.
s -
e sin 8'
s = angular velocity of modulation.
L CO = angular velocity hunting.
(54) X = angular velocity at line frequency.
The motional impedance is, then, r = armature circuit resistance; includes resistance
AT
Td - j Ts
of line wire, back to the infinite bus.
Z - (55) Rda = field resistance, direct axis, in armature terms.
.1s Rqa = field resistance, quadrature axis, in armature
Now dividing (53) by (54), the damping torque is terms.
e
,
D sin6[Db Xd r bcos a- a)]
a sn
Xd = synchronous reactance, direct axis includes
Td B S [(rsin a- bD)2++{r r-]
De [ reactance of line wire back to the infinite bus.
cos a + D(xd - a)}2] xq = synchronous reactance, quadrature axis; in-
cludes reactance of line wire back to the
C e sin 8' [D b (c cos a -d sin a) infinite bus.
+ D (X - a) (c sin af ± d cos a) + r d] xd=mta ecac,drc xs
s[rsin ae-b D)2+ {r cos a+D(xd-a) }2 I Xmq = mutual reactance, quadrature axis.
and
and ~sycrnzn.oqei
~
ththe synchronlzlng torque 1S XZda = field leakage reactance, direct axis, in armature
~terms.
Ts = Ts' ~~~~~~~~~Xiqa
= field leakage reactance, quadrature axis, in
B D e sin 8'[D{a(xd-a)-b2} +r(a cos a+b sin a)] armature terms.
+ (sinae-bD (r D)2+ {r os a + Dx-a)}
+{cs D(xd a) }2 T
Td =torque.
= damping torque.
350 NICKLE AND PIERCE: STABILITY OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES Transactions A. I. E. E.

T, = synchronizing torque. induction motor to check his theory. In 1924, reporting stability
a = time phase displacement between direct and and of the Westinghouse Company, Evans
tests made in the works demonstrated
Bergvall2 likewise this same effect using
quadrature components of modulated arma-
analyzed the same problem as appliedrecently
salient-pole Wenner-
generators and condensers. More to salient
ture current. berg3 pole
6 angular displacement -between the axes of rotor machines, extending it to include the effect of exciters. Nickle
=
and rotating magnetic field; a plus angle and Pierce in the paper under discussion attack the problem in a
somewhat different manner and arrive at some
indicates generator; a negative angle indi- and very interesting
simple results. I have also done some work recently of a
=cates motor. impedance. similar nature and with a somewhat different method of attack
Zm = electromagnetic motional impedance. which I believe possesses the advantage of a clearer conception
a = see Formula 24. of the mechanism involved.
b = see Formula 25. To illustrate the method I shall merely apply the analysis in
c = see Formula 26. a qualitative manner to a salient-pole generator without damper
d = see Formula 27. windings connected to an infinite bus through a transmission
line whose resistance will be varied. Constant excitation of
6T the generator will be assumed. The transient analysis of
A = a ^ , if
A
if ed and ed
held constant.
eq are held
and eq constant. synchronous machines may be expedited by the use of the so-
called "transient reactance" (Xd') and the "transient internal
aT voltage" (ed'), which will be defined as the terminal voltage
B = , if 6 and eq are held constant. reactance drop at zero
the transientfactor
plus other power factor. For
bed any power the components in the direct axis must
be used. This is the fictitious voltage corresponding to flux
aT linkages with the field, and which remains unchanged for any
C = b eq' if 6 and ed are held constant. sudden change in circuit condition. The voltage ed will be
defined in a similar manner except that the synchronous reactance
D = A id/A q- Xd must be used. For steady-state conditions
Ced ed - (Xd - Xd') id
Bibliography
1. a. Doherty and Nickle, Synchronous Machines, Parts I ,,
and II, A. I. E. E. TRANS., VOl. XLV, p. 912.
b. Doherty and Nickle, Synchronous Machines, Part III, \
A. I. E. E. TRANS.,VOI. XLVI,P. . V\ - /
c. Doherty and Nickle, Synchronous Machines, Part IV, X ',
A. I. E. E. Quarterly TRANS., Vol. 47, April 1928, p. 457. /''
2. Ludwig Dreyfus, "Einfuihrung in die Theorie der Selb-
sterregten Schwingungen Synchroner Maschinen," Elektro- 6 (A (c)
tech. u. Maschinenbau, Apr. 23, 1911. E. Arnold and J. L.
laCour, "Die Wechselstromtechnik," Vol. IV, pp. 445-446. FIG. 1-PURE LINE RESISTANCE
3. Doherty and Franklin, "Design of Flywheels for Recipro-
eating Machinery Connected to Synchronous Generators or in which id is the component of armature current in lagging
Motors," A. S. M. E. TRANS., Vol. 42, 1920, p. 523. quadrature with ed and ed', i. e., it is the demagnetizing com-
A. R. Stevenson, Jr., "Error Due to Neglecting Electrical ponent of current.
Forces in Calculating Flywheels for Reciprocating Machinery Consider first the line without resistance. For a given
Driven by Synchronous Motors," General Elec. Rev., Nov. 1922. value of ed' the power-angle curve is somewhat as shown in
H. Van Putnam, "Oscillations and Resonance in Systems of Fig. la herewith. For small positive increments in ed' the
Parallel Connected Synchronous Machines," Frank. Inst. Jl., resultant curve will, for nearly all practical cases, lie above the
May and June 1924. one for ed'. Now assume the generator to be operating at the
angle 0, and that the from the water wheel is such
input oscillation
B. 0. Buckland, "Current Pulsation between Two Oil Enge as to produce a smallpower
siusoidal of magntude m
Driven Generators in Parallel in an Isolated Plant," General and freque f The pow-actiow diagr ilar to
and frequency f. The power-reactive power diagram (similar to
Elec. Rev.,
Rev., June 1927.
Elec. the well known power-circle diagram except for effects of
4. See la, lb, lc. Also Park and Robertson, The Reactances saliency) for constant ed is shown in Fig. lb and it will be ob-
of Synchronous Machines, A. I. E. E. Quarterly TRANS., Vol. 47, served that for positive increments in 0 the demagnetizing
April 1928, p. 514. current, id, increases so that the steady-state value of ed' de-
creases. This relation is shown by the straight line in Fig.
Discussion lcwhich indicates that for positivevalues of A 0, ACed'(stead state)
(muitdaeadune)Fo
C. FWdormn)Fo is negative. If the frequency of oscillation were very slow these
C.~~~~~~~~~~~~
Wanr*cmuuae
F. fe
time to time an occasional case of spontaneous hunting arises, are the values which A ed' would attain. However, in
the actual
the cause of which can be traced to an excessive proportion of case, due to the time constant of the field circuit, the instan-
resistance in the armature circuit, viWz., in the transmission line. taneous value of A Cd' lags, forming the elliptical loop shown in
Thi phnmeo wa patcual evien in th early das. Fig. ic. It can further be seen that the motion around the loop
rtary converters. A rough working rule in use at that time was Is clockwisle. Having obtained the instantan1eous values of
to limit the line resistance to 25 per cent of the reactance. As i. See bibliography (2) of paper.
has been pointed out by the authors, Dreyfus1 in 1911 showed 2. Experimental AnaWsis of Stability andl Power Limitations, by
that the tendency toward hunting decreased with increasing n.D.Evans and R. 0. Bergvall, A. I. E. E. TRANS.................. XLIII,1924,,VOl.
load and with smaller excitation and that the presence of damper 3. "Hunting Characteristics of Synchronous Machines for Oscillations
windings alleviated this condition. Tests were made on an of Small Amplitude," byJohnWennerberg. A.S.E.A. Ji., April-May, 1929.