Lesson Note Part 1

Chapter
41_Introduction to Digestion.notebook November 27, 2020
Chapter 41: Animal Nutrition
Jun 28:44 AM
Importance of Digestion:
• Heterotrophs must consume organic compounds to survive.
• These compounds contain nutrients, must be digested and
absorbed in the digestive tract.
• Once these nutrients have been absorbed, they then get
transported to the millions of cells in our body by our circulatory
system
• Inside the cells, these nutrients provide the energy needed for
synthesis of essential chemical compounds used for growth,
maintenance and repair.
plants are considered autotrophs, they can sit in the sun and make their own food
May 299:14 AM
1
Chapter 41_Introduction to Digestion.notebook November 27, 2020
Jun 28:46 AM
There are 4 major components to the process of

digestion:
1. Ingestion: The taking in of nutrients

aka eating
2. Digestion: The breakdown of complex molecules into

smaller components by enzymes
broken up into chemical digestion and physical digestion
3. Absorption: The transport of digested nutrients to the

tissues of the body
once the food cannot get any smaller, food is absorbed into the
digestive system
4. Egestion: The removal of food waste
May 2910:23 AM
2
Physical and Chemical Digestion

Physical Digestion: Physically prepares food
for chemical digestion by improving access for
digestive enzymes. EX: Chewing
physically breaking your food up into smaller pieces, like teeth, tongue, stomach contracting
important because it increases the available surface area in which the enzymes can break bonds (for chemical
digestion)
Chemical Digestion: Series of steps in which

food is broken down into simpler molecules by
digestive enzymes.
anytime a bond is broken, energy is released in the form of ATP. chemical digestive is performed by our
digestive enzymes
May 2910:31 AM
INGESTION
1. Saliva
• Saliva is a watery fluid produced by the salivary glands
• The two parotid glands are the largest, and they are located
below and in front of the ears
• The sublingual glands are the smallest, and are located on
the floor of the mouth
• The submandibular glands are located below and behind the
sublingual glands
• All glands open into the oral cavity by means of ducts, which
are tubular canals for carrying glandular secretions
• It is responsible for chemical digestion of food
• It lubricates and moistens the food so it can be swallowed and
passed on
this allows you to taste things, with the prescence of salliva which makes it easier
May 2910:33 AM
3
three sets of salivary glands: parotid glands (in front of your cheek in your ear) which is the largest gland. sublingual is under the tongue
and submandibular is under the lower jaw bone
May 2910:39 AM
• It dissolves food particles

• It makes it possible to taste what is
being eaten.
• Saliva contains amylase enzymes which
is responsible for the initial breakdown of
carbohydrates salivary amylase - in the mouth
pancreatic amylase - in the small intestine
• Chemical digestion begins in the mouth

• An enzyme called amylase is responsible for
the initial breakdown of carbohydrates and
starch into smaller disaccharide sugar
molecules.
• Amylase breaks the bonds by a hydrolysis
reactions (a water molecule is added)
May 2910:39 AM
4
2. Tongue
• The tongue is a muscular organ that mixes food with saliva
to form a bolus (ball of food)
• It is responsible for the physical digestion of food as it
helps to mix and turn food around
• It contains numerous taste buds that are located inside tiny
projections called papillae
tongue physically breaks down food through mixing it with saliva to form a bolus (ball of food and saliva)
your tongue allows you

to swallow by pressing the
food on the roof of your
mouth and propel it back to
the pharynx
May 2910:46 AM
papillae contains taste buds, BUT papillae are NOT taste buds
3. Teeth
• The teeth are responsible for the physical digestion of food.
• Incisors are specialized for cutting food
canines are also called "fangs" and
are pointed for tearing into food • Canines (directly beside the incisors) are responsible for
tearing food
animals have pointed canines to
tear into the flesh of the animal • Premolars (next to the canines) have broad, flattened
surface responsible for grinding food
• Molars (are next to the premolars) and have an even broader
surface specialized for crushing food
Jun 111:05 AM
enamel is very strong, followed by the soft dentine, which is soft to absorb the shock everytime you bite down. pulp contains
nerves and blood vessels (innermost blood layer). pain (like in a tooth ache) is due to the pulp that could be exposed
5
when you have a cavity and theres no pain, the cavity is only eating away at the enamel, not at the nerve in the pulp.
very pronounced canines very flat and wide to physically

break down plant-based structures
horse, for instance, tries to grind in a
circular motion with their wide
teeth to offer a large surface area to break
it down
the circle motion chizels away at the tooth,

so having an open root allows the tooth
to always be growing
with evolution, there are little remains of canines
Jun 28:48 AM
4. Esophagus
it lies behind the trachea,
and helps slightly with
• A muscular tube that carries food from the mouth to the
physical digestion stomach
all the way down the esophogus,
there is an enzyme called • It is located posterior (behind) to the trachea
mucin
• Its length is about 24 cm
the rhythemic contractions • Helps with the physical digestion of food
are peristalsis
• It is a soft-walled tube lined with circular and longitudinal
muscles which work together to help push the food along
• In the walls of the esophagus there are glands that secrete
mucin, a lubricant to help moisten the food
• When food enters the esophagus, it stretches the walls of
the esophagus causing waves of rhythmic contractions called
peristalsis, which are involuntary.
• The muscles near the entrance of the stomach are
thickened, which provides some involuntary control over the
entrance of food into the stomach
• The movement of food from the stomach into the esophagus
is called regurgitation (we experience this when we are sick)
Jun 111:07 AM
6
Jun 111:10 AM
on the inside, closest to the bolus,

are the circular muscles.
on the outside, there are longidunical

muscles BOLUS
the circular muscles pinch inwards

and nearly at the same time, in front of the
bolus, there is a contraction of the
longitudinal muscles
the nervous system detects stretch of the

muscles, sends signals to contract
Jun 28:50 AM
7
Oct 151:49 PM
Disorders of the
Esophagus
Esophageal Spasms
• It is disruption of normal peristalsis
• They are uncoordinated contractions that
prevent food from traveling into the stomach
• Can be painful and may cause chest pain
• Causes relatively unknown, but more common
in people with acid reflex
• Treatment is medication
Jun 111:12 AM
8
Barrett’s Esophagus and GERD
• Barrett's esophagus is a condition in which the esophagus
closing the esophageal sphincter changes so that some of its lining is replaced by a type of tissue
does not allow the acid to travel upwards similar to that normally found in the intestine.
• While Barrett's esophagus may cause no symptoms itself, a small
number of people with this condition develop a relatively rare but often
acid reflux is the gastric juices of deadly type of cancer of the esophagus called esophageal
your stomach burning your esophagus adenocarcinoma.
• It is associated with the very common condition gastroesophageal
reflux disease or GERD.
o When acid reflux happens frequently, particularly when not trying
to belch, and causes other symptoms, it is considered a medical
problem or disease.
o The stomach produces acid and enzymes to digest food. When
this mixture refluxes into the esophagus more frequently than normal,
or for a longer period of time than normal, it may produce symptoms.
o These symptoms, often called acid reflux, are usually described
by people as heartburn, indigestion, or "gas."
o More persistent symptoms are often quickly relieved by overthe
counter acidreducing agents such as antacids. Common antacids are:
AlkaSeltzer, Maalox, PeptoBismol
• GERD that is untreated can lead to ulcers in the esophagus that
could cause bleeding. Another common complication is scar tissue
that blocks the movement of swallowed food and drink through the
esophagus; this condition is called stricture.
• The exact causes of Barrett's esophagus are not known, but it is
thought to be caused in part by the same factors that cause GERD.
Although people who do not have heartburn can have Barrett's
esophagus, it is found about three to five times more often in people
with this condition.
• Treatment: Surgery (very risky), some medication can relive it
• Still trying to find a cure for it
Jan 118:10 AM
Esophagitis "ITIS" ending indicates infection or inflammation

• It is inflammation of the inner lining of the esophagus
wall
• May cause ulcers or scaring of the esophagus if left
untreated
• Caused by an infection of the esophagus (bacteria, virus
or fungus)
• Symptoms include: difficulty swallowing, acid reflex
• Treatment: medication
Looking at the Esophagus: Endoscopy is done through the throat to look at the lining of the esophagus
• A long thin tube (endoscope) is fished through the
esophagus is done when the individual
• At end there is a camera is awake
• Physician will use a numbing agent that will help prevent

gagging
Jun 111:12 AM
9
The Stomach
Function of Stomach:
• Provides a place for the storage of food
• Begins the initial phases of protein digestion/breakdown
(chemical)
Structure/Anatomy
• It is a muscular, J-shaped sac-like organ
• Its interior lining is packed with millions of gastric glands
• Superiorly, it is connected to the esophagus. Inferiorly, it
is connected to the small intestine (duodenum)
it can stretch very largely and store a lot of food. at the top, connected to esophagus, at bottom, connected to the duodenum
Jun 111:17 AM
Oct 151:50 PM
10
Tissues of the Stomach:

• Outer tissue is epithelial tissue (serosa tissue/layer)
• 3 layers of muscle tissue that run in opposite directions.
This helps in mixing (churning) the food.
the stomach twists and • Structurally, it is different from the esophagus by having
turns, which helps churn
the food and mix it with the a third layer of muscle fibres called the oblique layer
our stomach and churning • These muscles help with the physical digestion as they aid
gastric juices present in
helps with the physical

digestion, creating a in the breakdown of food into smaller pieces that easily
slush-like substance
called CHYME
react with the gastric juices
• This renders a thick liquid called chyme (food mixed with
the mucous protects the
gastric juices)
walls of the stomach
from the acidity of the
• Under the muscle is a layer of submucosa
gastric juice • The inner most layer is a mucosa membrane
• Rugae are large folds of the mucous membrane. When
stomach is empty it folds on itself. When full, the rugae
allow the stomach to expand
mucosa and mucous mean the same thing Jun 111:23 AM
if you cut the stomach in half, there are folds in the mucous membrane called rugae
Sphincters
Cardiac
Cardiac
Pyloric
Pyloric
greater curvature of the

stomach
lesser curvature of
the stomach
Jun 111:26 AM
11
gastric pits are in the whole inside of the stomach, can be viewed through a microscope. Inside each gastric pit there is a gastric gland
that looks like a test tube, and inside, is a liquid called gastric juice. three things present in gastric juice: mucus, pepsinogens, hydrocloric acid
How is food digested in the stomach?
Chemical breakdown of proteins:
• The mucus layer of the stomach contains a large amount of
mucus
• The mucus layer is dotted with gastric pits which lead into
gastric glands. The gastric glands secrete a solution called
gastric juice
Gastric juice contains:

1. Mucus: protective coating --> Made by the Mucous Cells mucous is made by mucosal cells
2. Pepsinogens (inactive protease)-->Made by Chief Cells protease is a protein digesting enzyme
3. Hydrochloric Acid (HCl): kills bacteria (harmful substances) and hydrochloric acid is very acidic is it kills
activates pepsinogens --> Made by Parietal Cells off any bacteria or fungus on the food,
and also activates inactive protease
Pepsinogen Pepsin
(inactive enzyme) (active enzyme)
HCl
(secreted by stomach)
Function of Pepsin (Protease): pepsin is responsible for initial stages of

• It is a protein digesting enzyme. It breaks long chains of chemical protein digestion. takes protein
proteins into shorter chains and chemically breaks it up as
chemical smaller protein chains
Protein
Protein digested
a.a.a.a.a.a.a.a.a.a.a.a
a.a.a.a.a
a.a.a.a.a
Pepsin a.a.a.a.a
Jun 111:27 AM
Oct 151:52 PM
12
pH Level of Stomach
• In the stomach, pH is between 2-3 (low
pH=acidity)
• It is very acidity because of HCl in the
stomach
Question: Does the high acidity kill the cells of
the stomach?
Answer: YES/NO because there is a layer of
mucus that protects the stomach from being
digested by the acid
Jun 111:36 AM
Ulcers
stress causes ulcers because it • Happens when the protective mucus lining
increases cortisol which ruins
everything, a silent killer which breaks down causing the cell membrane to be
messes up sleep, hormones,
enzymes (stress hormone) exposed to the HCl and pepsin
• The destruction of the cell membrane leads to
a peptic ulcer
• Under the cells is a capillary network. As the
acids irritate the cells of the stomach lining,
there is an increase in blood flow and acid
secretion; leading to more tissue being burned
• Causes: stress, diet, bacteria (Heliobacter
pylori), anti-inflammatory drugs (Aspirin)
• Treatment: Medication -> proton pump
inhibitors or receptor blockers to stop stomach
from making acids and antibiotics (for bacterial
based ulcers)
Jun 111:36 AM
13
The Small
Intestine
Jun 28:29 AM
Intestines
14
• Small intestine is 7-9 m long and 1.5 cm in

diameter
• Most of digestion (chemical) takes place
here and absorption takes places here too!
all chemical digestion of
all macromolecules occurs here
• Structure of small intestine is related to
once nutrients leaves diet.
small intestine, there is no
other place they can be WHY??????????
absorbed
• Carnivores:
• Herbivores:
the overall tract of a herbivore will
generally be slightly longer than the
carnivore because of the cellulose
Jun 28:32 AM
• Small intestine has 3 regions:

duodenum is the shortest of the small
intestine regions 1. DUODENUM (generally U-shaped-shortest and widest of
the regions)
duo means two
denum means ten • Pancreatic and bile (produced by gallbladder) ducts open into
the duodenum is thus roughly it
twelve fingers in length • It has circular folds in its mucus membrane which greatly
increase surface area, which increases the amount digested
the nutrients get absorbed into the food that can be absorbed.
villi • Along these folds are tiny finger-like projections called
villi
• The villi serve to increase surface area and the absorptive
there is a tiny blood vessel in each surface
villi which is where absorption of
• In the spaces between the villi are tube-shaped intestinal
nutrients take place through diffusion
glands which secrete intestinal juices (keep the intestine moist)
blood will then transport these
nutrients all over the body
blood vessel
Jun 28:35 AM
15
2. JEJUNUM AND MORE VILLI
• Contains more folds and intestinal glands than the

duodenum
• Function is to break down remaining proteins and
carbohydrates so they can be absorbed.
- the last point where the small intestine takes in nutrients

3. ILEUM
• Contains fewer and smaller villi
• Function is to absorbed nutrients and to help push
undigested material into large intestine (by rhythmical
segmentation which holds the food in the same part of the
intestine, while circular muscles squeeze it back and forth)
rhythimic segmentation gives a push for food
Jun 28:39 AM
propells food into the

first part of the large
intestine (cecum)
Jun 28:52 AM
16
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
Intestines
PROBLEM!!!!!
Food in the stomach is covered with HCl. How
can the small intestine survive this
acidity???????
there is some mucous in small intestine, although not as much as the stomach. the hydrochloric acid can cause
burning, but small intestine neutralizes this
Answer: Chemicals that are released from the

small intestine and pancreas act to counteract
the effects of the acid
Jun 28:52 AM
17
HOW????
• When the HCl enters the small intestine it
activates prosecretin (inactive enzyme in the
small intestine) to become secretin (active
enzyme)
• Secretin then gets absorbed into the blood
stream and is carried to the pancreas via the
circulatory system
Jun 28:55 AM
Pancreas
• When secretin reaches the pancreas, it signals the
pancreas to release bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)
• HCO3- are then carried to the small intestine via the
circulatory system where they neutralize the HCl and
raise the pH from 2.0->9.0 (basic)
• The inactivates pH inactivates pepsin.
Jun 29:01 AM
18
Stomach
food is completely drenched in
hydrochloric acid (not a problem for the stomach,
which has two protective mucus layers) and hydrochloric
acid activates prosecretin in the small intestine
Pancreas pepsin works best in an acidic environment, which

starts chemical protein digestion.
Duodenum prosecretin (inactive)

facilitated by HCL
Stomach Small Intestine Pancreas
Neutralize the HCl

which also inactivates
pepsin
the prosecretin is a messenger that is inactive located in the small intestine. once it becomes active,
the secretin has the ability to move to the pancreas and creates bicarbonate which goes back to the
small intestine and neutralizes the hydrochloric acid
Jun 29:07 AM
The Pancreas and It’s Secretions
in an accessory organ, food does not actually pass through it (pancreas, liver, gallbladder), but they
help out with the process of digestion
pancreas is a flat organ behind the stomach, works closely and dependently with the small intestine
Jun 29:11 AM
19
Pancreatic Secreations
comes into contact (inactive) enterokinase activates
with enterokinase 1. Trypsinogen: Trypsinogen travels to small intestine and trypsinogen
actives an enzyme called enterokinase. This enzyme then

ALL MADE BY PANCREAS
converts trypsinogen (inactive) to trypsin (active). Trypsin (is a protease)
will ONLY act in breaks down proteins (it acts on partially digested proteins).
the small
intestine, not in protease - a protein
the pancreas digesting enzyme
2. Erepsin: Erepsin is released from the pancreas and small
intestine. It completes protein digestion by breaking down *
all the bonds holding the remaining proteins together and
releases individual amino acids
erepsin is already in its active protease form, and it will completely finish chemical protein digestion, and at this point,
it is responsible for releasing individual amino acids
3. Amylase: Amylase is also released by the pancreas. The
amylase enzymes continue the carbohydrate digestion begun in
the mouth by the salivary glands.
4. Lipases: Lipase enzymes are produced in the pancreas and

help in the breakdown of fats into *smaller units
Jun 29:13 AM
CARBS
1. Chemically digested by salivary amylase in the mouth
2. They are then digested by pancreatic amylase, made in the pancreas and acts in the small intestine (already active) (only place where carbs are
digested)
In The Small Intestine
Trypsinogen Trypsin
(from pancreas-
inactive enzyme)
Erepsin
releases individual amino acids

that are ready to get absorbed
enterokinese activates tripsinogen

Scissors are chemical, not physical
after erepsin, proteins are done
Jun 29:19 AM
ORDER:
pepsin, trypsin, erepsin 20
BILE IS NOT
AN ENZYME
Jun 29:22 AM
(CARBS UP THERE)
PROTEINS
1. In the stomach,
HCL
pepsinogen pepsin
pepsin begins chemical protein digestion
2. a) IN THE SMALL INTESTINE
trypsinogen trypsin
enterokinase
(pancreas) (small intestine)
2. b) IN THE SMALL INTESTINE
erepsin erepsin
(pancreas and (small intestine)
small intestine)
3. LIPASE
- acts in the small intestine, but is made in the pancreas

- will travel to the small intestine (already active) and will only work in
the small intestine
- fats are ONLY being chemically broken down in the small intestine
- carbs are easiest to break down compared to fats, which is why you feel
satisfied longer through consuming fats.
Lipase Lipase
(pancreas) (small intestine)
Mar 78:52 AM
21

Lesson Note Part 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lesson Note Part 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter

Chapter 41: Animal Nutrition

There are 4 major components to the process of

1. Ingestion: The taking in of nutrients

2. Digestion: The breakdown of complex molecules into

3. Absorption: The transport of digested nutrients to the

Physical and Chemical Digestion

Chemical Digestion: Series of steps in which

• It dissolves food particles

• Chemical digestion begins in the mouth

your tongue allows you

very pronounced canines very flat and wide to physically

the circle motion chizels away at the tooth,

with evolution, there are little remains of canines

on the inside, closest to the bolus,

on the outside, there are longidunical

the circular muscles pinch inwards

the nervous system detects stretch of the

Esophagitis "ITIS" ending indicates infection or inflammation

• Physician will use a numbing agent that will help prevent

Tissues of the Stomach:

helps with the physical

mucosa and mucous mean the same thing Jun 1­11:23 AM

greater curvature of the

Gastric juice contains:

Function of Pepsin (Protease): pepsin is responsible for initial stages of

• Small intestine is 7-9 m long and 1.5 cm in

• Small intestine has 3 regions:

2. JEJUNUM AND MORE VILLI

• Contains more folds and intestinal glands than the

- the last point where the small intestine takes in nutrients

rhythimic segmentation gives a push for food

propells food into the

Answer: Chemicals that are released from the

Pancreas pepsin works best in an acidic environment, which

Duodenum prosecretin (inactive)

Stomach Small Intestine Pancreas

Neutralize the HCl

The Pancreas and It’s Secretions

actives an enzyme called enterokinase. This enzyme then

4. Lipases: Lipase enzymes are produced in the pancreas and

releases individual amino acids

enterokinese activates tripsinogen

pepsin begins chemical protein digestion

2. a) IN THE SMALL INTESTINE

- acts in the small intestine, but is made in the pancreas

You might also like

mucosa and mucous mean the same thing Jun 111:23 AM