Macromolecules.

notebook November 27, 2020

Chapter 41:

Nutrition and Macromolecules

Aug 26­7:44 PM

What is a cell? How can a

cell do so much work? How do
cells obtain nutrients; grow
and respond to their
environment????

The Cell Theory:

1. The cell is the basic structural unit of all living
things

2. All cells are derived from pre-existing cells

3. In a multi-cellular organism, the activity of the

entire organism depends on the total activity of its
independent cells

Aug 26­7:58 PM

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Fats & Lipids Vitamins & Minerals

Chemicals of Life
Proteins

Nucleic Acids

Carbohydrates

Aug 26­8:01 PM

What are Nutrients??

Nutrients: Raw materials needed for cell

metabolism

There are three major types of nutrients:

1. Carbohydrates
2. Proteins
3. Lipids

These nutrients are considered to be

macromolecules: which are large molecules
that are made by joining several separate
units (example: joining many sugar units to
form a starch molecule)

Aug 27­8:20 PM

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Micronutrients
our body cannot make carbohydrates
some sources of carbs are potatoes,
rice and grains. They come from plants.
Plants get there energy from
photosynthesis, so we are essentially
taking in our sun's energy from eating
carbs
November 27, 2020
Macronutrients
Aug 27­8:23 PM
Carbohydrates
• Are the body‛s most important source of
energy
• Are made up of a single sugar molecule or
many sugar molecules
• They only contain carbon, oxygen and
hydrogen
• The human body is unable to make these
chemicals by itself, therefore, main source of
carbohydrates comes from plants.
• Some examples of carbohydrates: Potatoes,
bread, corn, rice, fruit, etc.
• Remember: Through photosynthesis, plants
use energy from the sun to combine carbon
dioxide and water to synthesize
carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates can either be:
Monosaccharide, Disaccharides or
Polysaccharides
Aug 27­8:27 PM
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they can be easily absorbed in our blood because there is not

Monosaccharides: Simple Sugars a lot of breakdown

required since
their structure
• Are simple carbohydrates because they can is so simple

be readily absorbed in the blood

• Carbohydrate molecule with three to seven
carbon atoms
• Can exist in the form of a ring or straight
chain depending on the environment
• Usually contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
in the ratio of 1:2:1 (C:H:O)

Aug 27­8:30 PM

• Three common monosaccharides:

Glucose (blood sugar) (circulating in our blood)
Fructose (sugar in fruit)
Galactose (sugar in milk)

6
5 in glucose, the carbon #4 is down,
in galactose, carbon #4 is up.
4 1

2 6
3

5 1

4 3 2

C6H1206 C: H: O

they ALL have this formula

Isomers: Have the same chemical formula,

but different arrangement of atoms

Aug 27­8:34 PM

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Important Structures of Glucose

4 1 4 1

α­
glucose can exist as an alpha or beta glucose

On Carbon # 1
alpha will have the hydroxal group down, and beta will have it down

Aug 27­8:40 PM

Behaviour of Glucose in Aqueous Solutions

• When glucose dissolves in water, the
hydroxyl group on carbon 5 reacts with the
aldehyde group of carbon 1 to form a closed
ring structure.

Aldehyde Group

the reactions that happens to go from

chain water
Aug 27­8:42 PM

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In aqueous Solution
ring form always in aqueous solution

Aug 27­8:31 PM

disacchrides are two monosaccharides joining together

2. Disaccharides: Combining Simple Sugars

• Are made up of two sugar molecules (“di”
means two)
• All disaccharides are formed through
process called dehydration synthesis which is
a series of chemical reactions that allow two
sugar molecules to bond resulting in the
formation of a water molecule.

taking away an H2O

Aug 27­8:45 PM

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does not matter where you are taking your

H or OH from.

will be one water molecule left

glocose + fructose = sucrose

Dehydration Synthesis
A hydroxyl group (-OH) is removed from one
oxygen will'
always be in monosaccharide and a hydrogen atom (-H) is removed
the middl
from a second monosaccharide . These form the water
molecule that is extracted from the two
monosaccharide sugar molecules, enabling these molecules
to bond together.

Aug 27­8:48 PM

Example of Disaccharides: Lactose, Maltose and Sucrose

name of bond created by linkage
Formation of Maltose:
maltose is disacchrose glucose + glucose = maltose
Glycosidic Linkage

Maltose is the sugar found in beer

Aug 27­8:49 PM

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Formation of Sucrose:
glucose + fructose

Glycosidic Linkage

Sucrose is the sugar found in table sugar

Aug 27­8:51 PM

Formation of Lactose:
glucose + galactose = lactose

Glycosidic Linkage

Lactose is the sugar found in milk

Aug 27­8:52 PM

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Process of Hydrolysis: a chemical reaction or

process in which a molecule is split into two
parts by reacting with a molecule of water.
One of the parts gets an (OH) from the water
molecule, and the other part gets an (H) from
the water molecule. This is the opposite of a
condensation/dehyration reaction.
if you take sucrose and put water on it, we typically say its dissolving, but it is actually hydrolosis and is done
through breaking apart sucrose

Ex: Sucrose + Water -----------> Glucose +

Fructose

Aug 27­8:53 PM

+ H2O

Aug 27­8:55 PM

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(biological catalyse, found in our body)

Enzymes: An enzyme is a
catalyst that speeds up reactions
within living things
always end in "ase" (enzymes)
Ex: Maltase - helps break down maltose
Sucrase - helps break down sucrose
Lactase - helps break down lactose

How do Enzymes work?

Enzymes take part in the process of
hydrolysis.
will facilate the breakdown of disacchriates

When MALTOSE binds with MALTASE, the

disaccharide (maltose) is hydrolysed (split
into its component parts - two molecules of
glucose). the process will happen, but without enzyme,
it will be done very slowly. delays may vary. the
"DI" enzyme body is always trying to be more efficient.
When SUCROSE binds with SUCRASE, the
disaccharide (sucrose) is hydrolysed into
molecules of glucose and fructose.
"Di" enzyme
When LACTOSE binds with LACTASE, the
disaccharide (lactose) is hydrolysed into
molecules of glucose and galactose .

Aug 27­8:57 PM

"many"

many repeated 3. Polysaccharides: Complex Carbohydrates

glocose subunits that
are linked together • Consists of many simple sugars linked together (“poly”
to form long chains
means many)
• Polysaccharides are disaccharides that are further
dehydrated to form long chains

1. Starch long chain of many glucose subunits linked together

• Is a large carbohydrate composed of many sugar
molecules (glucose) linked into long branching chains
• In plants, starch is used to store energy

Aug 27­9:02 PM

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2. Glycogen what animals use to store our energy. can be stored in liver AND muscles.
• Animals store carbohydrates in the form of a
polysaccharide called glycogen
• Structure of glycogen resembles that of starch, except
for slight differences in its chain branching. The large
amount of branching on the glycogen molecule means that
glycogen can pack more glucose units into a single cell
• Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles cells of
animals
• When levels of glucose and energy is needed, glycogen is
converted back to individual glucose subunits
if you eat lots of sugar in
your blood, not good, liver
will detect this and a lot
of glycogen structures will
be made

we will break down our glycogenAug 27­9:04 PM

to get our glucose into our blood when we did it (marathon runners)
if you have gone the whole day without eating, you don't have enough blood sugar. liver will detect this and
break up the glycogen to release individual glucose subunits

3. Cellulose you cannot use cellulose for energy through breaking it down, as it is structural.
• A polysaccharide composed of many glucose subunits
• Due to the linkage of the glucose molecules, cellulose
has properties quite different from those of starch.
• Unlike starch which serves as an energy storage nutrient
in plants, cellulose is a structural component in plants
• Cellulose cannot be digested by humans (cannot be broken
down into simpler molecules and used for energy)
super important for the structure, but is impossible for use to break down. acts as an intestinal bloom

structure is like a lattice

to keep plant upright, for its stem and
leaves, cannot extract energy from it
Aug 27­9:05 PM

cellulose looked like the celery strings. you are unable to chemically break down the bonds, sweeps away 11
gunk (why its called an intestinal broom)
joinedjoined
all three polysacchriates are pure glucose, being by dehydration
together bysynthesis
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Fats (triglycerides) tryglyceride is just a lipid
Lipids Phospholipids
Steroids
lipids will provide a lot of energy.
• Lipids supply energy to the cells of the body,
but they are difficult for your body to break
down, making you feel satisfied longer after
eating lipids than after eating simple
carbohydrates and proteins
• They do not dissolve in water, therefore they
are non-polar mixing oil and water
• Are an excellent storage compound. One
gram of lipid contains 2.25 times as much
energy as one gram of carbohydrates
•Some functions of lipids are: helps insulate us, like fat around the heart
and keep it warm
1. Long-term energy storage
2. Insulation
3. Cushioning of internal organs
4. Hormone Releasers
5. Structural components of cell walls

• They contain carbon, oxygen and hydrogen

but in different proportions from
carbohydrates
• They are the primary structural component
of cell walls of every cell

Aug 27­9:06 PM

Structure of Lipids
Lipids are composed of 2 units
• ONE glycerol molecule: a three-carbon
molecule containing three hydroxyl groups
(-OH)
• THREE fatty acids: long chains of carbon
and hydrogen joined together with
(-COOH) at the end

Triglyceride is a lipid

(comes from the prescence of the three fatty acid chains)

Aug 27­9:13 PM

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will take a hydrogen from

glycerol

Water at the end of fatty acid chain,

will have a COOH group
H20
C-H bonds are non-
polar making fats fatty acid chains are just long
hydrocarbon chains
hydrophobic (water-
hating)

every carbon will have a hydroxl group on one

of its sides

One Fatty Acid

backbone

Aug 27­9:15 PM

Ester Linkage

fatty acids can vary in the way they look, but at the end of them there is a carboxl group
(COOH)

Aug 27­9:19 PM

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Simplified Model of a Triglyceride

Reaction Sites

fatty acid chains do not need to be identical

Aug 27­9:22 PM

fats are insoluble in water

Why are fats insoluble in water??

Because they are non-polar due to the

carbon - hydrogen bonds. Because they
are non-polar, they do not mix well with
water, as water is a polar molecule
fatty acids are non-polar, so they cannot dissolve in polar

Summary:
Formation of a Triglyceride: Dehydration Synthesis Reaction

a hydrocarbon has no polarity, because there is no one end that is positively charged and
one end that is negatively charged, it does not have a charge at all

Aug 27­9:23 PM

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Saturated and Unsaturated Fats

Saturated Fatty Acids: have only one bond
between the carbon atoms allowing the carbon
atoms to bond to FOUR hydrogen atoms
saturated means that a carbon
is fully saturated with the
maximum number of bonds
(4 bonds, each carbon has
4 lines extending from it).
because it is fully saturated,
it will be linear (straight), and it
could be packed very tightly,
giving it a solid state at room
temperature. One chain can
be packed on the other.

the bonds in a saturated fatty

acid are very strong, their
primary source are animal fats
and butter, which is solid at
room temperature

Saturated fats are found in animal fats such

as beef, pork, cheese, coconut oil, butter.
Saturated fats are usually solid at room
temperature.

Aug 27­9:24 PM

• The greater the number of hydrogen atoms

possible, the firmer the fat
• This fat is difficult to break down
• The only advantage of animal fats compared
to plant fats is that animal fats do not have
weak bonds, therefore they permit cooking at
the bonds are very strong,
so they could cook at very higher temperatures
high temperatures,
and thus a faster output
(they cook with lard, • Many fast food restaurants cook with animal
because they can cook with
high temperatures for a fats (lard) because cooking foods at higher
faster cooking time)

the strong bond in saturated

temperatures reduces cooking time
• Saturated fats are responsible for raising
fats allows a fast cooking
time

blood cholesterol levels

Aug 27­9:29 PM

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Hydrogenation
any trans fat means
that hydrogen is
• Chemical process that changes a liquid oil,
forced onto its
structure which is naturally high in unsaturated fatty
the solid is
associated with acids, to a more solid and saturated fat form.
bad cholesterol

they want the solid • This process is done by forcing hydrogen

to raise to high temp,
but do not want
the sold associated
atoms onto an unsaturated fatty acid
with bad cholesterol

hydrogenation
• Hydrogenated fats are believed to raise bad
maintains a longer
shelf life cholesterol in the body
• They are known as trans-fatty acids
• Margarine is an example

Aug 27­9:31 PM

the carbon in the hydrocarbon

Unsaturated Fatty Acids: chain is not fully saturated (doesnt
have 4 lines (bonds) because
Have one or more double bonds between some there might be one or more
double bonds present)
of the carbon atoms, therefore, some
hydrogen atoms are missing. Unsaturated
fatty acids may help in lowering blood
cholesterol levels when used in place of
saturated fatty acids.

Remember: the carbon

atom can be saturated with
a maximum # of 4
hydrogen atoms!!

Aug 27­9:32 PM

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if there is one double bond, we say its mono-unsaturated, if there is more, it is poly-unsaturated
because of the kinks, you cannot pack these fatty acids, and they are usually liquids at room temperature.

Unsaturated fats are in olive oil, peanut oil,

almonds, sunflower oil, fish and most
margarines. Unsaturated fats are usually
liquid at room temperature.
Aug 27­9:35 PM
saturated fatty acids are more unhealthy because they tend to form plaques and have a bad type of cholesterol, whereas
unsaturated fatty acids have a better reputation and promote a good type of cholesterol.

Steroids
• Include testosterone, estrogen and cholesterol
that all belong to the family of steroids

Cholesterol
• Found in the walls of cells
• Found in arteries and veins
• Found in meat, shellfish, whole milk products and egg yolks
• Too much cholesterol can produce life threatening problems

hydroliphic heads
hydrophobic tails
phospholipid bilayer

having cholesterol
between the tails
keeps it fluid and
flexible, not rigid, allowing they are carbon rings
things to enter and leave
(creates gaps in between
phospholipids)

Aug 27­9:36 PM
your body makes good cholesterol, but you can also consume cholesterol. 17
your body already produces all the cholesterol we need, whatever we eat is an excess.
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• The liver already produces enough

cholesterol that it needs, so intake of excess
cholesterol results in health problems
• Cholesterol molecules travel in the blood in
little packets called lipoproteins. There are 2
cholesterol travels
in groups main types:

Aug 27­9:40 PM

1. LDL-Low Density Lipoproteins

this is the cholesterol
responsible for getting stuck inside lumen
or the blood vessels (BAD Cholesterol)
they are not dense
their primary job • LDL carry the majority of cholesterol
is to form plaques
in our blood vessel
walls through the bloodstream and delivers it to the
cells of the body. These LDL molecules are
larger, less dense and less stable and form
plaques on the walls of arteries
saturated fats and animal products is a high source of fats for our LDL

Aug 27­9:43 PM

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they are small

and dense, good
because they
2. HDL-High Density Lipoproteins
are responsible for getting
all the bad cholesterol (Good Cholesterol)
out of the circulatory
system and taking
out all the bad • HDL are small, dense molecules responsible
even foods that
are good for you
for transporting cholesterol to the liver
• This type of cholesterol is actually good for
(like eggs), are
still a source of
LDL
the body because it helps remove cholesterol
from the arteries and protects against
they carry it to the
liver dangerous blocks
• How to raise HDL: exercise, no smoking, avoid
by being active,
you promote your
good cholesterol.
high cholesterol is
largely genetic alcohol, eat fibre rich foods and consume
unsaturated fatty acid

Aug 27­9:45 PM

protein makes up everything,

all structures are composed of
Proteins
proteins (our biological catylysts,
our enzymes).

our proteins are made up of amino
acids, they are the building block
of our protein
Functions:
• Proteins are used by the cells to build
cellular structures (hair, nails, muscles, skin,
bones)
• Some proteins are enzymes which control
the rates of many chemical reactions
• Some proteins help to transport
substances across cell membranes->
transport proteins
• Some proteins act as chemical messengers
(hormones)
• Are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen and sometimes sulfur

Aug 28­4:13 PM

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• Proteins are composed of 20 different amino

acids. A chain of several amino acids can be
referred to as a polypeptide
• Proteins are very important to our diets
because our body cannot make 8 of the 20
amino acids. Therefore, these 8 amino acids,
called essential amino acids must be obtained
from our food
a polypeptide chain is a very long chain of amino acids
if there is only two chains of amino acids, this is a dipeptide

Aug 28­4:15 PM

• The 8 essential amino acids are: methionine,

trytophan, leucine, valine, threonine,
isoleucine, lysine and phenylalanine.
• Dieting or changes in our diet may lead to a
lack of one or more essential amino acids
• Common sources of amino acids are meats
and animal products
• A vegetarian must obtain essential amino
acids by eating specific combinations of plant
foods that complement each other
any diet should be careful, because it is essential that we obtain each of the eight amino acids, and not cut out entire food groups

Aug 28­4:17 PM

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by ingesting both corn and beans
at the same time, you are making a
protein.
you need them to bond and work
together
• Example: Corn -> provides the essential
amino acid Methionine (cannot get
this from beans)
Beans -> provide the essential
amino acid Lysine (cannot get from
corn)
• So by ingesting both beans and corn, one can
ensure that they are receiving the necessary
amino acids
• This is known as “combining proteins” for
completeness
The purpose of protein combining is to ensure
that plant foods with incomplete essential
amino acid content combine to form a complete
protein, meeting all amino acid requirements
for human growth
Aug 28­4:18 PM

General Structure of Amino Acid

Acid Group
COOH (carboxyl)
H
N C H
H
Amino Group
R R represents a number of
different chemical groups
which differentiates one
amino acid from the other
the R is the only thing that will vary and differentiate amino acids
Aug 28­4:21 PM

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all amino acids will have carbon in the middle, and all twenty will have a carboxl group present in the structure and an H2 (amino group) present
and all will have a hydrogen present
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all have carbon center, amino group, carboxl group and the R sidechain which
varies (in pink), and all have the hydrogen

Aug 28­4:35 PM

Peptide Bond: the chemical linkage that joins one amino

acid to the next.

Dipeptide: a chain of two amino acids

Polypeptide: chain of many amino acids

Aug 28­4:36 PM

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How Do Amino Acids Get Linked

Together????

• Dehydration synthesis reaction

for carbs, fats and proteins, are all dehydration synthesis reaction

• The (OH) group from the carboxyl group of one amino

acid joins with the (H) atom of the amino group of the
adjacent amino acid.

• The bi-product is water

Aug 28­4:37 PM

the peptide bond is also the result of a dehydration synthesis reaction

the bond is between the carbon and the nitrogen that will rejoin

it will always be nitrogen

Aug 28­4:38 PM

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From Polypeptide to Protein

Primary Protein
you first need a long polypeptide chain, Structure:
once it exceeds 30 amino acids,
you will move to your secondary protein
structure, which will either be the alpha
helix (coil up) or pleated sheet (accordion
shape)

third protein structure involves the helix or

Secondary Protein Structure:
pleated sheet fold on itself three
dimentionally,

and final protein structure (quatemary) is

when there are many protein structures
coming together

Quaternary Protein Structure:

Tertiary Protein Structure:

quaternary is a bunch of tertiary protein

structures coming together

Aug 28­4:39 PM

Aug 28­4:43 PM

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Sickle-Cell Disease: A Simple Change in

Primary Structure

Even a slight change in primary structure can affect a

protein's conformation and ability to function. For
example; the substitution of one amino acid (valine) for
the normal (glutamic acid) at a particular position in the
primary structure of hemoglobin, the protein that OMIT
carries oxygen in red blood cells, can cause sickle-cell
disease, an inherited disorder.

Normal: Val-His-Leu-Thr-Pro-Glu-Glu

Sickle Cell: Val-His-Leu-Thr-Pro-Val-Glu

Sep 12­9:56 AM

Protein Denaturation
• When a protein is exposed to extreme
temperatures, extreme pH conditions, or harsh
chemicals, it will unfold or change shape.

• When this happens, the protein is said to be

denatured and loses its ability to perform its OMIT

normal function

• Once the physical or chemical factor is

removed, the protein may assume its original
shape (some changes may be permanent)
Aug 28­4:43 PM

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