Manualon Practicalsoilphysics

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Manual on Practical soil physics
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ISBN: 978-93-5407-060-0
Manual on Practical Soil

Physics
M Madhan Mohan
Prabhu Prasadini
Regional Agricultural Research Station, Tirupati

Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University, Guntur
Authors
M.Madhan Mohan
Scientist (Soil Physics), RARS, Tirupati
P.Prabhu Prasadini
Professor & University Head (Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry)
ISBN: 978-93-5407-060-0
Year of Publication: 2019
Published by
Associate Director of Research
Regional Agricultural Research Station
Tirupati – 517 502
Citation
Madhan Mohan.M and Prabhu Prasadini. 2019. Manual on Practical soil
physics. Regional Agricultural Research Station, Tirupati-517 502,
Andhra Pradesh, India. Pp 72.
Dr.P.Raja Sekhar
Associate Director of Research
Regional Agricultural Research Station, Tirupati
Acharya N.G Ranga Agricultural University, Guntur
Foreword
Knowledge of soil physical properties is essential for improving soil

health to achieve optimal productivity for each soil condition. There is a strong
growing realization that yields are limited by the physical conditions rather
than plant-nutrient status in the soil. Among many climatic and edaphic crop
production constraints, substantial reduction in the productivity of cultivated
soils can be attributed to soil physical constraints like surface crusting and
hardening, subsurface hard pan and compactness, high & slow permeability,
soil-water related constraints, erosion etc. This envisages that maintenance of
optimal soil physical condition is essential to harness sustainable production. In
view of this, soil physical properties need to be measured and considered in
calculating soil health index. In this context, the “Manual on Practical Soil
Physics” will definitely be useful for the researchers for adoption of uniform
methods and procedures at their end. I appreciate and congratulate the efforts
made by the authors in organizing hands-on training programme in Department
of Soil Physics, RARS, Tirupati for soil scientists from all agro-climatic zones
of A.P and bringing out this manual to carry out soil physics research
effectively.
(P.Rajasekhar)
Preface
Soil physics deals with the dynamics of soil physical components and
their phases viz. solids, liquids and gases. Soil is the medium through which
nutrients, water, gases and heat move. The physical properties of soil namely
texture, particle density, bulk density, infiltration, hydraulic conductivity,
aggregate stability, water holding capacity, aeration, drainage etc., are very
important for sustainable crop production. These properties play a major role in
soil management starting from seed bed preparation, nutrient reach to plant roots
and soil & water conservation. However, the measurement of soil physical
properties in many soil related works is lacking as it is cumbersome and tedious,
and these are not given pivotal focus like on soil fertility as the impact/alleviation
of soil physical environment is not spectacular and immediate. Keeping the
importance in view, there is a need to include these properties in soil health
assessment and impart training on measurement of soil physical properties.
Simple methods described in this manual will be of help to scientists and
research scholars involved in measurement of soil physical properties. The last
chapter on physical health rating index gives an idea to comprehend and use soil
physical properties in soil health index. Our sincere thanks to all from whose
works we used the figures & information and to the Associate Director of
Research, RARS, Tirupati for enabling us to publish this manual.
(Authors)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.No Topic/ Exercise Page No.

1 Introduction 1-2
2 Particle size distribution and textural classification 3-12
of soils
3 Particle density 13-14
4 Bulk density 15-19
5 Aggregate stability 20-26
6 Soil moisture 27-33
7 Soil moisture characteristics 34-41
8 Maximum water holding capacity of soil 42-44
9 Saturated hydraulic conductivity 45-49
10 Infiltration rate 50-53
11 Physical health rating index 54-58
12 To know your understanding... 59-61
13 Related terminology 62-69
14 Conversion factors 70-71
15 References 72
LIST OF TABLES
Table Title Page

No. No.
1.1 Emerging soil physical constraints and area affected in 01
India
2.1 Classification of particles according to size by IUSS and 03
USDA systems
2.2 Sedimentation times for silt and clay particles in water to 09
reach at 10 cm depth
2.3 Work sheet for measurement of soil texture by 10
hydrometer method
3.1 Work sheet for calculation of particle density of soil 14
4.1 Work sheet for calculation of bulk density of soil 17
4.2 Inference table for soil bulk density 19
5.1 Work sheet for calculation of mean weight diameter 22
(MWD) of soil aggregates
5.2 Work sheet for calculation of water stable aggregates 25
(%)
5.3 Inference table for soil structure 26
6.1 Work sheet for calculation of soil moisture by 28
gravimetric method
6.2 Inference table from tensiometer readings 33
7.1 Work sheet for calculation of suction by hanging water 37
column method
7.2 Work sheet for calculation of soil available water by 41
pressure plate method
7.3 Inference table for available water storage capacity of 41
soil
8.1 Work sheet for calculation of MWHC of soil 44
9.1 Work sheet for calculation Ksat by constant head method 49
9.2 Inference table for Ksat (cm hr-1) 49
10.1 Steady state infiltration rates for general texture groups 50
in very deeply wetted soil
10.2 Work Sheet for calculation of infiltration rate (cm hr-1) 53
10.3 Inference table for infiltration rate 53
11.1 Calculation of physical health index for upland crops 55-56
11.2 Calculation of physical health index for paddy crop 57
11.3 Inference table for soil physical health index 58
LIST OF PLATES
Plate No. Title Page No.

1 Soil textural triangle USDA system 11
2 Soil textural triangle IUSS system 11
3 Flow chart for texture determination by feel method 12
4a,b&c Collection of soil sample with core/ring 17
5a&b Collection of soil sample by excavation method 18
6 Volume and weight relationship in soil 19
7 Yoder’s apparatus 24
8 Time Domain Refractometry (TDR350) 29
9 Soil water potential below and above reference level 34
10 Schematic diagram of hanging water column 36
11 Estimation of MWHC by Keen’s cup 43
12 Hydraulic conductivity apparatus 47
13 Double ring infiltrometer 51
1. INTRODUCTION
Soil physics is a branch of soil science dealing with the physical properties of
soil as well as with the measurement, prediction, and control of the physical
processes taking place in and through the soil (Hillel, 1998). Soil physics
involves understanding of soil behaviour and its management and is, therefore,
both a basic and an applied science. Physical properties of a soil play an
important role in determining its suitability for crop production. The
characteristics like supporting power and bearing capacity, tillage practices,
moisture storage capacity and its availability to crop plants, drainage, ease to
penetration by roots, aeration, retention of plant nutrients and availability are
all intimately connected with physical properties of the soil.
Optimum soil physical health plays a pivotal role in any agricultural

production system, once soil physical health is degraded, it takes a long time to
be restored, it also affects the other soil properties and processes, ultimately
declining crop productivity on long run. In India, millions of hectares of land
under both irrigated and rainfed ecosystems produce very low crop yields with
low efficiency of applied nutrient inputs due to unfavourable physical
conditions. The major soil physical constraints prevalent in different parts of
the country that limit the crop production are shallow depth, low water
retention and high permeability, slow permeability, surface and sub surface
mechanical impedance, which either restrict crop growth or reduce efficiency
of basic inputs like water and fertilizer. Areas affected by some of the soil
physical constraints are as follows:
Table 1.1: Emerging soil physical constraints and area affected in India
Physical constraints Area Main states affected
(Mha)
Shallow depth 26.40 A.P, Maharashtra, W.B, Kerala,
Gujarat
Soil hardening 21.57 A.P, Maharashtra, Bihar
High permeability 13.75 Rajasthan, W.B, Gujarat, Punjab,
Tamilnadu
Sub-surface hardpan 11.31 Maharashtra, Punjab, Bihar,
Rajasthan, W.B, Tamilnadu
Physical constraints Area Main states affected
(Mha)
Surface crusting 10.25 Haryana, Punjab, W.B, Odisha,
Gujarat
Temporary water 6.24 M.P, Maharashtra, Punjab, Gujarat,
logging Kerala, Odisha
(Source : Indoria et al., 2017)
It is a well established fact that unless the soil physical environment is

maintained at its optimum level, the genetic yield potential of a crop cannot be
realized even when all the other requirements are fulfilled. Therefore, it is
necessary to maintain a good soil physical condition for sustainable food
production and efficient use of natural resources.
The major physical properties measured in determining soil quality are: soil
texture, soil depth, bulk density, soil porosity, aggregate stability, soil strength,
available water content, saturated hydraulic conductivity, infiltration rate and
soil temperature and the key physical properties to be considered for judging
physical health are prioritized by expert opinion/group analysis or reviews, step
wise regression and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) based on soil type
and land use of the region. Both disturbed and undisturbed soil samples may be
used for the analysis of physical properties. The disturbed samples are
analyzed for particle density and size distribution; column studies for diffusion-
dispersion coefficients and soil-water diffusivity measurements. The
undisturbed or core samples are used for estimation of bulk density, soil
aggregation (MWD, %WSA), water retention, transmission characteristics like
hydraulic conductivity etc. The detailed protocols and working principles in
measuring different soil physical properties are described elaborately in the
following chapters.
2. PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION AND TEXTURAL
CLASSIFICATION
OF SOILS
Particle size distribution may be defined as the complete array and distribution
of various particle sizes in soil. It is the most fundamental physical property of
soil affecting agricultural, engineering and environmental soil functions. It’s
determination is commonly referred as the particle size analysis or mechanical
analysis. Soil textural classification is based on the relative proportion of the
three major size ranges of primary particles or textural fractions or separates
(Hillel, 2004) namely sand, silt and clay. The size ranges of these fractions vary
in different classification schemes. The two most widely used systems by soil
scientists are: (1) U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and (2) International
Society of Soil Science (ISSS), currently known as International Union of Soil
Science (IUSS) systems. Both these systems exclude anything >2 mm as non-
soil material. Size range of sand, silt and clay as per these systems are given in
Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Classification of particles according to size by IUSS and

USDA systems
ISSS/IUSS USDA
Category Size range Category Size range
(mm) (mm)
Gravel >2.0 Gravel >2.0
Coarse sand 0.2 – 2.0 Very coarse 1.0 – 2.0
Fine sand 0.02 – 0.2 Coarse 0.50 – 1.0
Silt 0.002 – 0.02 Medium 0.25 – 0.50
Clay <0.002 Fine 0.10 – 0.25
Very fine 0.05 – 0.10
Silt 0.002 – 0.05
Clay <0.002
Soil texture determines the rate at which water drains through a saturated soil;
water moves more freely through sandy soils than it does through clayey soils.
Once field capacity is reached, soil texture also influences how much water is
available to the plant; clay soils have a greater water holding capacity than
sandy soils. Soils also differ in their susceptibility to erosion (erodibility) based
on texture; a soil with a high percentage of silt and clay particles has a greater
erodibility than a sandy soil under the same conditions. Soil cation exchange
capacity, buffering capacity, moisture holding capacity and % WSA etc., are
positively correlated with the clay content.
I. Determination of soil texture (Laboratory method)
Particle size analysis (or mechanical analysis) consists of isolating various

primary particle sizes and then measuring the abundance of each size fraction.
The textural analysis involves two major steps: (1) Dispersion (2) Fractionation
and (3) textural classification
Procedure
1) Dispersion of soil sample
There are two main objectives of dispersion: (a) removal of cementing agents
like organic matter, Fe- & Al- oxides and calcium carbonates and (b) the
physical separation of individual soil particles. When organic matter and
amorphous minerals are present in large amounts (e.g., Histosols or Oxisols),
dispersion may be difficult. The dispersion of soil is achieved by inactivating
or removing cementing agent and flocculating agents as described below:
Hydrogen peroxide is the most common reagent for removal of organic matter
(Piper, 1950), which oxidises the organic matter to carbon dioxide and water.
The soluble salts and ions act as flocculating agents and hence recommended
to remove through repeated washing and leaching of soil sample. The removal
of Fe- & Al-oxides inactivated by reduction with sodium dithionate in sodium
citrate buffer, which convert them into soluble forms (Mehra and Jackson,
1960). However, for most of soils except Oxisols, these oxides are present in
small quantities and need not be removed. The cementation effect of calcium
carbonate is removed by treating the sample with dilute HCl. The HCl
treatment saturates the exchange complex with hydrogen ions (H+) which also
keeps the soil flocculated, to ensure complete dispersion the H+ ions present on
exchange complex are replaced by Na+ ions by chemical treatment with sodium
hexametaphosphate or calgon solution and dispersed by vigorous stirring of
soil water suspension with electric stirrer (Soil Conservation Service, 1972).
2) Fractionation of soil sample
Different mesh size sieves are used to separate particles into different sizes, but
for separation of soil particles below 50 m, sieving is an inefficient and
difficult procedure and hence sedimentation in water is a better option for this
fraction. A suspension of the dispersed soil sample settles in water, and at
preselected times a measurement is made of the density of particles (weight of
particles in a volume of liquid) at a specified depth within the sedimentation
cylinder. Variations in the method occur as to the determination of suspension
density. In all the cases, Stokes’ Law is central to the derivation of an equation
which relates the time of settling to the size of particle sampled.
Stokes’ law: a rigid smooth spherical particle falling freely through a liquid of a
lower density will attain a constant velocity (called terminal velocity) when the
frictional force and gravitational force acting on the particle are equal. This
velocity (V) is directly proportional to the square of the falling particle
diameter and inversely proportional to viscosity of the liquid.
2 gr2 (Dp-Dl) h
V= --------------------- = ----
9η t
Where r is radius of the particle, Dp & Dl are the density of the particles and
liquid, g is acceleration due to gravity and η is the viscosity of the liquid. Thus,
in a time t all particles having settling velocities greater than h/t would have
travelled beyond depth h and the particles having settling velocities lesser than
h/t would be as yet present above this depth. In general after a lapse of 50
seconds, all particles coarser than 50µ would pass the 10 cm mark in the
cylinder. A small aliquot taken from the suspension with a pipette at 10 cm
depth at 50 seconds will, therefore, furnish a fraction of soil particles finer than
50 µ (Bandyopadhyay et al., 2013).
Two classic means of determining the density of a suspension are hydrometer

method and pipette method. In the hydrometer method, the influence of
suspension density on a floating object (the hydrometer) is observed. As
density decreases due to settling out of soil particles, the hydrometer sinks. A
calibration scale converts the depth of the float (i.e., hydrometer) to the
suspension density. The pipette method directly removes a sample from the
suspension at given depth and time and the extracted sample contains primary
particles viz. silt and clay and the concentration is determined by oven drying
of the sample at 1050C.
2 (a). International pipette method
The fractionation of the finer sized particles (clay and silt) is based on their
settling velocities in a liquid which is governed by Stoke’s law of
sedimentation.
Apparatus
500 mL beakers, hot plate, glass rod, wash bottle, Whatman No. 50 filter paper,
electric stirrer, 2mm sieve, measuring cylinder- 1 lit, glass funnel,
thermometer, sampling pipette (robinson pipette) 25 mL, porcelien dishes and
oven.
Reagents
Hydrogen peroxide (30%), Hydrochloride (2N), Silver nitrate (N/10), Sodium

hydroxide (N/10), phenolphthalein indicator, sodium hexa meta phosphate
(5%).
Procedure
1. Weigh 50 g of 2 mm sieved sample into 500 mL beaker. Add 30 mL of
30% H2O2 and swirl the contents well. Allow the reaction to take place for
5-10 minutes and cover the beaker with watch glass and place it on a
hotplate until organic matter is oxidized (indicated by lack of
effervescence). If frothing and reaction persists for a long period another lot
of H2O2 should be added. Remove the beaker and allow it to cool.
2. Remove the soil particles from inner sides of beaker using glass rod and
distilled water and add 25 mL of 2N HCl to destroy calcium carbonate. If
more than 2 % CaCO3 is present, more HCl should be added at the rate of
2.5 mL for each percent of CaCO3. This step may be omitted if the soil is
free from CaCO3. Let the reaction proceed for about an hour with
intermittent shaking.
3. The dispersion agents shall be adopted as described under procedure (1) in

page 4.
4. Filter the contents through Whatman No.50 filter paper and discard the
filtrate. Wash the soil retained on the filter paper with distilled water till the
filtrate is free from chlorides (this can be tested by adding a small amount
of Ag NO3 to filtrate, if white precipitate appears, chlorides are still present
and sample needs more washings)
5. Transfer the soil from filter paper to 500 mL beaker with jet of distilled
water and make the volume to about 300 mL with distilled water. Add a
few drops (5-6) of phenolphthalein indicator and add N/10 NaOH till the
whole suspension shows a pink colour indicating its alkaline reaction, avoid
over-alkalization.
6. Add 100 mL of 5% Sodium hexametaphosphate and stir for 10 minutes.
7. Transfer the suspension into a 1000 mL cylinder and make the suspension
up to the mark (1000 mL) by adding distilled water and note down the
temperature of the suspension. Against this temperature, read the required
time for sampling of silt + clay and clay alone from Table 2.2.
8. Shake the cylinder vigorously so that no soil remains settled at the bottom
of the cylinder and then up-down gently for about 20-25 times in one
minute. And note down the beginning time for settling of finer particles.
9. Insert the sampling pipette gently into the suspension and dip it to 10 cm
depth from the surface of suspension before 10 seconds of expiry of the
sampling time.
10. Pipette out the 25 mL suspension at each requisite time (for silt + clay and
clay) at a moderate speed and transfer the suspension to a pre weighed
porcelien dish. Oven dry the sample at 1050C till a constant weight.
Calculations
a) Silt + Clay (%) (USDA) = [(W50× 1000)/ (25 × Wod)] x100
b) Silt + Clay (%) (ISSS/IUSS) = [(W20× 1000)/ (25 × Wod)] x100
c) Clay (%) = [(W2 × 1000)/ (25 × Wod)] x100
Where W50, W20 and W2 are oven-dry weights of soil particles less than 50, 20
and 2µm obtained by oven drying the 25 mL aliquot drawn at 10 cm depth
from the suspension after 40 sec & 4 min & 10 sec and 6 hours & 45 min
respectively at 260C (time will vary depending on the temperature of
suspension).
(d) Sand % = 100- [Silt + Clay (%)]
(e) Silt (%) = [Silt + Clay (%)] - Clay (%)
(f) Coarse sand (%) = (Weight of material retained on 0.2 mm sieve/total

weight of soil placed over 2 mm sieve) x 100
(g) Fine sand % = Total Sand (%) – Coarse sand (%)\
Table 2.2: Sedimentation times for silt and clay particles in water to
reach at 10 cm depth (for ISSS/IUSS system)
Temperature Starting time

(oC) Clay (<2µ) Silt + clay (<20µ)
Hours Minutes Minutes Seconds
15 9 50 5 30
16 8 35 5 20
17 8 25 5 10
18 8 10 5 0
19 8 0 4 50
20 8 50 4 45
21 7 35 4 40
22 7 25 4 35
23 7 15 4 30
24 7 0 4 20
25 7 55 4 15
26 6 45 4 10
27 6 40 4 5
28 6 30 4 0
29 6 20 3 55
30 6 15 3 50
31 6 0 3 45
32 6 55 3 40
Precautions
• If the particles are settling very fast on the bottom of cylinder, repeat the
washing of sample with distilled water to ensure salt free condition
because salts act as a flocculating agents. If the sample is free from
soluble salts white precipitate will not form with AgNO3 test.
• The time of sample collection for silt + clay is 40 sec in USDA method
and 4 min & 10 sec. at 260C in ISSS method and use the textural
diagram for silt interpretation on USDA and IUSS textural triangle
respectively for texture determination.
2(b) Hydrometer method
• Take 50 g of 2 mm sieved air dry soil and follow steps of dispersion as given
in pipette method
• Transfer the dispersed soil to the sedimentation cylinder and make the
volume to one litre with distilled water.
• Shake the cylinder vigorously so that no soil remains settled at the bottom
of the cylinder and then up-down gently for about 20-25 times in one
minute.
• Take hydrometer readings at 40 sec & 120 minutes for USDA system and 4
min and 2 hr for ISSS system by lowering the hydrometer gently into the
suspension before 10 sec expiry of sampling time.
• Note down the temperature of the suspension and correct the hydrometer
readings.
Bouyoucos (1962) considered the hydrometer readings taken at 40 sec and 2
hours to give silt+clay and clay content, respectively in a soil sample. He
recommended the temperature to be maintained at 68oF (19.4oC). If the
temperature varies, add 0.2 to the reading with each degree rise above 68 oF and
subtract 0.2 for each degree fall below 68oF within 60 to 75oF. (Add 0.3 to
hydrometer reading for each 10C rise and subtract 0.3 for each 10C fall in
temperature if hydrometer reading is calibrated at 19.40C)
Table 2.3: Work sheet for measurement of soil texture by hydrometer method
Method Time Hydrometer Temperature Temperature Corrected
reading of suspension correction hydrometer
(HMR) reading
(CHMR)
USDA After 40 sec
method After 2 hrs
IUSS After 4 min
method After 2 hrs
CHMR after 40 sec – Blank reading*

% (Silt+Clay) = ---------------------------------------------------
Weight of the soil sample (g)
CHMR after 2hrs – Blank reading*

% Clay = ---------------------------------------------------
Weight of the soil sample (g)
* Blank reading is the HMR of the Sodium hexametaphospahte solution in

1000 mL distilled water.
% Silt = % (silt+clay) - % clay
% Sand = 100 - % (silt+clay)
3) Soil textural classification

The texture of soil is determined from the relative proportions of sand, silt and
clay. Both the systems suggested by USDA and IUSS make use of equilateral
triangle whose area is divided into 12 compartments and each representing a
textural class. The difference between the two is primarily due to difference in
size ranges of sand and silt fractions. For the determination of the soil texture
of a soil, locate the clay and silt percentage on the respective sides of the
triangle. Draw a line inward parallel to the sand side in the former case and
parallel to the clay side in the latter case. The compartment in which the two
lines intersect is the texture of the soil.
Plate 1: Soil textural triangle USDA Plate 2: Soil textural triangle IUSS
system system
II. Texture by feel method (field method)
The laboratory method of texture determination is more accurate, but it is more

tedious, time consuming and expensive. Hence, soil scientists use texture-by-
feel to provide quick reliable estimates of soil texture in the field. This method
is used by researchers where numerous samples are required to capture
variability during soil surveys.
Plate 3. Flow chart for texture determination by feel method

3. PARTICLE DENSITY
Soil particle density (s) is weight of soil solids (oven-dry) per unit volume of
soil solids. The value is commonly expressed in grams per cubic centimetre or
Mega grams per cubic metre. Particle density depends on the densities of the
various constituent solids and their relative abundance. For most of the soils it
lies between 2.5 and 2.7 Mg m-3. The range is fairly narrow because common
soil minerals differ little in their density. An average value of 2.65 Mg m-3 is
often assumed for practical purposes.
Particle density is a prerequisite to calculate total porosity, rates of particle

sedimentation, heat capacity, thermal conductivity, and water & air relations on
a volumetric basis (Hillel, 1998). These particle density based parameters are
essential in understanding and modelling several processes including water, air
and heat flow as well as chemical transport through the soil.
Measurement of particle density of soil
Principle
The most common method of determination is by using a pycnometer.

Pycnometer is a device which is made to retain a reproducible or measurable
volume. The volume of a known weight of soil solids is determined indirectly
by measuring the volume of water displaced by the soil solids. The weight of
water displaced is actually measured, then the corresponding volume is found
from the known density of water (Archimedes principle).
Weight of soil solids

Particle density (s ) = ---------------------------------------------------------
Volume of the solids excluding porespace
Apparatus/Equipment
Pycnometer (50 mL), digital balance, 250 mL beaker, filter paper, air-free
distilled water, clean and dry cloth.
Procedure
1. Weigh a dry, clean pycnometer with glass stopper to the nearest 0.01 g
(Wp)
2. Transfer carefully 10g of oven dry soil to the dry pycnometer, replace the
stopper and record the weight (Wps)
3. Add air-free boiled and cool water to this pycnometer until it is about 2/3rd
full and allow it undisturbed for few minutes. Remove the entrapped air by
gentle boiling of the water for several minutes while shaking gentle with
hand.
4. Fill the pycnometer with air-free boiled and cool water to the brim and put
stopper tightly so that extra water shoots out of the hole in the stopper
.Carefully dry the outside of the pycnometer by wiping with a dry cloth and
weigh to the nearest 0.01 g. Note the weight as Wpws.
5. Wash the pycnometer bottle and fill it with air-free boiled and cool water to
the brim and put the stopper tightly so that extra water shoots out of the
hole in the stopper. Carefully dry the outside of the pycnometer by wiping
with a dry cloth and weigh to the nearest 0.01 g. Record the weight of
pycnometer filled with water (Wpw).
6. Calculate particle density (s) using the formula & as given in the work
sheet below (Table 3.1).
Particle density = [[( Wps – Wp)/[ Wpw + (Wps – Wp) – Wpws]] × wT
Where, wT = Density of water at temperature T
Table 3.1: Worksheet for calculation of particle density of soil
S.No Sample Weight of weight of weight of weight of weight Particle
particulars empty pycnometer pycnometer pycnometer of soil density
pycnometer + dry soil + water + + water (g) (Ws) [[( Wps –
(g) Wp (g) soil (g) Wpw Wps - Wp)/[ Wpw
Wps Wpws Wp + (Wps –
Wp) –
Wpws]]
4. BULK DENSITY
Soil bulk density (g cm-3 or Mg m-3) is weight of soil (oven-dry) per unit
volume of soil. The volume includes space occupied by pores as well as soil
solids. Soil structure and texture largely determine bulk density. Soil structure
refers to the arrangement of soil particles into secondary particles called
aggregates. Since fine textured soils generally have more total pore space than
coarse textured soils, the fine textured soils (clayey/silty) also generally have
lower bulk densities. Bulk density values of fine-textured soils commonly
range from 1.00 to 1.30 g cm-3, while those of sandy soils range from about
1.30 to 1.70 g cm-3. Despite this general difference in bulk density between
sandy and clayey soils, sandy soils are referred to as “light” and clayey soils as
“heavy”, this terminology refers to relative ease of tillage but not typical bulk
density.
In general, bulk density is determined by soil texture and modified by soil

structure. Within any textural class a certain range in bulk density is expected
and whether, within this range, bulk density is relatively low or high depends
on the degree of structural development. While texture is not affected by soil
management, soil structure is a fragile property that can deteriorate with
intensive cultivation, exposure to raindrops and machinery traffic, particularly
when organic carbon content is low.
Bulk density reflects the soil’s ability to function for structural support, water
and solute movement, and soil aeration. Bulk density above thresholds
indicates impaired function. Bulk density is also used to convert between
weight and volume of soil. It is used to express soil physical, chemical and
biological measurements on a volumetric basis for soil quality assessment and
comparisons between management systems. This increases the validity of
comparisons by removing error associated with differences in soil density at
time of sampling.
Measurement of bulk density

I. Core method
Principle
The core auger method involves sampling a soil with known volume of core
from a desired depth in its most natural condition and determining the oven-dry
weight of soil per unit volume of core.
Weight of soil solids

Bulk density = ------------------------------------------ g cm-3 or Mg m-3
Volume of the solids + pores
Apparatus required
Core sampler, metal cores/rings, aluminium boxes, oven, balance, knife/

spatula
Procedure
Drive Ring into Soil
1. Drive the core sampler if the soil is soft (in which core/rings are placed)
or drive the 3 inch dia ring directly using the hand sledge and block of
wood beveled edge down, to a depth of 3 inches as shown in Plate
4a&b.
2. The exact height of the ring must be determined for accurate
measurement of soil volume. Take four measurements (evenly spaced)
of the height and calculate the average. Record the average on the
worksheet.
Remove 3-inch Ring
3. Dig around the ring and with the trowel underneath it, carefully lift it out
to prevent any compaction or loss of soil from the ring/core.
Remove Excess Soil
4. Remove excess soil from the sample with a flat bladed knife. The
bottom of the sample should be flat and even with the edges of the ring
(Plate 4c)
Place Sample in aluminium box and Label
5. Push out the sample into a pre weighed aluminium box. Make sure the
entire sample is placed in and then seal and label the can.
Weigh and Record Sample
6. Place the aluminium box containing soil in an oven for 36 - 48 hours at

1050C and weigh the oven dry weight of sample by subtracting the
empty aluminium box weight.
A B C
Plate 4: Collection of Sample with Core/ring
This core method is not suitable for determination of bulk density in sandy soil
as the core will not be able to retain the soil. For gravelly soil also this method
is unsuitable.
Table 4.1: Work sheet for calculation of bulk density of soil

S.No Sample Empty Weight Wt. of Wt. of Wt. of Wet Dry bulk
particulars weight of the can + moist dry bulk density
of can moist oven sample sample density Mg m-3
(Wc) soil + dry soil (g) (g) Mg m-3 (Wcds –
Can (g) (g) (Wcms (Wcds (Wcms Wc)/V
(Wcms) (Wcds) – Wc) – Wc) – Wc)/
V
Volume of sample (V): Πr2h ; where h is the average. height of core, r- radius
of the core is unsuitable
II. Determination of bulk density by excavation method

Excavation method is used in gravelly & rock soils wherein, rocks prevent
sampling by the core/ring.
Apparatus/Materials required
Plastic wrap, 100 mL and l lit graduated measuring cylinders, water, garden
trowel, sealable bags, marker pen and 2 mm sieve.
Step 1: Choose a spot that is as levelled as possible to allow water to fill the
hole evenly. Dig a bowl shaped hole 8-10 cm deep and approximately 12-15
cm in diameter using the trowel (Plate 5a). Avoid compacting the soil in the
hole while digging. Place all of the soil and gravel removed from the hole in a
plastic bag. Using the 2 mm sieve, sieve the soil in the plastic bag to separate
the gravel.
Plate 5a: Excavated hole Plate 5b: Placing the gravel
Step 2: Line the hole with plastic wrap and leave some excess plastic wrap
around the edge of the hole. Place the sieved rocks and gravel carefully in the
centre of the hole on top of the plastic wrap (Plate 5b). Assure that the pile of
rocks does not protrude.
Step 3: Fill the hole taking care that the level of the water should be even with
the soil surface. Use 100 mL graduated cylinder to keep track of how much
water is needed to fill the lined hole. The level of the water should be even with
the soil surface. The amount of water needed to fill the lined hole represents the
volume of soil removed.
Volume of Rocks (cm3) = Fill 1/3 of a graduated cylinder with water, and
record the amount.
Add the rocks to the cylinder and record the change in the water level. The
difference is the
Volume of rocks (1 mL = 1 cm3).
Volume of Soil (cm3) = Total soil volume - volume of rocks
Calculations
Oven dry weight of soil

Soil bulk density (Mg m-3) = --------------------------------------
Volume of soil
Soil bulk density

Soil porosity (%) = 100 x 1 - ------------------------------
Particle density *
*in general, assumed as 2.65 Mg m-3

Table 4.2: Inference table for soil bulk density
Soil texture Ideal bulk density Bulk densities that Bulk densities
(Mg m-3) may affect root that restrict root
growth (Mg m-3) growth (Mg m-3)
Sands, loamy sands <1.60 1.69 >1.80
Sandy loam and loams <1.40 1.63 >1.80
Sandy clay loams, <1.40 1.60 >1.75
loams, clay loams
Silts, silt loams <1.30 1.60 >1.75
Silt loams, silty clay <1.40 1.55 >1.65
loams
Sandy clays, silty clays, <1.10 1.49 >1.58
some clay loams (35-
45%)
Clays (>45 % clay) <1.10 1.39 >1.47
(Arshad et al., 1996)
Plate 6: Volume and weight relationship in soil

5. AGGREGATE STABILITY
Soil structure is usually defined as the arrangement of primary particles and
their aggregates into a certain structural pattern. The various management
practices such as tillage, cultivation, application of fertilizers and manures,
amendments and irrigation, bring about changes in soil structure that influences
other soil properties, thereby affecting root growth, water and nutrient uptake,
crop growth and yield.
An aggregate may be defined as a group of primary particles joined together to

each other more strongly than to other surrounding soil particles (Kemper and
Rosenau, 1986). Aggregate stability is a measure of the vulnerability of soil
aggregates to external destructive forces such as wind, water and tillage (Hillel,
1982). Aggregates that stand up to the forces of water are called water stable
aggregates (WSA). In general, the greater the percentage of stable aggregates,
the soil erodibility will be less and vice-versa. The soils with poor structure
tends to form crust on soil surface due to breakdown of aggregates by splashing
effect of raindrops and consequent drying leads to clogging of pores which
further reduces the infiltration and seedling emergence and improves the
surface runoff and soil erosion.
Good soil structure is a most desirable soil character for sustaining soil
productivity and also for conserving and preserving environmental quality.
However, it largely depends on the presence of stable aggregates. The stability
of the aggregates and pores between them affects many processes such as
movement and storage of water, aeration, erosion, biological activity and
growth of crops. Maintaining better soil aggregates stability is essential for
preserving soil productivity, promoting crop sustainability, minimizing soil
erosion and degradation, environmental pollution and sustainable agricultural
production as well.
Evaluation of soil structure

Direct method of measuring soil structure involves determination of total
aggregates, strength and size distribution of aggregates. Measuring soil
structure by aggregate analysis concern directly with the size distribution of
aggregates and indirectly with the size distribution of soil pores associated with
each particular aggregate size-distribution. The size distribution of stable
aggregates against wind and water is measured with dry and wet sieving
techniques.
I. Measurement of dry aggregates

Dry sieving of aggregates give an important index for characterizing the
susceptibility of soils to wind erosion
Principle
The kinetic forces of wind disintegrate soil aggregates which are also a
function of soil texture, moisture content and management practices. A rotary
sieve was developed to measure various size distributions of resistant
aggregates (Chepil, 1962) to the rotating action and which is assumed to
simulate the wind action in fields.
Apparatus/equipments
Sieves of 20 cm diameter and 5 cm height, with 5, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.25 and 0.1 mm

mesh sizes along with lid and pan, a rotary sieve shaker, balance and spade etc.
Procedure
1. Collect the sample when the soil is reasonably dry to avoid breakdown or
change in structure with the help of a spade.
2. Remove the plant roots or stones in the sample.
3. Keep the nest of sieves on the rotary shaker in descending order i.e., sieves
with the biggest opening size is kept on the top and the sieve with the
smallest opening size is kept at the bottom. The bottom sieve is fitted in a
pan of same size.
4. A suitable amount (50-100g) of weighed soil sample is kept on the top sieve
with a lid. The whole nest of sieves is fitted in the rotary sieve shaker and
bolted properly.
5. Switch on the shaker for 20 minutes, and then remove the sieves, and
collect the soil retained on each sieve.
6. Weigh the amount of soil retained in each sieve.
7. Keep around 100 g of composite samples in oven for 24 h at 105°C to

calculate the moisture content in the sample.
8. Now convert the soil sample taken for sieving and weight of soil retained
on each sieve into oven-
dry weight basis.
9. Calculate the per cent distribution of dry aggregates retained on each sieve.
Calculation
a) Percent distribution of aggregates in each size group =
Weight of aggregates in each size group 
100 x  
 Total weight of soil on oven − dry basis 
b) Mean Weight Diameter (MWD) = i=1∑n [Xi . Wi / ∑Wi ]
Where, Xi = Mean opening of the sieve
Wi = Weight of retained aggregates (g) on respective sieve size
n = Number of size classes
C) Geometric Mean Diameter (GMD) = [exp(i=1∑ nWi log Xi)] / (i=1∑ n
Table 5.1: Work sheet for calculation of mean weight diameter (MWD)
of soil aggregates in wet or dry aggregate analysis
Name of sample:
Weight of the soil taken on top (5mm) sieve = Wi g
Sieve Mean Weight (4/ Wi) MWD = i=1∑n
range sieve size (g) (2 x 3) Xi.Wi / ∑Wi
(mm) (mm) retainer (mm)
on (2)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
8-5 6.5
5-2 3.5
II. Measurement of wet aggregates
The wet sieving technique developed by Yoder (1936) is generally used for
determining the size distribution of water stable aggregates. It can be used to
screen out aggregates as small as 0.1 mm, although 0.25 mm is more
satisfactory as lower limit size.
Apparatus/equipment
A set of sieves of 20 cm diameter and 5 cm height with 5, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.25 and

0.1 mm mesh sizes along with lid and pan, A wet sieve shaker with 4 set of
nested sieves driven by electric motor moving 30 oscillations per minute with
up and down movement through vertical distance of 3 cm submerged in drum.
Principle
The wet sieving method involves equilibrating a given amount of soil

aggregates in a nest of six standard sieves (5 mm, 2 mm, 1 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.25
mm, 0.1 mm) secured to a holder, which can move up and down in standing
water in a drum through a distance of 3.18 cm at a rate of 30 cycles/min for 30
min, followed by collection of aggregates plus the coarse materials retained on
each sieve and their weight recorded. The sample retained on each sieve is
dispersed in H2O2 and HCl and passed through individual sieves to account for
the coarse soil fractions, which otherwise might be included wrongly while
reporting the MWD and percent of total aggregates in different size fractions of
the soil mass.
Procedure
1. Take about 50 g of air-dried soil aggregates (passed through 8 mm and

retained on 5 mm sieves) of the soil provided. Take about another 50 g of
sub-sample for moisture content determination on oven-dry weight basis.
2. Spread the 50 g of aggregate sample gently onto the top of the nest of
sieves.
3. Making sure the shaft and crank are such that the sieves rest in their lowest
position, slowly bring the level of the water in the tanks to where they just
begin to wet up the aggregates sitting on the top of sieve.
4. Allow the aggregates to gradually wet for 10 minutes. Now switch on the
mechanical oscillator to move the nest of sieves up and down with a
frequency of 30 cycles per minute and a stroke of 3 cm. Sieving is done for
10 min. See that the water level in the drum is just above the top sieve in
the upward stroke.
5. Remove the nest of sieves from the water and allow it to drain for some
time. Separate the sieves carefully
6. Pour and wash out the contents of each sieve into a pre-weighed beaker and
let settle for 24 h. Then carefully decant off excess water making sure not to
lose soil. Dry beakers along with the contents in an oven at 105°C for 24 h.
After drying for 24 h, weigh the beaker along with the dry soil aggregates
and find out the weight of the dry soil aggregates in each beaker.
Plate 7. Yoder’s apparatus
7. Add 30-40 mL of H2O2 into beaker containing dry soil aggregates for
decomposition of organic matter which is a potential binding agent of
primary particles. Repeat the process till the complete decomposition of
organic matter until effervescence is ceased. Transfer the contents into the
dispersion cup. Add dispersing agent and enough distilled water to fill the
cup for easy stirring by a mechanical stirrer. Stir the suspension for 10
minutes.
8. Wash the suspension on an identical set of sieves as used previously by

means of a stream of tap water and a brush and transfer it to beakers. The
primary particles in each beaker are oven-dried and weighed. Calculate the
percent distribution of aggregates in different size ranges by subtracting the
primary particles retained in respective sieves.
Table 5.2: Work sheet for calculation of water stable aggregates (%)
S.No Particle Average Weight of particles retained on sieves (g)

size particle Before After Weight of
range size (mm) dispersion dispersion aggregated
(mm) (Xi) (Wi0) (Wi1) clay (Wi2)=
(Wi0- Wi1)
1 8 -5.0 6.5 W1 W8 W1 - W8
2 5.0-2.0 3.5 W2 W9 W2 - W9
3 2.0-1.0 1.5 W3 W10 W3 – W10
4 1.0-0.5 0.75 W4 W11 W4 – W11
5 0.5-0.25 0.375 W5 W12 W5 – W12
6 0.25-0.1 0.175 W6 W13 W6 – W13
7 0.1-0.0 0.05 W7 W14 W7- W14
Calculation
a) Calculation of water stable aggregates WSA) :
W0: Total weight of sample taken
W1: weight of aggregates retained on 5 mm sieve
W4: weight of aggregates retained on 0.5 mm sieve
W7: weight of aggregates retained on pan (<0.1 mm sieve)
W8: oven-dry weight of primary particles retained on 5 mm sieve
W11: oven-dry weight of primary particles retained on 0.5 mm sieve
W14: oven-dry weight of primary particles retained on lid
%Total aggregation = [(W1+W2+W3+W4+W5+W6)/W0] ×100
%WSA > 0.25 mm = [(W1+W2+W3+W4+W5)/W0] ×100
% WSA (> 0.25 mm) after correction for primary particles =
[{(W1-W7)+(W2-W8)+(W3-W9)+(W4-W10)+(W5 -W11)}/W0]×100
b) Mean Weight Diameter (MWD):
It gives an estimate of weighted percentage of average size of all the aggregates

and it is estimated as the sum of all products of the mean diameter of each size
fraction and the proportion of the total sample weight retained in the
corresponding size fractions
MWDw= i=1∑n Xi.Wi / ∑Wi
Where, Xi = Mean opening of the sieve (eg. 0.05, 0.175, 0.375, 0.75, 1.5, 3.5
and 6.5mm for 0-0.1, 0.1-0.25, 0.25-0.5, 0.5-1.0, 1-2, 2-5 and 5-8 mm size
classes, respectively)
Wi = Weight of retained aggregates (g)
n = Number of size classes
MWDw = [(W1*6.5+W2*3.5+W3*1.5+W4*0.75+W5*0.375+W6*0.175+W7*0.05)/W0] ×100
c) Geometric Mean Diameter (GMDw) = exp((i=1∑ nWi log Xi)/ (i=1∑ n Wi)
Table 5.3: Inference table for soil structure

% Water Stable Aggregates Quality of structure
< 18% Very low
18.1 – 34 % Low
34.1 – 50 % Medium
50.1 – 66 % High
>66.1 % Very high
(Bartlova et al, 2015)
6. SOIL MOISTURE
Soil moisture is the amount of water present in soil pore space and it is
generally expressed as the weight of water in unit weight of soil or volume of
water per unit volume of soil. Water present in the soil is held by tension or
suction. Not all the water present in the soil is available to crop and moisture
content between field capacity and permanent wilting point is considered as
plant available water. The water beyond permanent wilting point is unavailable
to crop plants. Hence, maintaining optimum soil moisture content is
prerequisite for proper aeration, nutrient transformations and availability,
biological activity and finally higher crop yields.
Knowledge of soil water content is required to assess the extent of availability

of soil water to the plants, work out optimum soil water regimes, depletion
patterns and consumptive use for various crops, scheduling of irrigation and
calculating depth of irrigation, water needed to bring the soil to a specified
water content, study soil water movement and relate certain physiological
processes of plants.
Measurement of soil moisture
I. Gravimetric method
It is a simple and standard method of soil moisture estimation and is

determined by drying a known weight of fresh moist soil sample in an oven at
105oC for 24 hours or until constant weight attained. This requires weight of
the fresh (wet) soil and weight of dry soil. At this temperature, all water except
that chemically bound is driven out of the soil. This method is simple, routine,
reliable, inexpensive and easy to use. The major limitations of this method are:
it is destructive, laborious and time consuming.
Apparatus/Equipment
Sampling augers (screw/tube/posthole), Aluminium moisture cans, Oven and

Balance
Procedure
1. Draw soil samples from the desired depth with a suitable auger and quickly
transfer them to pre-weighed moisture can with tight fitted lid.
2. Record the weight of the can with the moist soil as early as possible.
3. Open the lid and place the can containing the soil in oven at 105°C till
constant weight (24 h is usually sufficient).
4. Remove the can from the oven and cover it with lid immediately and cool at
room temperature
5. Weigh the can containing the oven-dry soil along with the lid.
6. Calculate the moisture content on oven-dry basis as given below.
Table 6.1: Work sheet for calculation of soil moisture by gravimetric

method and profile water content
Depth Layer Wwsc Wdsc Wc Ws Ww w BD φ Water

(cm) (cm) (g/g) (g cm-3) (cc/cc) content in
soil layers
(cm in the
layer)
(1) (2) (3) 4= 5= 6= 7 = 4/V 8=(6x7) 9= (8 x
(2-3) (1-2) (5/4)
layer in cm)
0-15 15
15-30 15
30-45 15
45-60 15
60-80 20
80-100 20
Profile water storage (cm/100cm) ∑--
Wwsc = Weight of wet soil + can + lid (Wet soil + can)

WdSc = Weight of oven soil + can + lid (Dry soil + can)
Wc = Empty weight of can
Ws = total weight of dry soil sample
Ww = weight of soil water in the soil sample
w = water content weight ratio = Ww / Ws
θ = volumetric water content = w x [BD/ ρ w] where ρ w (density of water) is one.
II. Soil moisture determination by Dielectric method
The dielectric constant is specific to each material, is 80 (at 20°C)for water, 1

for air, 12 for basalt, 8 for granite, and 10 for sandstone. Therefore, the
dielectric method uses the fact that the dielectric constant increases as the water
content in soil increases. There are three methods for making electrical
measurements of the dielectric constant: TDR (Time Domain Reflectometry)
method, FDR (Frequency Domain Reflectometry) method, and the ADR
(Amplitude Domain Reflectometry) methods, and among these methods TDR
method of moisture estimation easy and accurate for in situ moisture
estimation.
Time Domain Refractometry (TDR) method
It is most commonly used method for in situ soil moisture determination under
field condition. The TDR method measures the apparent dielectric constant by
measuring within the time region the round trip rate of electromagnetic waves
at a constant frequency (a high frequency from 30 MHz to 3 GHz) to and from
rods (metal electrodes) buried in the soil. High-energy electromagnetic pulse is
fed into the soil between two metal rods.
A part of the pulse is reflected back up through the soil from the bottom of the
rods and the time-interval for the pulse to traverse back, or the time-interval
between the incident and reflected pulse, is measured. This time-interval is
related to the soil’s moisture content.
Plate 8. TDR 350

The velocity (v) of an electromagnetic wave through a transmission line in a
non-magnetic medium is given by (Topp and Davis, 1985)
v = C / K1/2
Where C is the velocity of light (3 ×108 m/s) and K is dielectric constant of the
non-magnetic medium, such as soil.
v = 2L/t
where ‘L’ is the length of probe and ‘t’ is the time period between the sending
and receiving signal. For a fixed line length, the time interval relates inversely
to the propagation velocity of the signal in the soil. The time interval increases
with soil wetness. This measurement is independent of soil texture and salt
content.
2L/t = C / K1/2 or K = (Ct/2L)2
The following polynomial equation may be used in relating di-electric constant

with volumetric water content of soil.
 = (-5.3×10-2) + (2.92×10-2K) - (5.5×10-4K2) + (4.3×10-6K3)
The volumetric water content (mm cm-1) is displayed on the screen after
selecting the soil type, rod length and other parameters during standardization
of the equipment.
Advantages of TDR method
• Use of a calibration curve specific to soil allows highly precise

measurements with a measurement error of 0.01 to 0.02cm3/cm3 for
volumetric water content
• Rapid measurements are possible, allowing continuous measurement of the

dynamic state of water after rainfall
• Measurement of the average water content in the soil along the length of
the rod is possible.
Disadvantages
• The equipment is expensive and It is dependent on temperature
• Not easily applicable to soil with a high salt concentration (for a rod length
of 30cm the electrical conductivity is 4 dS m-1 or greater, prevents the
accurate measurement),
• Additional calibrations are required for soil that has a lot of volcanic ash or
organic content.
• Measurement is difficult when the soil at the ends of the rod becomes
extremely dry.
III. Tensiometer method

Tensiometer is also called irrometer as they are used in irrigation scheduling.
Tensiometers provide direct measure of tenacity with which water is held by
soil. It estimates soil water matric potential that includes both adsorption and
capillary effects of soil. Tensiometer consists of sealed water filled plastic tube
with a ceramic cup at one end and a negative pressure guage at the other.
Typically the measurement range is 0 to 0.80 bar. The vacuum guage is
graduated to indicate tension values up to one atmosphere is divided in to 50
divisions each of 0.2 atm value. A reading of zero corresponds to a completely
saturated condition, regardless of the type of soil. A reading of 85 indicates a
very dry condition for sandy soils or moisture sensitive crops. A tension higher
than 85 cb will cause the water column inside the tube to break rendering non-
functional.
Principle
When a sealed water filled tube is placed in contact with the soil through a
permeable and saturated porous material, water (inside the tube) comes into
equilibrium with the soil solution (it is at the same pressure potential as water
held in the soil matrix). Hence, the soil-water matric potential is equivalent to
the vacuum or suction created inside the tube.
Installation and recording observations
1. Saturate the tensiometer cup with de-aerated (boiled and cooled) water.
2. Fill the tensiometer with de-aerated water and cork it.
3. Before installation, the cups of the tensiometers must be kept dipped into
air-free water for 2-3 days to ensure that they get fully water saturated and
do not leak. Also, when tested under laboratory conditions, allow the
water-filled cups to dry in the air or near a hot plate so that the vacuum
gauge or the mercury rise in the attached Hg-H2O manometer shows a
suction head of around 0.8 bar (800 cm of water or 80 kPa). After drying
exercise, the ceramic cup may be dipped in a beaker full of water and the
sensitivity of the cup is tested by a quick drop in the Hg column in the
manometer or the vacuum gauge needle to zero.
4. For field installation, a hole may be made in the soil, using a soil auger.
5. Drop a handful of loose friable soil or fine sand into the hole; unless the
soil is one that puddles easily, a small amount of water is poured into the
hole.
6. Fill the tensiometer with de-aerated water.
7. Push the tensiometer into the hole by giving a firm twisting downward
motion applied to the
connecting PVC tube and place the cup at the desired soil depth. This
procedure will ensure the necessary intimate contact between the porous cup
and the soil in the vicinity. However, care must be taken that the cup is not
broken in this process.
8. Backfill the hole as may be necessary so that the tensiometer is firmly
held in the soil.
9. Flush the tensiometer with air-free water. Allow the tensiometer to reach
steady state.
10. Take the observation either using gauge type tensiometer
Table 6.2: Inference table from tensiometer readings
Reading Meaning
0.0 - 5.0 cb Saturated soil. Plants will sufer due to lack of oxygen in the
root zone
5.0 - 10 cb Field capacity
10 – 25 cb Ideal soil moisture and aeration conditions for majority of
crops
25 – 85 cb Decreased availability of soil-water to the plant at this stage.
85 – 100 cb Excessive quantities of air enter the tensiometer eventually
water column will be broken and vacuum lost.
(Source: Irrigation Agronomy by SR Reddy & GK Reddy)
When to irrigate?
Irrigations scheduled when
Type of soil
tensiometer reads at
Clay and clay loam textured soils 50 cb
Fine sand textured and sandy soils 30-40 cb
Coarse sand textured soils 20-30cb
(Source: Irrigation Agronomy by SR Reddy & GK Reddy)
As a thumb rule, apply 1 mm of water to reduce the tensiometer reading by 1cb
Limitations
• The useful potential range that can be measured in a tensiometer is 0 to

80 kPa As the soil gets drier than this range, air enters through the cup
and the water column in the tensiometer breaks.
• In soils with rapidly changing matric potential, the tensiometers are

usually slow to respond. The response time depends on the hydraulic
conductivity of the porous cup and sensitivity of the gauge or the
suction measuring device.
• Tensiometer is insensitive to soil solution osmotic potential.
• In case of gravelly soil, there is poor contact between the ceramic cup
and soil.
7. SOIL MOISTURE CHARACTERISTICS
Soil water potential (Ψ) is a measure of the tenacity with which water is
retained in the soil and shows the force per unit area that must be exerted to
remove water from the soil.it is expressed in atmospheres. It is the sum of the
gravitational potential, the matric potential, the pressure potential and the
osmotic potential.
Ψt = Ψg + Ψp + Ψm+ Ψo
Gravitational potential (Ψg): It is results from the elevation with respect to
reference level. When the water is above the reference level, its gravitational
potential is positive because it will tend to flow toward the reference level due
to the force of gravity. Whereas, water below the reference level has a negative
gravitational potential.
Pressure potential (Ψp): It results from external pressure on soil water usually
the result of overlying water or submergence depth and atmospheric pressure.
Pressure potential will be positive in a saturated soil and zero in an unsaturated
soil.
Matric potential (Ψm): It results from the interaction of soil particles with
water. It includes the forces of adsorption at the soil water interfaces and the
forces caused by surface tension at the air water interface. The matric potential
is negative for an unsaturated soil and zero for a saturated soil. Thus, removal
of water from soil water system decreases the matric potential
Osmotic potential (Ψo): It results from solutes dissolved in the soil water and
this potential is negative in the solution and is reduced by the addition of more
Plate 9: Soil water potential below and above reference level.

The fundamental relationship between the soil moisture content and the soil
matric potential is called as soil moisture characteristic or pF curve and it is
important to characterize the hydraulic properties of a soil. It shows the
relationship between the matric potential and the gravimetric or volumetric
water content of soil. This unique relationship depends on soil structure as
determined by the total porosity and pore size distribution. The amount of
water retained at lower suction (0-1 bar) depends on the capillary effect and
pore size distribution and hence is affected by soil structure. On the other hand,
water retained at higher suction depends on the adsorption of water on soil
surface and hence depends on the specific surface area or texture of soil. Soil
moisture characteristic curve is more strongly affected by soil texture. Greater
the clay content, the greater the water content at any particular suction and
more gradual the slope of the curve. In a sandy soil, most of the pores are
relatively large and once these large pores are emptied at a given suction, only
a small amount of water remains in soil. The slope of the soil moisture
characteristic curve is called as specific water capacity. The dependence of the
equilibrium water content or the state of soil water upon the direction of
process leading up to it is called as hysteresis.
Soil moisture characteristics may be utilized to derive several retention

quantities corresponding to the specific water potential values which are of
practical importance to the irrigation and drainage management of soil and also
used to compare the retention capacity of different soils.
I. Soil moisture characteristics at lower suction by hanging water column method
Principle
Undisturbed soil core is placed on a sintered glass funnel. A controlled suction

(negative pressure) in relation to the atmospheric pressure is applied by means
of a hanging water column to the water in the soil. The soil will lose water if
the applied suction is greater than the suction on the water already present in
the soil. The water drained by this suction is measured in a graduated burette
attached to the other end of the hanging water column. The rate of drainage
will depend initially on the sintered glass disc permeability, but as the soil loses
water, the hydraulic conductivity decreases, which effect the drainage rate.
Eventually the drainage time will depend on the conductivity of the soil
sample, the height of the sample, and the applied suction as well as the
efficiency of the contact.
Apparatus
Hanging water column: This consists of a sintered glass disc (porous plate)
fitted to a Buchner funnel (sintered glass funnel) with long flexible transparent
tubing attached to the end of the funnel: burette, stand, soil core, oven,
aluminium moisture cans and analytical balance.
Procedure
1. Fill whole of the apparatus with deaerated water, without any air bubble
below the porous plate. Air free water can be obtained by boiling and
cooling the distilled water.
Plate 10. Schematic diagram of hanging water column
2. Take undisturbed soil core from the field and place it on a filter paper in
the funnel.
3. Saturate the core on this funnel by bringing the water level in the burette
at the same level as the surface of the soil.
4. Remove any excess water present on the funnel and allow it to

equilibrate it for 24 h. Record the initial reading in the burette.
5. Lower free end of the tube by lowering the burette by 10 cm from the
mid point of the core. Allow it to stand for 24 h and record the burette
reading. Find out the difference, which indicates the water drained at
that suction.
6. Repeat the above step by lowering end of the tube at different levels
and take the observation on the decrease of height of the burette (H) and
burette reading (V).
7. At the end of this study, remove the core from the sintered funnel, record the
initial fresh weight. Dry the soil core in the oven at 1050C till constant
weight and record the dry weight to find out the soil moisture content.
Table 7.1: Work sheet for calculation of suction by hanging water
column method
S.No Tension in the water Water Cumulative Water
column (cm) or Distance drained water content in
between the midpoint of (mL) drained soil
the core and the water (mL)
level in the burette (H)
1 H1 = 0 cm -- --
2 H2 = 10 cm v-1 V-1
3 H3 = 20 cm v-2 V-2
4 H4 = 30 cm v-3 V-3
5 H5 = 40 cm v-4 V-4
6 H6 = 50 cm v-5 V-5
Where: V-1 = v-1: V-2 = V-1+v-2: V-3=V-2+v-3 : V-4=V-3+v-4: V-5 = V-4

+v-5 etc.
These V-1, V-2, V-3, V-4 and V-5 represent the total amount of water drained
from the saturated soil sample under H2, H3, H4, H5 and H6 water tensions
respectively. The water drained at 50 cm water tension is called as Aeration
porosity, which is one of the quality parameters of the soil.
Data on drained water can be used to back-calculate the moisture content of the
soil at that corresponding suction using the following formula:
Water content at a given suction (H) =
(Water content in the previous suction + Amount of water drained in that suction)
x100
Oven dry weight of the soil
Pore size distribution
The following classes of pores are recognized based on their size (Loveday,
1973)
Super pores : >3 mm wide
Macro pores : 0.03 – 3.0 mm wide
Meso pores : 0.0002-0.03 mm wide
Micro pores : <0.0002mm wide
The limits of 3, 0.03, and 0.0002 mm correspond to pores draining at 1cm,
100cm and 15bar, respectively. From the volumetric water contents at
respective suctions gives the volume of pores finer than the nominated
equivalent pore radii. The proportional of pores in a particular range may be
obtained by difference.
Calculations
2. γ cosφ
Pore radius (r) cm = ---------------
ρ g.h
Where γ – surface tension of water (72 dynes/cm) with density ρ
Φ- angle of cantact (generally, taken as zero, unless the soil is resistant to
wetting): thus Cosφ =1
g- acceleration due to gravity and h is the suction in cm water equivalent to the
height of rise in the capillary with radius r, with which the water in the pore is
in equilibrium.
0. 15 0. 3
Pore radius (r) cm = --------- or Pore dia (d) cm = ----------
h (cm) --
h
(cm)
The volume of water removed from a given volume of soil at specified tension
represents the volume of the pores of the size indicated by that tension.
II. Soil moisture characteristics at higher suction using pressure plate

apparatus
Principle When a ceramic plate, with saturated soil on it is subjected to an air

pressure above the atmospheric pressure, the higher pressure forces excess
water through the microscopic pores in the ceramic plate and out of the system
via the passage offered by the screen. The maximum air pressure that any given
wetted porous ceramic plate can withstand before letting the air pass through, is
determined by the diameter of the largest pore. The smaller the pore size, the
higher will have to be the air pressure to let air to pass through. The pressure
that finally breaks down these water menisci is called as bubbling pressure or
air entry value. The pressure plate cell must always be used at air plate
extraction value below its bubbling pressure.
Apparatus
Pressure plate apparatus, Brass or rubber rings of 1 cm height and 6 cm

diameter, balance, oven, aluminium moisture cans and pipette
Procedure
1. Take soil samples from the field with auger and air-dry them under shade.
Grind the soil samples by striking in wooden hammer and sieve them
through a 2 mm opening sieve.
2. Put the soil samples in duplicate inside the brass or rubber rings placed over
appropriate ceramic plates and level them. Brass rings attached to core
samplers can also be used directly for this purpose. Each plate can
accommodate about 12 rings
3. Saturate the samples by placing the plate with the rings in a trough of water
for about 24 h. Water should be just enough to reach the upper edge of the
rings.
4. After saturation, transfer the plates to the respective pressure chambers and
place them on the hinge in case of less than 5 bar extractor or on the
triangular support in case of more than 5 bar extractor.
5. Connect the nylon tube and rubber sleeve to the outlet pipe of the pressure
plate apparatus.
6. Remove the excess water from the ceramic plates with a pipette or syringe.
7. Close all the unused outlets with the provided plug bolts and make sure that
the ‘O’ ring is in place in case of 15 bar extractor.
8. Fix the lid on the pressure chambers with nuts and bolts.
9. Adjust the pressure to the required level in the pressure chamber by

adjusting appropriate regulator.
10. As the pressure builds up inside the pressure chamber, water will come out
through the outflow tubes.
11. When soil water pressure equilibrates with air pressure, flow of water
ceases.
12. After equilibrium is reached (there is no outflow of water), release the

pressure in the chamber by shutting of the regulator gently.
13. Remove clamping bolts and lid to open the chamber.
14. Transfer the samples immediately to moisture boxes and take the weight as
soon as possible in order to avoid loss of water due to evaporation.
15. Dry the samples in an oven at 1050 C till constant weight and record the
weight.
16. From these data, find out the moisture content at the corresponding pressure
using the formula given below.
Precautions
• Prevent air leakage from pressure plate assembly.
• Increase pressure in the pressure chamber gradually to the desired level.
• Before opening the lid, assure that all the pressure has been released to
avoid accident.
Calculations
Weight of the empty aluminium moisture box = W1
Weight of the moisture box + wet soil = W2
Weight of the moisture box + oven-dry soil = W3
Volume of the soil core (V ) = π r2 h (cm3)
W3-W2
Moisture content on dry weight basis w (%) = --------------- X 100
W3-W1
W3-W1
-3
Bulk density (g cm ) = -------------
V
Volumetric moisture content of soil,  = (%w) x Bulk density (g cm-3)
Available water capacity (AWCw) = water content between FC and PWP
= {water content at 0.1 (sandy soils) or 0.3 bar (normal soils)} –
{water content at 15 bar}
Table 7.2: Work sheet for calculation of soil available water by pressure plate
Depth AWCw B.D AWCv Layer Depth of water
(cm) (g/g) (Mg m-3) (c.c/c.c) thickness (cm/cm)
(1) (2) (3) (4)= 2x3 (cm) (5) (6)= 4x5
Total
Table 7.3: Inference table for available water storage capacity of soil
Available water storage capacity (cm m-1) Class
<5 Very low
5-10 Low
10-15 Medium
15-20 High
>20 Very high
(Source: AICRP SPC Bulletin No. 6, pp5, 1989)
8. MAXIMUM WATER HOLDING CAPACITY OF SOIL
Maximum water holding capacity (MWHC) or saturation capacity defined as
the amount of moisture in a soil when its total pore space is completely filled
with water. This happens when a layer of soil allowed absorbing water from a
free water surface (Piper, 1950). Under this condition all the micro and
macropores completely are filled with water. If the moisture content is
increased further, percolation starts under the action of gravity. The saturation
capacity varies with the soil. It increases with the presence of greater quantities
of silt, clay, organic matter and colloidal matter. Maximum water holding
capacity is approximately 4 times of wilting point and 2 times of the field
capacity.
The water holding capacity of a soil is a very important agronomic

characteristic. The soil with limited water holding capacity (i.e., a sandy loam)
reaches the saturation point much sooner than a soil with a higher water
holding capacity (i.e.,a clay loam). After a soil is saturated with water, all of
the excess water along with some of the nutrients and pesticides that are in the
soil solution are leached downward in the soil profile.
Apparatus
Keen’s cups (6cm diameter, 1.6 cm height and at bottom 0.75 mm perforated
holes at 4 mm apart) Soil sampling auger, 2.0 mm sieve, filter papers, Spatula,
Water tray, Electronic balance, oven.
Procedure
1. Collect the soil sample from the desired depth using soil sampling auger.
2. Air dry the sample, pound the aggregates in a mortar and pestle as far as
possible and pass through a 2 mm sieve.
3. Mix the sieved material thoroughly and preserve it for filling the Keen’s
cup.
4. Cut out a Whatman No. 1 or 44 filter paper to fit exactly at the
perforated bottom of the Keen’s cup.
Plate 11: Measuring MWHC by Keen’s cup
5. Take the weight of the Keen’s cup along with the filter paper placed
inside on the perforated bottom (Wb).
6. By means of spatula, transfer the air dried soil in small lots into the
keen’s cup so as to fill the cup. For uniform packing, tap the box gently
with each addition of soil during filling process. When the box is full,
slice of the extra quantity with the help of the spatula. Tap the cup, add a
little more quantity of soil and again remove the surplus stuff to ensure a
level surface. Then note down the weight (Wbs).
7. Place the keen cup containing soil in a water tray for saturation
overnight. On next day remove the cup, wipe it dry from outside. Take
their weights along with the soil (Wbws). After weighing, place the cup
in an oven at 105°C and dry it to a constant weight. Cool it at room
temperature and weigh (Wbds).
8. Instead of Keen’s cup, undisturbed soil cores can also be used for this
purpose. In this case, first the weight of empty core is recorded (Wb).
After collecting soil in this core with the help of a core sampler, the core
filled with soil is kept on a filter paper inside a tray filled with water and
saturated through capillary action. After saturation, the moist weight of
the core with soil (Wbws) is recorded after removing the extra water.
Then this core is dried in oven at 105°C till constant weight and the dry
weight (Wbds) is recorded.
9. Apply a correction for the amount of water absorbed by the filter paper
as follows. Weigh five filter papers together. Saturate them with water.
Roll gently a glass rod over them to squeeze out water uniformly. Weigh
again. Calculate the average amount of water held by the paper (Wp)
and can be applied wherever required.
Table 8.1: Work sheet for calculation of MWHC of soil

S.No Sample Keen’s cup Keen’s Keen’s cup MWHC=
particulars along with cup with with filter (Wbws-
the filter filter paper + wet Wbds)/(Wbds-
paper (Wb) paper + saturated soil Wb) ) × 100
dry soil (Wbws)
(Wbds)
g g g %
Weight of keen’s cup + filter paper +wet residual soil = ‘D’ g

Weight of keen’s cup + filter paper +dry residual soil = ‘E’ g
Weight of watch glass = ‘F’ g
Weight of watch glass + wet expanded soil = ‘G’ g
Weight of watch glass + dry expanded soil = ‘H’ g
Volume of keen’s cup V=π r2h
Other physical properties using keen’s cup method
Wbds-Wb
-3
1. Bulk density (Mg m ) = ---------------
V
E-Wb
-3
2. Particle density (Mg m ) = ---------------
V-(D-E)
D-E
3. % pore space = ------------- x 100
V
4. Volume of expansion per 100 g of soil on dry weight basis =

H-F/P.D + G-H
-----------------------
Wbds-Wb
H-F/P.D + G-H
5. Volume expansion/100 g of soil on volume basis =
----------------------
V
9. SATURATED HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
The hydraulic conductivity is the ability of the soil to conduct water. It depends
upon several soil factors and properties of the fluid. The factors affecting the
hydraulic conductivity are % pore space, pore size distribution and pore
geometry (the texture and structure of the soil are the principal determinants of
the geometry of the soil pores), and the amount of clay and other factors like
mineralogical composition of the soil, presence of entrapped air with in the soil
pores, microbial activity, viscosity and the density of the fluid properties
(influenced by the thermal environment) and the tortuosity of soil pores etc.
Hydraulic conductivity may be determined under saturated or unsaturated
condition. The saturated hydraulic conductivity pertains to the conductivity of
soil when all pores, macro as well as micro, are filled with water, whereas
unsaturated conductivity is when pores are partially filled. The actual path
length traversed by a parcel of water flowing through the soil pores is greater
than the length of the column. Coarse textured soils have higher saturated
hydraulic conductivity while the heavy clays which have finer pores will have
lower hydraulic conductivity. The lower conductivity of soils having finer
pores may be due to the drag exerted by the walls of the channels on the
viscous fluid. The liquid is closer to the walls of the soil particles in fine porous
soils than in macro porous soils.
This property is of great importance as it determines the internal drainage of

soils, land classification, also important in determining the proportion of
rainfall/ irrigation loss through runoff. This also determines the rate of
movement of pollutants to ground water, the rate of movement of water and
nutrients to plant roots
Measurement of Ksat by constant head method
Hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) can be determined in the laboratory by using this

method for soils having moderate values of hydraulic conductivity. In this
method a constant head of water column is maintained above the soil surface of
a saturated sample and water is allowed to flow through the sample till the
measured outflow attains a constant value.
Principle
It is based on Darcy’s law which states that volume of water flowing through
the soil column per unit time, is directly proportional to the cross-sectional area
and to the hydraulic head drop ΔH and inversely proportional to the length of
the column L.
ΔH
Q = (-) K ----------- At
L
Q is the outflow volume of water, L is the length of soil, A is the cross
sectional area of soil, t is the time and H stands for the difference in total head
between inflow and outflow ends (h+L) and K is hydraulic conductivity. The
negative symbol indicates that the flow occurs always in the direction of
decreasing hydraulic gradient (high potential to low potentioal).
The hydraulic head gradient, which is the ratio of hydraulic head drop (between
inflow and outflow) to the column length is necessary for calculating flux
according to Darcy law. The saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) of soil is
generally determined in the laboratory on undisturbed soil core with the help of
either constant head permeameter or falling head permeameter.
Apparatrus: As shown in plate 12
Procedure
1. Clear the soil surface from leaves and trashes.
2. Push the core (permeameter) gently into the soil taking care not to
disturb soil within the core.
3. Obtain an undisturbed soil core with excess soil on both ends trimmed to
ensure level surfaces.
4. Prevent the ends of soil core from being disturbed by covering with
plastic lids and transport to the laboratory for measuring hydraulic
conductivity.
Plate 12. Hydraulic conductivity apparatus
5. Place a filter paper disc on the soil surface in the permeameter.
6. Saturate the soil overnight by placing the permeameter in a tray filled

with water and attached the dummy rings above it tightly using rubber
band.
7. Place the permeameter on the stand and start the siphons to maintain a
constant head of 2-3 cm of water on the top of the soil by siphon tubes
and Mariotte arrangement (Plate 12)
8. Do not allow the water to flow over the top of the permeameter.
9. Record the height of water on the soil surface and height of upper
surface of brass screen from the table top.
10. Let the liquid flow out for 30 min in case of sandy soils, and for 2 h in
case of heavy soils, and then start recording the outflow data.
11. Collect the amount of fluid flowing through the soil in a graduated
cylinder in a given time.
12. Take another reading after 15 min, continue recording the outflow after
each 30 min interval to have four readings.
13. Let it run for 2 to 4 h depending upon the soil texture and then again
record the outflow rate at 15 min interval until 4 readings are obtained.
14. Now take four consecutive readings of outflow and use the average of
these readings for calculation of hydraulic conductivity, when these
readings are fairly close. Record the temperature of the outflow water.
Calculations
QL
-1
Hydraulic conductivity, Ksat (cm min ) = -------------------
A (h+L) t
Q = Volume of water collected, cm3
L= Length of soil column, cm
A = Cross sectional area of the permeameter= π r2, cm2
r= inner radius of the core, cm
t = Time interval of collection, min
h = Depth of the water above the soil, cm
Hydaulic gradient calculation (as shown in plate 12):
Total head at inflow, Hi= h + L cm
Total head at outflow, Ho= 0 cm

Hydraulic head difference, H= Hi –Ho =h+L cm
Hydraulic gradient =[ h+L]/ L (no units)
Table 9.1: Work sheet for calculation Ksat by constant head method
Sample particulars:
S.No Time interval of collection (min) Volume of water collected

(t) (Q) (ml)
1
2
3
4
Table 9.2: Inference table for Ksat (cm hr-1)

Hydraulic conductivity Hydraulic conductivity
Classes (cm hr-1) (in hr-1)
Very slow <0.125 0.05
Slow 0.125-0.5 0.05-0.2
Moderate slow 0.5-2.0 0.2-0.8
Moderate 2.0-6.25 0.8-2.5
Moderately rapid 6.25-12.5 2.5-5.0
Rapid 12.5-25.0 5.0-10.0
Very rapid >25.0 >10.0
(Source: Bandyopadhyay et al., 2012)
10. INFILTRATION RATE
Infiltration is the process of water entry into the soil, generally through the soil
surface and vertically downward. The rate at which water enters into the soil is
the infiltration rate, which is dependent on the soil type, soil structure or
amount of aggregation, and initial soil water content (Lowery et al., 1996). The
infiltration rate is sensitive to surface & near-surface conditions and is
subjected to significant change with soil use, management and time. The
infiltration rate will be higher when the soil is dry than when wet. Tillage
improves the infiltration, whereas surface crusting and compaction reduces the
infiltration rate and thereby increases the surface runoff. It is affected by the
development of plant roots, earthworm, termites burrows, soil aggregation, and
by overall increase in stable organic matter. Infiltration is rapid in large
continuous pores in the surface and decreased when the size or amount of pore
space is reduced from conditions such as structure breakdown, pore clogging
by lodged particles, or slower movement of deeper water as it reaches denser
subsoils.
Table 10.1: Steady infiltration rates for general texture groups in very
deeply wetted soil
Soil type Steady infiltration rate (cm/hr)
Sands >2.0
Sandy and silty soils 1.0 – 2.0
Loams 0.5 – 1.0
Clayey soils 0.1 – 0.5
Sodic clayey soils <0.1
(Source: Hillel, 1982)
Water entering too slowly may lead to ponding on level fields, erosion with
surface runoff on sloping fields and leads to inadequate moisture for crop
production. An adequate amount of water must infiltrate into the soil profile for
optimum crop production. Porous soils allow water to infiltrate and recharge
ground-water aquifers and sustain base flow in streams. An infiltration rate that
is too high can lead to nitrate-nitrogen or pesticide leaching and its rate
determines the amount of runoff over the soil surface. The management
measures, such as residue management, cover crops can improve infiltration.
Double ring infiltrometer method
Principle
The infiltration rate is generally determined in the field using the cylinder or
the ring infiltrometer. This method measures the vertical rate of entry of water
into the soil surface. It consists essentially of metal ring which is hammered
into the soil vertically downwards. Water is, then, poured into the ring. After
water has penetrated into the soil to a depth, below the bottom of the ring, it
will start spreading laterally as well as vertically. This will affect the
infiltration rates, because water is moving laterally as well as downwards from
the zone of the wetted soil. To minimize this effect, a buffer pond can be
created by driving a larger diameter metal ring concentric with the ring
infiltrometer. The use of two concentric metal rings to work out the infiltration
characteristics is referred to as the ‘double ring’ infiltrometer method.
Plate:13. Double ring infiltrometer
Aparatus
Infiltration rings of 14-16 guage, outer ring of 60 cm dia and inner ring of 30
cm dia and both of 30 cm height, spade, hammer, bucket, polythene sheet, hook
guage, scale and timer.
Procedure
1. The spot at which the infiltration rate is to be determined is to be carefully

cleaned of vegetation and levelled.
2. The two metal concentric rings (or cylinders) are gradually hammered into
the soil in such a way that there is least disturbance to the soil surface. The
rings should be pushed to a minimum depth of 10 cm into the soil.
3. Pour water into the rings and maintain water in the buffer pond (in between
two rings) at about the same depth as inside the inner ring. While applying
water initially into the inner ring, a piece of plastic or polythene is placed
inside the ring to prevent any disturbance the soil surface. This sheet is
subsequently removed and the initial reading of the water level is recorded
immediately.
4. The level of water in the rings is maintained between 6-8 cm of the depth of
water, generally, existing during application of irrigation water.
5. Take observations on the rate of entry of water, as visualised by decrease in

water level at closer intervals initially, followed by wider intervals with the
passage of time.
6. Step 4 and 5 are repeated until two consecutive readings of same infiltration
rates are obtained.
Table 10.2: Work sheet for calculation of infiltration rate (cm hr-1)
S.No Time Time Cumulative Depth of Water Cumulative Infiltration
interval time (min) water (cm) intake infiltration rate
(min) in (cm) (cm hr-1)
depth
(cm)
(1) Start End (3-2)= (5) Initial Final (6-7)= (9) (10)
(2) (3) (4) (6) (7) (8)
Table 10.3: Inference table for infiltration rate
Infiltration rate Infiltration rate Infiltration class

(cm hr-1) (inches hr-1)
>50.0 >20.0 Very rapid
15-50 20.0- 6.0 Rapid
5-15 6.0-2.0 Moderately rapid
1.5-5 2.0-0.6 Moderate
0.5 – 1.5 0.6-0.2 Moderately slow
0.15-0.5 0.2-0.06 Slow
0.0037- 0.15 0.06-0.0015 Very slow
<0.0037 <0.0015 Impermeable
(USDA, NRCS infiltration bulletin)
11. PHYSICAL HEALTH RATING INDEX
Physical rating of soils is an efficient tool for physical constraint analysis
required for assessing their production potential. This concept was developed
by Gupta and Abrol (1993). In land use planning, important soil parameters
such as texture, depth, slope etc. are used for deciding the limitation of lands
for different uses such as agricultural, horticultural, forestry or grasslands for
maintaining soil productivity and preventing environmental degradation.
Physical rating of soils for agricultural lands is one step ahead of this
classification. In this method, in addition to basic physical parameters, few
more dynamic parameters such as bulk density, infiltration rate, soil organic
matter, water table depth and available water storage capacity are used for
physical constraint identification along with the estimation of relative
magnitude of their severity. Accordingly, the production potential of these soils
could be predicted under optimum levels of water and fertilizer inputs along
with the adoption of appropriate plant protection measures. Efficiency of any
suggested management practice for alleviating these constraints could be
assessed in terms of changes in its rating value and hence its production
potential.
Steps for calculating physical health rating index ( PRI) of a soil at a given
location
1. Parameters to be determined are soil depth in cm (A), bulk density of top

100 cm in g cm-3 (B), infiltration rate in cm hr-1 (C), available water storage
capacity of top100 cm of soil in cm (D), aggregation in terms of % soil
organic matter in upper 10 cm soil layer (E), % non capillary pores of top
60 cm (F), water table depth in cm (G) and % land slope (H).
2. For a given site, assign a rating value corresponding to its actual value by
referring rating chart .
3. For each of these parameters give a score of 1, if the parameter value lies
within the optimum range. If the value lies below or above the critical limit,
a score less than 1 is to be given. Greater the deviation of parameter value
from optimum range, lesser the score given to it. The product of rating
values of all the eight parameters gives the physical rating index (PRI).
4. Based on the PRI, classify the soils into five categories to estimate their
production potential.
5. Appropriate management practices have to be suggested to bring the value

of constrained parameter within optimum limits to enhance its rating value,
which ultimately increases the production potential of the soil.
Table 11.1: Physical health rating for upland crops

A. Soil depth rating for different texture
Coarse Medium and fine
Depth (cm)
rating rating
<20 0.70 0.9
20-50 0.80 0.95
50-100 0.90 1.00
100-150 0.95 1.00
>150 1.00 1.00
B. Bulk density for different textured soils (g cm-3)

Coarse textured soil
1.5 1.5-1.7 >1.7
Medium textured soil
<1.4 1.4-1.6 >1.6
Fine textured soil
<1.0 1.0-1.3 >1.3
Rating
1.00 1.00 0.80
C. Final infiltration rate (cm hr-1)

Magnitude Rating
<0.2 0.85
0.2-0.5 0.90
0.5-1.0 0.95
1.0-3.0 1.00
3.0-6.0 0.90
>6.0 0.80
D. Available water storage capacity (cm m-1)
Magnitude Rating
<7 0.80
7-10 0.90
10-15 0.95
>15 1.00
E. Organic matter content in 0-10 cm layer (%)

Magnitude Rating
<0.5 0.80
0.5-1.0 0.90
1.0-2.0 0.95
>2.0 1.00
F. Non capillary pores in 0-60cm(%)

Magnitude Rating
<5 0.80
5-10 0.95
10-15 1.00
>15 0.95
G. Water table depth (cm)

Magnitude Rating
<50 0.80
50-100 0.90
>100 1.00
H. Land slope (%)

Rating
Magnitude Coarse textured Medium & fine
soils textured soils
<1 1.00 0.90
1-2 0.95 1.00
2-5 0.90 0.95
>5 0.85 0.90
Table 11.2 Physical health rating for Paddy
Bulk density (Mg m-3) Saturated hydraulic conductivity

(cm hr-1)
Range Rating Range Rating
1.00 - 1.20 0.65 0.005-0.10 1.00
1.20 - 1.30 0.75 0.10-0.20 0.95
1.30 - 1.45 and 1.70 - 1.75 0.85 0.20-0.50 0.90
1.45 - 1.50 and 1.65 - 1.70 0.90 0.50-1.00 0.85
1.50 - 1.55 and 1.60 - 1.65 0.95 1.00-3.00 0.80
1.55 - 1.60 1.00 3.00-30.00 0.70
30.0-150 0.60
Available water retention capacity(cm m-1) Organic carbon (%):

Range Rating
15.0.30.0 1.00 Range Rating
12.5-15.0 0.95 0.05-0.60 1.00
10.0-12.5 0.90 0.60-0.90 0.95
7.5-10.0 0.80 0.9-1.20 0.90
5.0-7.5 0.75 1.20-1.50 0.85
2.5-5.0 0.70
Non capillary percentage
Range Rating
2.5-5.0 1.00
5.0-10.0 0.95
10.0-12.5 0.90
12.5-15.0 0.85
15.0-30.0 0.80
Computation of Physical health rating Index (PRI) :
Soil physical rating score chart by Gupta and Abrol (1993) was used for rating
different soil physical parameters. Scores for different soil parameters were
given as per the rating chart tables for both upland crop and lowland rice. In
these tables three important soil parameters namely soil depth, depth of water
table and land slope need not be considered because majority of soils were
deep (>1 m), depth of water table was >1.5 m and land slopes were <2 %. The
parameters considered for computing soil physical health assessment were
Bulk density ( BD in Mg m-3), saturated hydraulic conductivity (Sat HC in cm
h-1), available water retention capacity (AWRC in cm m-1), organic carbon (OC
in %) and non-capillary pores (NCP in %).
PRI = RB x RH x RW x RO x RN
Where,
RB = Physical rating for bulk density
RH = Physical rating for saturated hydraulic conductivity
RW= Physical rating for available water storage capacity
RO = Physical rating for organic carbon content in 0-15 cm soil layer
RN = Physical rating for non capillary porosity (%)
Table: 11.3 Inference table for soil physical health index
Productivity class Physical index Suitability
Very suitable, very high crop

I > 0.90 yields
Suitable, expected yield 75 %

II 0.75-0.90 of potential
Moderately suitable, expected

III 0.50-0.75 yield 50 % of potential
Slightly suitable, low yields-

could be increased by
appropriate soil management
IV 0.25-0.50 practices
V < 0.25 Unsuitable

(Gupta and Abrol.1993)
12. TO KNOW YOUR UNDERSTANDING...
1. The bulk density value of cultivated sandy loam in Tirupati is1.54 g cm-3
and for uncultivated clay in Tirumala forest is 0.98 g cm-3. Among these 2
soils:
a) Which soil would be considered the "heavy" soil and which one would be
considered "light"?
b) Which soil weighs more per unit volume?
2. If a soil has a high bulk density, what are the implications on porosity and
aeration of the soil?
3. Given that a soil has a particle density of 2.64 g cm-3 and 50 % pore space,
what is its bulk density?
4. A hectare furrow slice (100 m x 100 m x 0.15 m volume of soil) is

conventionally assumed to have an oven-dry weight of 2,000,000 kg. What
bulk density is implied?
5. If 3 plants are grown in the same congenial cultivation conditions, but are
irrigated at 100, 75 & 50% field capacity, which plant will have longer
roots?
6. Calculate the soil moisture content in mm cm-1 depth of soil, when the soil
moisture content is 12% weight on oven dry basis in 0-15 cm depth and bulk
density is 1.44gcm-3?
7. Assume the soil moisture content of a red and a black soil as 10 % and 12
%, respectively on weight basis and write the soil type having higher
volumetric water content available to crop with reason?
8. How much water (lit) is required to provide 10 mm of irrigation for one

hectare?
9. If the of moisture content at field capacity & wilting point is 25 % and 8
%, respectively; what is the volume of water required to bring the soil
moisture to 50% available soil moisture from wilting point? Assume the
bulk density as 1.33 g cm-3
10. Calculate the bulk density of a 400 cm3 soil sample that weighs 575 g
(oven dry weight).
11. Calculate the bulk density of a 400 cm3 soil sample that weighs 600 g with
10% moisture.
12. Calculate the volume of a soil sample weighing 650 g and has a bulk
density of 1.3 g cm-3 at 12% soil moisture.
13. Calculate the bulk density of a rectangular soil sample with dimensions 12
cm x 6 cm x 4 cm containing 15% moisture content and weighs 320 g.
14. Calculate the oven dry weight of a 350 cm3 soil sample with a bulk density
of 1.42 g cm-3.
15. Calculate the porosity of a soil sample that has a bulk density of 1.35 g cm-3.
Assume the particle density as 2.65 g cm-3.
16. Calculate the porosity of a 250 cm3 clod that contains 140 cm3 water when
saturated.
17. Calculate the bulk density of a soil sample that has a porosity of 45%.
18. Calculate the porosity of a 250 g sample that contains 65 g of water when
55% of the pores are full of water.
19. What is the particle density of a soil sample that has a bulk density of 1.55
g cm-3 and a porosity of 40%.
20. How to interpret the tensiometers reading in scheduling of irrigation to the

field?
21. What happens to the downward flow of water if there is a coarse textured
(sandy) horizon overlying a horizon with high clay content? What happens
to water flow if a clayey horizon is found over a sandy horizon?
22. Calculate the water storage depth (cm m-1) from the given data? (Moisture
at 0-15 cm, 15-30 cm, 30-100 cm is 15%,18% and 22% respectively and
B.D – 1.34,1.45,1.55 g/cc)
23. What are the components of soil water potential under saturated conditions
and under unsaturated conditions?
24. Define soil water characteristic curves and explain hysteresis?
25. Given a soil moisture characteristic curve for a clay and a sand, distinguish
between the two soils. Which has the higher water content at saturation?
Which shows the steeper decrease in water content with decreasing matric
potential?
26. A 50 cm3 core sample of moist soil weighed 68 g. After drying at 105 οC
for 24 h it weighed 60 g. What was the gravimetric water content of moist
soil? The volumetric water content?
27. Differentiate between infiltration rate and hydraulic conductivity?
28. Maximum water holding capacity of soil reduced with increasing Ksat.
Why?
29. Calculate the of hydraulic head difference and hydraulic head gradient
assuming Head at inflow and outflow are 50 and 5 cm respectively with
water passing through 10 cm soil column.
30. MWHC is lower and Ksat is higher in sandy loams compared to clay
loams. Explain.
13. RELATED TERMINOLOGY
Adhesion: Forces of attraction between unlike molecules, e.g., water and solid.
Aggregate: A group of primary soil particles that cohere to each other more
strongly than to other surrounding particles.
Aggregate stability: A measure of the proportion of the aggregates in a soil

which do not easily slake, crumble, or disintegrate.
Aggregation: The process whereby primary soil particles (sand, silt, clay) are
bound together, usually by natural forces and substances derived from root
exudates and microbial activity.
Air entry value: The value of water content or potential at which air first
enters a porous media.
Air-filled porosity: The fraction of the bulk volume of soil that is filled with
air at any given time or under a given condition, such as a specified soil-water
content or soil-water matric potential.
Apparent specific gravity:A term formerly used to designate the ratio of the
mass per unit bulk volume of soil and water.
Available soil moisture: It is the moisture content between field capacity (0.33
atm) and permanent wilting point (15 bar)
Bernoulli's Principle: The soil water potential decreases in the direction of

flow.
Bulk density: Ratio of mass of the oven dry soil solid particles to the total
volume of the soil.
Capillary water: water retained by the soil in micropores against gravity by

surface tension as continuous film around soil particles
Capillary fringe: Zone immediately above the water table where the soil is
saturated but under sub atmospheric pressure.
Capillary porosity: The small pores, or the bulk volume of small pores, which
hold water in soils against a tension usually >60 cm of water.
Capillary water: The water held in the "capillary" or small pores of a soil,
usually with a tension >60 cm of water.
Clay films: Coatings of oriented clay on the surfaces of peds and mineral
grains and lining pores. Also called clay skins, clay flows, illuviation cutans, or
argillans.
Clod: A compact, coherent mass of soil varying in size, usually produced by

plowing, digging, etc. especially when these operations are performed on soils
that are either too wet or too dry and usually formed by compression, or
breaking off from a larger unit, as opposed to a building-up action as in
aggregation.
Cohesion: attraction of two similar phases i.e., water & water
Compressibility: The property of a soil pertaining to its susceptibility to

decrease in bulk volume when subjected to a load.
Consistency : The manifestations of the forces of cohesion and adhesion acting

within the soil at various water contents, as expressed by the relative ease with
which a soil can be deformed or ruptured.
Crust: A transient soil-surface layer, ranging in thickness from a few

millimeters to a few centimeters, that is either denser, structurally different or
more cemented than the material immediately beneath it, resulting in greater
soil strength when dry as measured by penetration resistance of soil strength.
Darcy’s law: the rate of discharge passing through the column per unit time is
directly proportional to the cross sectional area and to the hydraulic head and
inversely proportional to the length of the column.
Deflocculated The inverse of flocculation. When soil solutions are at low ionic
strength and dominated by alkali metal cations, especially at higher pH values,
soil colloidal particles can be dispersed throughout the solution.
Deep percolation: The downward movement of water at the bottom of the soil
profile which represents a loss of water from the root zone.
Degree of saturation: It is the ration of the total volume of water present in the
soil at a particular time to the volume of pores.
Field capacity (FC): it is the amount of moisture held by the initially saturated
soil after downward movement due to gravity is practically seized. It is the
upper limit (-0.1 to -0.3 bar) of available water to plants
Flocculation: The coagulation of colloidal soil particles due to the ions in

solution. In most soils the clays and humic substances remain flocculated due
to the presence of doubly and triply charged cations.
Hydraulic conductivity: It is the ability of the material to transmit fluid

through pore spaces and fractures in the presence of an applied hydraulic
gradient.
Hygroscopic water: water is held tightly as thin film around soil particles by
adsorption forces and no longer moves in capillary pores.
Gravitational water: Water which moves into, through, or out of the soil
under the influence of gravity.
Heat capacity: Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a given

quantity of soil by 1 0C.
Heavy soil: A soil with a high content of the fine separates, particularly clay, or
one with a high drawbar pull and hence difficult to cultivate, especially when
wet. See also fine texture.
Hydraulic conductivity: The proportionality factor in Darcy's Law, as applied
to viscous flow of water in soil, that represents the ability of soil to conduct
water and is equivalent to the flux of water per unit gradient of hydraulic
potential.
Hydraulic gradient (soil water): A vector (macroscopic) point function that is

equal to the decrease in the hydraulic head per unit distance through the soil in
the direction of the greatest rate of decrease. In isotropic soils, this will be in
the direction of the water flux.
Hysteresis: A non unique relationship between two variables, wherein the

curves depend on the sequences or starting point used to observe the variables.
Example between soil-water content and soil-water matric potential
Infiltrability; The flux (or rate) of water infiltration into soil when water at
atmospheric pressure is maintained on the atmosphere-soil boundary, with the
flow direction being one-dimensionally downward.
Infiltration rate: The rate at which the water is passing through the surface in
to the soil
Least limiting water range: Single range of soil water content beyond which
the available water, soil aeration and mechanical resistance impose significant
limitations to root growth.
Liquid limit The minimum mass water content at which a small sample of soil
will barely flow under a standard treatment. Synonymous with "upper plastic
limit."
Matric potential: Potential energy of soil water due to the attractive forces
(adhesion and cohesion) between water and the soil matrix. Matric potential is
expressed as energy per unit volume
Maximum water holding capacity: the amount of moisture in a soil when its
total pore space is completely filled with water.
Mean Weight Diameter (MWD):It is the weighted percentage of average size
of all the aggregates.
Moisture equivalent: It is the amount of water retained by initially saturated

soil after being subjected to a centrifugal force of 1000 times that of gravity
about 30 minutes.
Particle density: Weight of soil solids to total volume of soil solids
Particulate organic matter (POM): The microbially active fraction of soil

organic mattter consisting of fine particles of partially decomposed plant
tissues.
Ped: A unit of soil structure such as a block, column, granule, plate, or prism,
formed by natural processes
Percolation: Downward movement of water through saturated or nearly

saturated soil due to the forces of gravity.
Penetrability: The ease with which a probe can be pushed into the soil.
Penetration resistance: The force per unit area on a standard ASAE cone
necessary for penetration by the cone.
Percolation, soil water: The downward movement of water through soil.

Especially, the downward flow of water in saturated or nearly saturated soil at
hydraulic gradients of the order of 1.0 or less.
Permeability: It commonly measured in terms of the rate of water flow

through the soil in a given period of time. It is usually expressed either as
a permeability rate in centimetres per hour (cm/h), millimetres per hour
(mm/h).
Permanent wilting point (PWP): it is the moisture content of the soil at which
plants no longer obtain enough moisture to meet the transpiration requirement
and remain wilted unless water is added to the soil
Permeameter: A device for confining a sample of soil or porous medium and
subjecting it to fluid flow, in order to measure the hydraulic conductivity or
intrinsic permeability of the soil or porous medium for the fluid.
Plasticity: when soil is deformed into any desirable shape and to maintain the
shape after the deformation pressure is removed.
Plastic limit The minimum water mass content at which a small sample of soil
material can be deformed without rupture. Synonymous with "lower plastic
limit."
Plasticity index: It is the difference in the moisture content between the upper
and lower plastic limits
Poiseuille's Law The law governing flow in an individual tube or pipe in

which the flow rate is proportional to the product fo the pressure drop per unit
distance and the tube radius to the fourth power.
Pore water velocity: The velocity at which water travels in pores relative to a
given axis. It is equal to the flux density divided by the soil water content.
Porosity: It is the ratio of total volume of pore spaces to the total volume of
soil
Procter moisture content: it is the threshold moisture content beyond which

further addition of water does not increase compaction with increase in load
Seepage: It is the downward and lateral movement of water into the soil from a
source of irrigation.
Slaking: It is the process of fragmentation that occurs when aggregates are

suddenly immersed in water.
Soil compression: It is the change in volume of a soil under an applied stress
Soil compaction: Increasing the soil bulk density, and concomitantly

decreasing the soil porosity, by the application of mechanical forces to the soil.
Soil consistency: it is the strength with which soil materials are held together
or the resistance of soils to deformation and rupture. Soil consistency is
measured for wet, moist and dry soil samples.
Soil crusting: it is the process of formation of thin compact layer having high
bulk density on the surface of soil due to splashing effect of raindrops.
Soil moisture characteristic curves: It shows the relation between moisture

content versus moisture tension and describes relationship between soil water
potential and volumetric water content.
Soil quality: The capacity of a specific kind of soil to function, within natural
or managed ecosystem boundaries, to sustain plant and animal productivity,
maintain or enhance water and air quality and support human health and
habitation
Soil structure: The arrangement of primary particles and their aggregates into
a certain structural pattern
Soil texture: The relative proportions of the different particle size fractions,
specially referred to as sand, silt and clay
Soil water potential: It is a measure of the tenacity with which water is

retained in the soil and shows the force per unit area must be exerted to remove
water from the soil.
Stability index: It is the difference between percent clay and silt as determined
by mechanical analysis and that obtained by suspension of soil sample in water
Stoke’s law: The terminal velocity of a spherical particle settling under the
influence of gravity in a fluid of a given density and viscosity is proportional to
the square of its radius
Tensiometer: A device for measuring the soil-water matric potential in situ; a

porous, permeable ceramic cup connected through a water-filled tube to a
manometer, vacuum gauge, pressure transducer, or other pressure measuring
device.
Thermal conductivity: The proportionality factor in Fourier's Law that

represents the ability of soil to conduct heat and is equivalent to the thermal
flux per unit temperature gradient.
Thermal diffusivity: The ratio of the thermal conductivity to the volumetric

heat capacity.
Time-domain reflectometry: A method that uses the timing of wave

reflections to determine the properties of various materials, such as the
dielectric constant of soil as an indication of water content.
Unsaturated flow: The movement of water in soil in which the pores are not
filled to capacity with water.
Vadose zone: The aerated region of soil above the permanent water table.
Void ratio: It is the ratio of total volume of pores to the total volume of soil
solids
Water stable aggregates (%): It is the percentage of aggregates greater than

0.25 mm diameter
Wilting coefficient: it is a calculated value of the approximate permanent

wilting point. Wilting coefficient = Hygroscopic coefficient/0.68 or moisture
equivalent/1.84.
14. CONVERSION FACTORS
S.No Parameter SI unit Non-SI unit Inter conversion
(3)x(5)= (4)x(6)=
(4) (3)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
1 Length kilometer, km mile, mi 0.621 1.609
(103m)
meter, m foot, ft 3.28 0.304
millimetre, mm inch, in 3.94 x10-2 25.4
(10-3m)
micrometer, µm micron, µ 1.0 1.0
(10-6m)
nanometer, nm Angstrom, A0 10 0.1
(10-9m)
2 Area hectar,ha acre 2.47 0.405
square acre 247 4.05x10-3
kilometre, km2
(103m)2
square meter, acre 2.47x10-4 4.05x103
m2
square meter, square foot, ft2 10.76 9.29x10-2
m2
3 Volume cubic meter, m3 acre- inch 9.73x10-3 102.8
cubic meter, m3 cubic foot (ft3) 35.3 2.83x10-2
cubic meter, m3 cubic inch (in3) 6.10x104 1.64x10-5
litre, L cubic foot (ft3) 3.53x10-2 28.3
litre, L gallon 0.265 3.78
4 Density megagram per gram per cubic 1.00 1.00
cubic meter, centimetre, g cm-3
Mg m-3
5 Temperature kelvin, K Celsius, 0C 1.00 (0C- 1.00
273) (0C+273)
celsius, 0C Fahrenheit, 0F (9/5 0C) + 5/9(F-32)
32
6 Energy, Joule, J calorie, cal 0.239 4.19
quantity of Joule, J erg 107 10-7
heat Joule per square calorie per square 2.387x10- 4.19x104
meter, J m-2 centimetre 5
Newton, N dyne 105 10-5

7 Electrical siemen per milli-mho per 10 0.1
conductivity meter, S m-1 centimetre, mmho
cm-1
S.No Parameter SI unit Non-SI unit Inter conversion
(3)x(5)= (4)x(6)=
(4) (3)
8 Water cubic meter, m3 acre inches, acre-in 9.73x10-3 102.8
measurement
cubic meter per cubic feet per 9.81x10-3 101.9
hour, m3 hr-1 second, ft3 s-1
hectare-meter, acre-ft 8.11 0.123
ha-m
hectare-meter, acre-inches, acre-in 97.28 1.03x10-2
ha-m
hectare acre-feet, acre-ft 8.1x10-2 12.33
centimetre, ha-
cm
9 Concentrati- centimole per Milliequivalents per 1.0 1.0
ons kilogram, 100 grams, meq 100
cmol kg-1 g-1
gram per Percent, % 0.1 10
kilogram,g kg-1
milligram per Parts per million, 1.0 1.0
kilogram, mg ppm
kg-1
10 Mass gram, g (10-3kg) Pound, lb 2.20x10-3 454
kilogram, kg Pound, lb 2.205 0.454
kilogram, kg quintal, q 0.01 100
11 Specific square meter Square centimetre 10 0.1
surface per kilogram, per gram, cm2 g
m2 kg
square meter Square millimetre 1000 0.001
per kilogram, per gram, mm2 g
m2 kg
12 Pressure Megapascal, atmosphere 9.90 0.101

MPa (106)
Megapascal, bar 10 0.1
MPa (106)
Pascal, Pa Pound per square 2.09x10-2 47.9
foot, lb ft-2
Pascal, Pa Pound per square 1.45x10-4 6.90x103

inch,in-2
13 Nutrient P P2O5 2.29 0.437
conversions K K2O 1.20 0.830
Ca CaO 1.39 0.715
Mg MgO 1.66 0.602
15. REFERENCES
AICRP SPC Bulletin (1989) All India Coordinated Research Project on Soil
Physical Constraints. Bulletin No. 6, pp5
Arshad, M.A., B.Lowerey, and B. Grossman. 1996. Methods for assessing soil
quality. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Spec. Publ. 49, SSSA, Madison, WI
Bandyopadhyay, K, Agarwal, P, Chakraborthy, D, Pradhan, S, Garg,R and
Singh,S (2012). Practical manual on measurement of soil physical properties,
Div. of Soil Physics, IARI
Bartlova et al, 2015: Soil & Water Res., 10, 2015 (3): 147-154
Bouyoucos, G.J. 1962. Hydrometer method improved for making particle size
analysis of soils. Agron J., 54, 464-465.
Chepil, W.S. (1962) A compact rotary sieve and the importance of dry sieving
in physical soil analyses. Soil Sci. Society America Proc. 26: 4-6.
Gupta, R.P. and Abrol, I.P. (1993) A study of some tillage practices for
sustainable crop production in India. Soil Till. Res.27: 253-272.
Hillel, D. 1982. Introduction to soil physics, Academic press, San Diego, CA
Hillel, D. 2004. Introduction to Environmental Soil Physics. Elsevier Academic
Press, p. 44.
Indian Society of Soil Science (2016). Text book on Fundamentals of Soil
Science.
Indoria, A.K, Sharma, K.L, Samii Reddy, K, and Srinivasarao,Ch. 2016. Role
of soil physical properties in soil health management and crop productivity in
rainfed systems – II. Current Science. Vol.110, No.3, 10 Feb’2016
Kemper, W.D. and Rosenau, R.C.,1986. Aggregate stability and size
distribution. In:Klute, A. (Ed.) Methods of soil analysis. Part I. Am. Soc.
Agron. Monograph 9, pp 425-442.
Lowery, B., M.A. Arshad, R, lal, and W.J. Hickey. 1996. Methods for
assessing soil quality. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Spec. Publ. 49, SSSA, Madison, WI
Mehra, O.P.; Jackson, M.L. 1960. Iron oxide removal from soils and clays by a
dithionite-citrate system buffered with sodium bicarbonate. Clays Clay Miner.
7: 317-327.
Piper, C.S., 1950. Soil and Plant Analysis. The University of Adelaide,
Adelaide.pp 190-4
Reddy, S.R and Reddy, G.K (2016). Irrigation Agronomy, third edition,
Kalyani publications
Singarao, M, Prasadini, P and Jeevaratna Raju, M (2005). Laboratory manual
on soil physical properties, BS Publications, Hyderabad, Telangana.
https://www.soils.org/publications/soils-glossary, Soil Science Society of
America.
Topp, G. C., Davis, J. L. and Annan, A. P. (1990) Electromagnetic
Determination of Soil Water Content: Measurements in Coaxial Transmission
Lines, Water Resources Research, 16(3), pp.574-582
Yodder, R.E., 1936. A direct method of aggregate analysis of soils and a study
of the physical nature of soil erosion. J.Am. Soc. Agron. 28: 337-351.
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Manual on Practical soil physics

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Madaka madhan Mohan Prabhu Prasadini

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Manual on Practical Soil

Regional Agricultural Research Station, Tirupati

Year of Publication: 2019

Knowledge of soil physical properties is essential for improving soil

S.No Topic/ Exercise Page No.

Table Title Page

Plate No. Title Page No.

Optimum soil physical health plays a pivotal role in any agricultural

It is a well established fact that unless the soil physical environment is

Table 2.1: Classification of particles according to size by IUSS and

I. Determination of soil texture (Laboratory method)

Particle size analysis (or mechanical analysis) consists of isolating various

1) Dispersion of soil sample

2) Fractionation of soil sample

Two classic means of determining the density of a suspension are hydrometer

2 (a). International pipette method

Hydrogen peroxide (30%), Hydrochloride (2N), Silver nitrate (N/10), Sodium

3. The dispersion agents shall be adopted as described under procedure (1) in

6. Add 100 mL of 5% Sodium hexametaphosphate and stir for 10 minutes.

a) Silt + Clay (%) (USDA) = [(W50× 1000)/ (25 × Wod)] x100

b) Silt + Clay (%) (ISSS/IUSS) = [(W20× 1000)/ (25 × Wod)] x100

c) Clay (%) = [(W2 × 1000)/ (25 × Wod)] x100

(d) Sand % = 100- [Silt + Clay (%)]

(e) Silt (%) = [Silt + Clay (%)] - Clay (%)

(f) Coarse sand (%) = (Weight of material retained on 0.2 mm sieve/total

Temperature Starting time

2(b) Hydrometer method

CHMR after 40 sec – Blank reading*

CHMR after 2hrs – Blank reading*

* Blank reading is the HMR of the Sodium hexametaphospahte solution in

% Sand = 100 - % (silt+clay)

3) Soil textural classification

II. Texture by feel method (field method)

The laboratory method of texture determination is more accurate, but it is more

Plate 3. Flow chart for texture determination by feel method

Particle density is a prerequisite to calculate total porosity, rates of particle

Measurement of particle density of soil

The most common method of determination is by using a pycnometer.

Weight of soil solids

In general, bulk density is determined by soil texture and modified by soil

Measurement of bulk density

Weight of soil solids

Core sampler, metal cores/rings, aluminium boxes, oven, balance, knife/

Drive Ring into Soil

6. Place the aluminium box containing soil in an oven for 36 - 48 hours at

Table 4.1: Work sheet for calculation of bulk density of soil

II. Determination of bulk density by excavation method

Plate 5a: Excavated hole Plate 5b: Placing the gravel

Volume of Soil (cm3) = Total soil volume - volume of rocks

Oven dry weight of soil

Soil bulk density

*in general, assumed as 2.65 Mg m-3

Plate 6: Volume and weight relationship in soil

An aggregate may be defined as a group of primary particles joined together to

Evaluation of soil structure