Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The American Rule is a rule in the U.S. justice system that says two opposing sides in a legal matter
must pay their own attorney fees, regardless of who wins the case. The rationale of the rule is that a
plaintiff should not be deterred from bringing a case to court for fear of prohibitive costs.
Ang American Rule ay isang panuntunan sa sistema ng hustisya ng U.S. na nagsasabing ang dalawang
magkasalungat na panig sa isang legal na usapin ay dapat magbayad ng kanilang sariling mga bayad
sa abogado, kahit sino pa ang manalo sa kaso. Ang katwiran ng panuntunan ay hindi dapat
hadlangan ang isang nagsasakdal sa pagdadala ng kaso sa korte dahil sa kakulangan sap era.
There was a popular belief among the supporters of Manifest Destiny that the United States
had the God-given right to help oppressed countries and build democratic nations. When US
President William McKinley issued his so-called Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation on
December 21, 1898, he expressly indicated American policy regarding the Philippines.
Although President McKinley wanted peace, the Americans occupied the Philippines inspite
of local resistance.
Lumala yung tensyon sa pagitan ng Pilipino at Amerikano nang sakupin ng mga awtoridad ng
militar ng Amerika ang Maynila noong Agosto 1898. Ang ipinag-uutos na paglikas ng mga
labanan, sa pag-aakalang kakampi nila ang mga Amerikano. Ang paglagda sa Treaty of Paris
ng dalawa.
Noong nakaraan sa Hong Kong, nag-alok ng tulong ang mga Amerikano kay Aguinaldo sa
pakikipaglaban sa karaniwang kalaban, ang mga Kastila. Gayunpaman, ang mga negosasyon
ay naging pansamantala. Ang plano ng mga bagong nananakop ay natuloy habang ang mga
Assimilation Proclamation noong Disyembre 21, 1898, tahasan niyang ipinahiwatig ang
Bitter feelings were growing between the American soldiers in the city and the Filipino
dissidents surrounding the capital. Hostilities began on the night of February 4, 1899 at about
8 p.m. An American soldier named Private Robert Willie Grayson with two other members of
the U.S. sentry shot and killed a man who happens to be a Filipino soldier.
The man together with three other Filipino soldiers were trying to cross the San Juan Bridge
on their way home. The American soldiers tried to stop them and shouted, "Halt!" twice since
the Filipino soldiers were already entering into American lines. Unfamiliar with the word halt
the Filipino shouted "Halto!" The Americans fired on the Filipino soldiers who were caught
unprepared.
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Noong Enero 20, 1899, hinirang ni Pangulong McKinley ang Unang Komisyon ng Pilipinas
Lalong lumala ang tensyon sa pagitan ng mga sundalong Amerikano sa lungsod at ng mga
dissidenteng Pilipino na nakapaligid sa kabisera. Nagsimula ang mga labanan noong gabi ng
Private Robert Willie Grayson kasama ang dalawa pang miyembro ng U.S. sentry ang
Ang lalaki kasama ang tatlo pang sundalong Pilipino ay sinusubukang tumawid sa San Juan
Bridge pauwi. Sinubukan silang pigilan ng mga sundalong Amerikano at sumigaw, "Tumigil
ka!" dalawang beses mula nang ang mga sundalong Pilipino ay pumapasok na sa mga linyang
Amerikano. Hindi pamilyar sa salitang huminto ang Filipino ay sumigaw ng "Halto!"
Pinaputukan ng mga Amerikano ang mga sundalong Pilipino nang hindi nakahanda.
The next day, Sunday, General Arthur MacArthur issued his order to advance against the
Filipino troops without investigating the shooting incident. Aguinaldo tried to avoid war. He
sent an emissary to inform Governor General Elwell Otis that the firing on their side had been
against his order.
Governor General Otis answered that since the fighting had begun, it must go on to the grim
end. On the same day, Aguinaldo issued a declaration informing the Filipino people that they
were now at war. This turned out to be the seven-year Filipino-American War (1899-1906).
The Filipino civilians, caught between the Americans and the Filipino revolutionaries, also
suffered badly. More than 200,000 Filipinos died during the war, most often by famine and
disease.
The Muslims, uncertain of both Christian Filipinos and Americans opted to remain neutral.
They signified their non- involvement in the Filipino-American war. On August 20, 1899,
John Bates and Sultan Jamalul Kiram II of Sulu with three datus signed the Bates Treaty.
This treaty provided that the rights and dignities of the sultan and his datus shall be respected.
Likewise, the Muslims shall not be interfered with on account of their religion.
Kinabukasan, Linggo, inilabas ni Heneral Arthur MacArthur ang kanyang utos na sumulong
Aguinaldo na umiwas sa digmaan. Nagpadala siya ng isang emisaryo upang ipaalam kay
Gobernador Heneral Elwell Otis na ang pagpapaputok sa kanilang panig ay labag sa kanyang
panuntunan.
Sinagot ni Gobernador Heneral Otis na dahil nagsimula na ang labanan, dapat itong
sa mamamayang Pilipino na sila ay nasa digmaan. Ito ang pitong taong Filipino-American
War (1899-1906). Ang mga sibilyang Pilipino, na nahuli sa pagitan ng mga Amerikano at
mga rebolusyonaryong Pilipino, ay nagdusa din nang husto. Mahigit 200,000 Pilipino ang
Ang mga Muslim, hindi sigurado kung kaya’t nagpasyang manatiling neutral sa pagitan ng
John Bates at Sultan Jamalul Kiram II ng Sulu kasama ang tatlong datu ang Bates Treaty.
Ang kasunduang ito ay nagsasaad na ang mga karapatan at dignidad ng sultan at ng kanyang
mga datu ay dapat igalang. Gayundin, ang mga Muslim ay hindi dapat makikialam dahil sa
kanilang relihiyon.
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Nevertheless, the Muslim province remained under American military rule until 1914.
Schools that taught non-Muslim curriculum were established. The United States, seen as a
challenge to Islam, intensified armed resistance in the region. Panglima Hasan led a rebellion
against the American authorities. His fight for freedom ended on March 4, 1904.
In the suburbs of Manila, the American fleet started bombarding the Filipino fort north of San
Juan del Monte on February 5, 1899. In the afternoon of that day, a fierce battle in La Loma,
near the Chinese cemetery ensued. Major Jose Torres Bugallon, one of General Antonio
Luna's gallant officers fell mortally wounded. After capturing La Loma, General MacArthur
headed for Caloocan.
In Kaloocan a fierce battle followed, with the Americans once again victorious. Undismayed
by his defeat, Luna prepared for a February 22, plan for the recapture of Manila by burning
American occupied houses in Tondo and Binondo. This took place on Washington's birthday
(an American national holiday). American fire brigades rushed to the area and fought the
flames. They repulsed Luna's men with heavy losses. Luna then retreated to Polo where he
established his headquarters.
Amerika hanggang 1914. Ang mga paaralang nagtuturo ng kurikulum na hindi Muslim ay
Sa Maynila, nagsimulang bombahin ng armada ng mga Amerikano ang kuta ng mga Pilipino
sa hilaga ng San Juan del Monte noong Pebrero 5, 1899. Sa hapon ng araw na iyon, naganap
ang isang matinding labanan sa La Loma, malapit sa sementeryo ng mga Tsino. Isa sa mga
magiting na opisyal ni Heneral Antonio Luna ay namatay at nasugatan. Matapos makuha ang
Sa Kaloocan ay sumunod ang isang matinding labanan, na nanalo na naman ang mga
Amerikano. Hindi nabigla sa kanyang pagkatalo, naghanda si Luna para sa Pebrero 22, plano
pambansang holiday ng Amerika). Ang mga American fire brigade ay sumugod sa lugar at
nilabanan ang apoy. Tinaboy nila ang mga tauhan ni Luna nang may matinding pagkatalo.
Pagkatapos ay umatras si Luna sa Polo kung saan itinatag niya ang kanyang punong-
tanggapan.
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In late February, reinforcement arrived from the United States. The American troops under
General MacArthur began their offensive north of the city. They wanted to capture Malolos,
capital of the Philippine Republic. Luna resumed his command by building his position at the
junction of Rio Grande and Bagbag Rivers, just outside Calumpit.
The Filipinos fought with fierce valor near Malinta. Colonel Harry O. Egbert of the 22nd
U.S. Infantry died in action. Fighting as they retreated, the Filipinos burned Polo and
Meycauayan in order to delay the enemy advance.
On March 30, the American army was already in Malolos. By this time, the Aguinaldo
government had evacuated Malolos and established its headquarters in San Isidro, Nueva
Ecija. General MacArthur wanted to pursue Aguinaldo but Governor General Elwell Otis
ordered him to rest in Malolos.
Noong huling bahagi ng Pebrero, dumating ang reinforcement mula sa Estados Unidos.
hilaga ng lungsod. Nais nilang mabihag ang Malolos, kabisera ng Republika ng Pilipinas.
Ang mga Pilipino ay lumaban nang may kagitingan malapit sa Malinta. Si Colonel Harry O.
Egbert ng 22nd U.S. Infantry ay namatay. Lumaban sa kanilang pag-atras, sinunog ng mga
Noong Marso 30, nasa Malolos na ang hukbong Amerikano. Sa panahong ito, inilikas na ng
pamahalaang Aguinaldo ang Malolos at itinatag ang punong tanggapan nito sa San Isidro,
Nueva Ecija. Gusto ni Heneral MacArthur na tugisin si Aguinaldo ngunit inutusan siya ni
On March 31, General MacArthur captured Malolos. Subsequently, the United States,
through the First Philippine Commission, announced the extension of its sovereignty over the
country.
The Filipino troops, although insufficiently armed and inadequately fed continued fighting. In
Quingua (Plaridel), On April 23, the American cavalry under Major Bell suffered heavy
losses under General Gregorio del Pilar. In this battle, Colonel John Stotsenberg was killed.
Noong Marso 31, nabihag ni Heneral MacArthur ang Malolos. Kasunod nito, inihayag ng
Ang mga Pilipino, bagama't hindi sapat ang sandata at kulang sa pagkain ay nagpatuloy sa
pakikipaglaban. Sa Quingua (Plaridel), noong Abril 23, ang mga kabalyeryang Amerikano sa
ilalim ni Major Bell ay dumanas ng matinding pagkatalo sa ilalim ni Heneral Gregorio del
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On April 25, the Battle of Bagbag River was fought. General Luna irked by the
insubordination of General Tomas Mascardo, left Calumpit with his men to punish Mascardo,
who was then in Pampanga. General Gregorio del Pilar was left to defend the Filipino lines.
When Luna returned to Calumpit the next day, the Americans had already succeeded in
penetrating the Filipino defensive lines.
Noong Abril 25, naganap ang Labanan sa Ilog Bagbag. Nagalit si Heneral Luna sa pagsuway
ni Heneral Tomas Mascardo, umalis sa Calumpit kasama ang kanyang mga tauhan upang
parusahan si Mascardo, na nasa Pampanga. Naiwan si Heneral Gregorio del Pilar upang
nagtagumpay na ang mga Amerikano sa pagtagos sa mga depensibong linya ng mga Pilipino.
Mabini through his manifesto written in San Isidro, Nueva Ecija dated April 15, 1899, urged
his countrymen to continue the struggle for independence. Unlike him, the members of the
Filipino Assembly (formerly Congress) wanted autonomy rather than independence. Under
this circumstance, a resolution was passed by the Assembly asking Aguinaldo to reject
Mabini's stand and to remove him as President of the Cabinet. On May 7, 1899 Aguinaldo
wrote Mabini informing him of a new Cabinet under Paterno. The latter calmly accepted the
decision.
In the case of General Antonio Luna, some Filipinos in forefront found him uncompromising.
His dreadful temper won him enemies. His plan to recapture Manila was supposed to be
carried out together with the Kawit Company, Aguinaldo's bodyguards. Due to the latter's
lack of cooperation, Luna recommended to Aguinaldo that the Kawit Company be disarmed
for military insubordination.
General Luna met his tragic end in the hands of his fellow patriots. Early in June, he received
a message from Aguinaldo asking him to go to Cabanatuan. He left his command in
Bayambang, Pangasinan. He arrived at the headquarters of Cabanatuan on June 5. He was
angry to see that one of the sentries was a member of the Kawit Company, the presidential
bodyguards, which he asked Aguinaldo to disband for military insubordination.
may petsang Abril 15, 1899, ay hinimok ang kanyang mga kababayan na ipagpatuloy ang
pakikibaka para sa kalayaan. Hindi tulad niya, ang mga miyembro ng Filipino Assembly
(dating Kongreso) ay nagnanais ng awtonomiya kaysa sa kalayaan. Sa ganitong sitwasyon,
isang resolusyon ang ipinasa ng Asembleya na humihiling kay Aguinaldo na tanggihan ang
paninindigan ni Mabini at tanggalin siya bilang Pangulo ng Gabinete. Noong Mayo 7, 1899,
ni Paterno.
Sa kaso ni Heneral Antonio Luna, nakita ng ilang mga Pilipinong nangunguna sa kanya na
walang kompromiso. Ang kanyang ugali ang nagpanalo sa kanya laban sa kaaway. Ang plano
niyang muling sakupin ang Maynila ay dapat na isakatuparan kasama ng Kawit Company,
Sinalubong ni Heneral Luna ang kanyang kalunos-lunos na wakas sa kamay ng kanyang mga
kapwa makabayan. Noong unang bahagi ng Hunyo, nakatanggap siya ng mensahe mula kay
noong Hunyo 5. Nagalit siya nang makitang ang isa sa mga guwardiya ay miyembro ng
Kawit Company, ang mga presidential bodyguard, na hiniling niya kay Aguinaldo na
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In the afternoon of the same day, General Luna, after attending a meeting with his fellow
patriots who were already planning to make peace with the Americans, was stabbed to death
by Aguinaldo's guards. He received about forty wounds. His aide-de-camp Colonel Francisco
Roman was also killed. The next day, he was buried with full military honors on Aguinaldo's
orders.
Severino de las Alas, the Secretary of the Interior in his circular informed the provincial
chiefs of Luna's death and said that it was caused by Luna's insulting and assaulting of the
President's bodyguards and the plan of Luna to take over the presidency from Aguinaldo.
Sa hapon ng araw ding iyon, si Heneral Luna, matapos dumalo sa isang pulong kasama ang
apatnapung sugat.
Ipinaalam ni Severino de las Alas, ang Kalihim ng Panloob sa kanyang circular sa mga
___________________________
After Luna's death, some demoralization set in. Many officers began to surrender to the
Americans.
Noong pagkamatay ni Luna, nagsimula ang ilang demoralisasyon. Maraming opisyal ang
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The Americans mounted a full-scale offensive on October 12, 1899. From Cabanatuan,
Aguinaldo moved his government to Tarlac, then to Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya and then to
Bayambang, Pangasinan. With his wife, son, mother, sister and some members of the
Cabinet, he boarded the train on the night of November 13 bound for Calasiao, with the
Americans still finding ways to trap him.
By November 1899, the Filipino soldiers resorted to guerrilla warfare. In Aguinaldo's fight to
the North, General Gregorio del Pilar considered the advantageous terrain of Pasong Tirad,
near the town of Cervantes, Ilocos Sur. At Tirad Pass, General del Pilar 60 riflemen, stood
guard to intercept the American soldiers and give Aguinaldo sufficient time to escape.
In the morning of December 2, 1899, Major Peyton G. March and about 300 American
troopers stormed the Pass, but were repulsed by Del Pilar's men. The Americans had not so
far located the exact position of the Filipinos. Pasong Tirad was 4,500 feet high.
Through Januario Galut, an Igorot guide of the Americans, the secret trail to the top was
known. In the midst of the combat, General del Pilar, mounted on a white horse, was hit with
a bullet that passed through the neck. Only eight men escaped alive to relate the tragic news
to Aguinaldo.
Nagsagawa ng malawakang opensiba ang mga Amerikano noong Oktubre 12, 1899. Mula sa
kanyang asawa, anak, ina, kapatid na babae at ilang miyembro ng Gabinete, sumakay siya sa
tren noong gabi ng Nobyembre 13 patungo sa Calasiao, habang ang mga Amerikano ay
pakikipaglaban ni Aguinaldo sa Hilaga, itinuring ni Heneral Gregorio del Pilar ang kapaki-
pakinabang na lupain ng Pasong Tirad, malapit sa bayan ng Cervantes, Ilocos Sur. Sa Tirad
Pass, nagbantay si General del Pilar kasama ang 60mriflemen upang harangin ang mga
Noong umaga ng Disyembre 2, 1899, sinalakay ni Major Peyton G. March at mga 300
sundalong Amerikano ang Pass, ngunit tinaboy sila ng mga tauhan ni Del Pilar. Hindi pa
natatagpuan ng mga Amerikano ang eksaktong posisyon ng mga Pilipino. Ang Pasong Tirad
lihim na landas patungo sa tuktok. Sa gitna ng labanan, si Heneral del Pilar, na nakasakay sa
puting kabayo, ay tinamaan ng bala na dumaan sa leeg. Walong lalaki lamang ang nakatakas
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After the Battle of Tirad Pass, the American authorities lost track of Aguinaldo until Cecilio
Segismundo, Aguinaldo's messenger fell into the hands of General Frederick Funston,
stationed in Nueva Ecija.
He was carrying important letters. The dispatch to Baldomero Aguinaldo directed the sending
of reinforcement to Palanan, Isabela. This gave Funston a clue to the whereabouts of
Aguinaldo.
With the approval of General MacArthur, who had succeeded Otis as military governor,
Funston employed 80 Macabebe scouts, two former officers of Aguinaldo (Lazaro Segovia
and Hilario Tal Placido), three Tagalog natives and four other American officers for the
capture of Aguinaldo.
Amerika kay Aguinaldo hanggang sa nahulog si Cecilio Segismundo, ang sugo ni Aguinaldo
sa kamay ni Heneral Frederick Funston, na nakatalaga sa Nueva Ecija. May dala siyang
mahahalagang liham kina Baldomero Aguinaldo, Heneral Urbano Lacuna, at iba pang mga
reinforcement sa Palanan, Isabela. Ito ang nagbigay kay Funston ng clue sa kinaroroonan ni
Aguinaldo.
katutubong Tagalog at apat na iba pang opisyal ng Amerika para sa paghuli kay Aguinaldo.
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Pretending to be the reinforcement with five American prisoners, the Macabebe scouts were
able to enter Aguinaldo's camp. Aguinaldo and his men met them and even gave them food.
At a given signal, the Macabebes suddenly opened fire. Tal Placido, a fat, powerful man
grabbed Aguinaldo from behind. General Funston and four other American officers entered
the room and arrested him in the name of the United States.
Aguinaldo was taken aboard the Vicksburg and brought to Manila. General MacArthur
graciously received him at the Malacañang Palace. On April 19, 1901, he took the oath of
allegiance to the United States and appealed to all Filipinos to accept the sovereignty of the
United States.
Ang nagkukunwaring reinforcement kasama ang limang Amerikanong bilanggo, ang mga
kanyang mga tauhan at binigyan pa sila ng pagkain. Sa isang hudyat, biglang nagpaputok ang
mga Macabebe. Si Tal Placido, isang mataba at makapangyarihang lalaki ay humawak kay
Aguinaldo mula sa likuran. Pumasok si General Funston at apat pang Amerikanong opisyal
Heneral MacArthur sa Palasyo ng Malacañang. Noong Abril 19, 1901, nanumpa siya ng
Estados Unidos.
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At the time when some patriotic Filipinos were still fighting for independence, some officials
of the revolutionary government had already decided to make peace with the colonizers. The
Pacificados (Pacifists) led by Pedro Paterno and Felipe Buencamino founded Asociacion de
Paz. Among the organizers were Cayetano Arellano, Tomas del Rosario, Trinidad Pardo de
Tavera, Leon Ma. Guerrero, Rafael Palma, Justo Lukban and Pascual Poblete.
While Aguinaldo and some of his men were in the highlands of Northern Luzon, the
Pacificados renamed the league for peace the Partido Federal, with Trinidad Pardo de
Tavera as elected president. The Federal Party wanted to make the Philippines a part of the
United States and be given rights and privileges extended by the U.S. to other territories
becoming eventually a state of the union. The Federalistas were haughtily called
Americanistas or pro-Americans by the nationalists.
Noong panahong ang ilang makabayang Pilipino ay nakikipaglaban pa para sa kalayaan, ang
Felipe Buencamino ang Asociacion de Paz. Kabilang sa mga nag-organisa ay sina Cayetano
Arellano, Tomas del Rosario, Trinidad Pardo de Tavera, Leon Ma. Guerrero, Rafael Palma,
Habang si Aguinaldo at ilan sa kanyang mga tauhan ay nasa kabundukan ng Northern Luzon,
ang Pacificados (Pacifists) sa isang pulong noong Disyembre 23, 1900 ay pinalitan ang
pangalan ng liga para sa kapayapaan na Partido Federal (Federal Party), kung saan si
Trinidad Pardo de Tavera ang nahalal na pangulo. Nais ng Partidong Pederal na gawing
pinalawig ng U.S. sa ibang mga teritoryo na naging estado ng unyon. Ang mga Federalista ay
President Garcia expressed himself as against alien domination in the national economy. On
August 28, 1958, the National Economic Council passed Resolution No. 204, officially
promulgating the Filipino First policy of the administration. The resolution called for the
adoption of guidelines giving preferential treatment to Filipino businessmen.
Noong Disyembre 30, 1957, si Pangulong Carlos P. Garcia at Bise Presidente Diosdado
Ipinahayag ni Pangulong Garcia ang kanyang sarili bilang laban sa dayuhang dominasyon sa
pambansang ekonomiya. Noong Agosto 28, 1958, ipinasa ng National Economic Council ang
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Not surprisingly, Garcia's nationalistic policies caused disapproval from foreign business
quarters. The American Chamber of Commerce vehemently opposed the measure. A.V.H.
Hartendorp, editor of the American Chamber of Commerce Journal, mentioned that the
passage of the NEC resolution would willfully destroy existing industry.
The Filipino Chamber of Commerce resigned from the International Chamber of Commerce
because of the latter's opposition to the policy.
Hindi kataka-taka, ang nasyonalistikong mga patakaran ni Garcia ay nagdulot ng hindi pag-
apruba mula sa mga dayuhang business quarter. Ang American Chamber of Commerce ay
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On November 16, 1958, a coup d'etat plan of a group of military men was revealed by
Bartolome Cabangbang, Congressman from Garcia's home province of Bohol. According to
Cabangbang, the initial steps consisted of a propaganda campaign to brand Garcia as a
communist supporter and to build up Defense Secretary Jesus Vargas as the heroic defender
of the Philippine democracy in the 1951, 1953, 1955 and 1957 elections.
Garcia's administration was also criticized for graft and corruption. Cabangbang claimed that
the coup planners had not gone beyond the first stage of their schemes because they could not
get the support of the armed forces.
Noong Nobyembre 16, 1958, isang coup d'etat plan ng isang grupo ng mga sundalo ang
Ayon kay Cabangbang, ang mga panimulang hakbang ay binubuo ng isang kampanyang
propaganda upang tatakan si Garcia bilang isang komunistang tagasuporta at upang itayo si
Binatikos din ang administrasyon ni Garcia dahil sa graft and corruption. Iginiit ni
Cabangbang na ang mga nagplano ng kudeta ay hindi lumampas sa unang yugto ng kanilang
mga pakana dahil hindi nila makuha ang suporta ng sandatahang lakas.
_____________________________
As a result of the publications of Cabangbang's revelations, a libel suit was filed against him
by Colonel Nicanor Jimenez, one of those alleged to have been involved. Cabangbang won
the case. Secretary Vargas and the Chief of Staff, General Alfonso Arellano later resigned.
Dahil sa mga publikasyon ng mga isiniwalat ni Cabangbang, isang libel suit ang isinampa
laban sa kanya ni Koronel Nicanor Jimenez, isa sa mga sinasabing sangkot. Si Cabangbang
ang nanalo sa kaso. Kalaunan ay nagbitiw si Secretary Vargas at ang Chief of Staff, General
Alfonso Arellano.
ang mga Filipino folk dance group tulad ng Bayanihan Dance Troupe. Ang gobyerno ay nag-
sponsor ng taunang Republic Cultural Heritage Awards para sa mga Filipino scientists,
artists, musician, fiction writers, at historians. Ang Dr. Jose Rizal Centennial Commission ay
nilikha upang pangasiwaan ang pagtitipon ng mga sinulat ni Dr. Rizal. Ang internasyonal na
Sa halalan sa pagkapangulo noong Nobyembre 14, 1961, ipinakita ng mga resulta na ang
Garcia sa kanyang bid para sa muling halalan. Ang Liberal Party ay muling umakyat sa
kapangyarihan.