Diagnostic Techniques of

Power Transformers

1
Objectives
 Identify the diagnostic and condition
assessment methods

 Explain the selected conventional testing

methods

 Identify innovative techniques of

transformer diagnostics

 Interpret the test results of case studies

2
Contents
 Routine (conventional) Winding/Insulation
Diagnostics Tests:
 Polarization Index (insulation resistance)
 Turn ratio
 DC resistance
 Short circuit Impedance
 Excitation Current
 Power Factor, capacitance

 Oil Tests:
 DGA
 Oil quality tests (Dielectric, Power factor, …)

3
Contents
 Advanced Condition Assessment Techniques:

 Partial Discharge (PD) :Electrical/Acoustic

 Dielectric Frequency Response (DFR)

 Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)

4
Polarization Index
 Propose:
 Tests : Winding Insulation + Oil
 Overall integrity of the winding insulation
 Verify that the state of dryness of insulation
 Definition:
Polarization Index : PI=R10-min /R1-min
Trend Measure of dielectric deterioration
Absorption ratio : AR=R60s /R15s
 Test Method: H-LG, L-HG, HL-G

Utest=5 kV-DC
Time= 15 s, 60 s, 10 min
5
 Insulation Resistance Model

iL iC

RA is not a fix resistance:

Req

6
Test Arrangement
When to use Guard?

Typical Insulation Resistance MΩ

kV 20 30 40 50 60
°C °C °C °C °C
6.6 400 200 100 50 25
6.6- 800 400 200 100 50
19
22-45 1000 500 250
7
125 65
≥ 66 1200 600 300 100 75
 Interpretation
kUWinding
R60 
• KVAWinding
R Needs temp correction
k=1.5 for oil-filled transformer
1- Make sure transformer
k=30 for untanked or dry-type
is grounded before and
transformers
after test.
• 1.3≤AR≤3.0: Dry Transformer
• PI (Large Power transformers) 2- Theenergy stored must
PI Condition be discharged safely by
Less than 1 Dangerous short-circuiting at least
1.0 - 1.1 Poor (wet or poor x4 of the test period.
dielectric)
1.1 - 1.25 Questionable
1.25 - 2.0 Acceptable 8
Above 2.0 Very Good
Turn Ratio (TTR)
 r= Np/Ns=Ep/Es
IEEE 62, IEEE C57.12.00 IEC 60076-1
+/-0.5% nameplate ratio The lesser of +/-0.5% of declared
voltage ratio or 0.1*Uk%
 Deviation indicates problem in either of windings
 High-resistance connections in the lead circuitry or high
contact resistance in tap changers, open circuits
 Low resistance: shorted turn-to-turn
 Minimum accuracy : 0.1%

9
Test Arrangement

10
 Test Case
 Auxiliary Transformer 230kV/13.8kV

Nothing wrong with transformer!

11
Tap changer index is off by one position.
Position 1 is 2, position 2 is 3, …, position 5 is 1.
DC Resistance
 Measure of winding resistance
 For temp-rise=55°C corrected to 75°C
 For temp-rise=65°C corrected to 85°C
 Before test:
 (IEEE)different between top and bottom temp ≤5°C
 (IEC) 3hours rest time
 Test current ≤10% of rated current
 DC resistance should be ≤ 2% factory test

12
DC Resistance
Can detect:
 Shorted-turns
 Loose connection on bushing
 Loose connections or high-contact resistance on tap changers
 Broken winding strands
 The above issues leads to hot-spots, generates gases DGA

13
Short circuit impedance
 Applications:

 Investigate winding deformation

 confirm the name plate values
 To check shipping as a receiving
(pre- commissioning test)
 If possible run three-phase if not feasible it can be done single-
phase , then average the results

14
 Short circuit impedance

3-phase Single phase

 Apply voltage and measure current in HV side while
shorting out the dual leg of the LV side.
 Applied voltage is 100 V-500 V
 Watch the current in LV side
 LTC is in neutral position

15
 Short circuit impedance
 If deviation exists it could be due to:
 Type of excitation (1-phase versus 3-phase)
 Different instrumentation
 Winding deformation

• Deviations of over ± 3% from the

benchmark Per Phase Tests could be
related to winding deformations.
• Even 3-phase test result may be different
from nameplate because of the Vtest.
16
 Excitation Current
 Can possibly detect:
 Core problems such as:
 Shorted core laminations
 poor joints
 Winding problems such as:
 short circuit (turn to turn)
 open circuit
 poor connections
 LTC problems such as:
 high hesitance connection
 open circuit
 Coking and wear of LTC and DETC contacts

17
Excitation Current Test
 Factory tested at rated voltage (no-load)
 If possible run three-phase if not ,can be
done single-phase.
 Perform Excitation Test before any DC
test: DC test leaves residual magnetism in
the core.
 Voltage is applied to HV :5kV or 10 kV
 LTC set to: 1- Neutral , 2- 1 step up, 3- 1 step down
4- Full raise , 5- Full lower
18
Excitation Current Setup

19
 Excitation Current Pattern
H1 H2 H3

Excitation
H1-H0
Similar to
Higher R
H3-H0 results higher
excitation
current

H2-H0
20
 Excitation Current Results
Possible Characteristics of
patterns
H-L-H • 3 leg core-type (Most common)
• 5 leg core or shell type with a delta secondary
L-H-L • 3 leg core-type ,Y secondary, inaccessible
neutral
All equal • 5 leg with Y secondary
• 3 single phase connected as 3- phase
• Shell-type with Y-connected secondary
All • Can be due to magnetized core
different • Defects, Faults
Excitation current Criteria to detect defect
Iext<50 mA The difference between 2 higher 21
current >10%
Iext >50 mA The difference between 2 higher current >5%
 Excitation Current with LTC

When the Autotransformer is in the bridging position the

excitation current goes up.

22
 Power Factor Testing
Dissipation Factor or is
the ratio of the I=IC+IR
resistive current to
capacitive current I
Power Factor : P.F.= IR/I
IC IR
Dissipation factor : tan=IR/IC

To check the condition of the capacitive insulation:

 Between windings
Between winding and core
Between winding and tank
23
Capacitances

2-Winding Transformer
1 phase of 3 phases shown
• CH: HV bushing + HV winding +Oil
• CL: LV bushing + LV winding + Oil
• CHL: Both windings+ barriers + Oil 24
Test Arrangement
3 test modes:

Ungrounded Specimen Test (UST)

Grounded Specimen Test (GST)

Grounded Specimen
with Guard (GST-g)
25
Test Arrangement
One of the most common source of measurement error: Neutral is
not properly connected.

Usually 6 tests are performed to confirm the values:

Test Mode Energiz Ground Guard Winding

e
1 UST HV - - CHL
2 UST LV - - CHL
3 GST HV LV - CH+CHL
4 GST-g HV - LV CH
5 GST LV HV - CL+CHL
6 GST-g LV - HV CL
26
P.F. Interpretation
Power Factor Insulation Condition
Above 1.0% Dangerous
wet transformer
0.7 – 1.0 Investigate
0.5 – 0.7 Deteriorated
Less than 0.5 Good

IEEE Std 62: Service aged transformers : P.F.<2%

3 winding transformer Shielding between LV/HV

27
Oil Test: DGA
• Rogers Ratio
• Doernenburg Ratio
Duval Triangle
IEC1 - (1st Edition 1978)
• IEC2 – (2nd Edition 1999)
• ANSI/IEEE (C57.104-1991)
•CIGRE Method
• Laborelec
• Japanese Method
• Russian Method
28
 Key Gas Method
Key
Secondary Gas Fault Pattern Possible Root cause
Gas
Aging of insulation, possible
Low energy carbon particles in oil, poor
CH4 and minor C2H6
H2 Partial grounding of metal objects, loosed
and C2H4
Discharge lead, floating metal or
contamination
Paper insulation destroyed. Metal
C2H4 CH4 and minor H2 and
Oil overheating discoloration. Oil heavily
(ethylene) C2H6(ethane)
carbonized.
Poor contacts in leads, weakened
H2 and minor CH4 and High Energy
C2H2 insulation from aging, carbonized
C2H4 Arcing
oil.
If the fault involves Overloading or cooling problem,
CO, and oil-impregnated Conductor bad connection in leads, stray
CO2 structure CH4 and Overheating magnetic flux, discoloration of
paper. 29
C2H4
 Duval Triangle
x = (C2H2); y = (C2H4); z = (CH4), in ppm

%C2H2=100x/(x+y+z);
%C2H4 = 100y/(x+y+z);
%CH4 = 100z/(x+y+z),
T1: Low-range thermal fault
(below 300 C)
T2 :Medium-range thermal
fault (300-700 C)
T3 :High-range thermal
fault (above 700 C)
D1: Low-energy electrical
discharge
D2 :High-energy electrical
discharge
DT: Indeterminate
30 - thermal
fault or electrical discharge.
 IEEE Std C57.104
• Four-condition DGA guide to classify risks to transformers with
no previous problems.

• Uses combinations of individual gases and total dissolved

combustible gas concentration (TDCG).
Rogers Fault Tree
The three-ratio Gas Inputs Y Y Y Case 0

version of Rogers R1,R2, R3 R2<0.1 0.1<R1<1 R3<1 No fault or it

cannot be
detected

ratio Method uses

Y N N
N Y Case 3
1<R3<3 Low Temp

the following
Thermal
Overloading
Y Y Case4

ratios: R1>1 1<R3<3 Thermal

<700 oC

R1= C2H2/ C2H4 ,

N
Y Case5
R3>3 Thermal
>700 oC
R2= CH4/H2 , Y Y Case1

R3= C2H4/ C2H6

R1<0.1 R3<1 PD low
energy
N
Case2

1<R2<3
Y
0.1<R1<1
Y
31
R >3
3
Y High energy
arcing
 IEEE Std C57.104
Status H2 CH4 C2H2 C2H4 C2H6 CO CO2 TDCG
Condition 100 120 35 50 65 350 2500 720
1
Condition 101-700 121-400 36-50 51-100 66-100 351- 2500- 721-
2 570 4000 1920
Condition 701- 401-1000 51-80 101-200 101- 571- 4001- 1921-
3 1800 150 1400 10000 4630
Condition >1800 >1000 >80 >200 >150 >1400 >10000 >4630
4
• Not all techniques were applicable in all cases

•CIGRE: CO2/CO <3 Excessive paper degradation

• If most of Gas levels < 1 and one or two is high, the error of
regular methods might be high. Call your judgment,
32
do not
forget Key Gas Table.
 Case 1:750 MVA,500kV
Date H2 CH4 C2H2 C2H4 C2H6 CO2 CO TCG
ppm/day
April 10 5 2 6 2 1398 277 47,800
2010
May 10 5 2 2 2 155 71 0.13
2009

Key Gas IEC IEEE IEEE Duval Doernen Suggestion

Roger’s Method b-urg
ratio Ratio
Conductor Partial Not TCG D1:Disch No DGA every
day, On-line
Overheatin discharge conclusive levels --arge of diagnosis PD test
g or power indicate low (electric
discharge excessiv energy follow up with
e acoustic) ,
temporary
decompo removal from
sition service for
33 off-line tests
Case 2:300 MVA, 420 kV
• The content of hydrogen detected by the on-line monitoring
system increased continuously.
• Concentration of hydrogen is only dependent on the oil
temperature.

• Oil used was uninhibited oil considered as “moderately

stray gassing”
• Avoid misleading of DGA pattern (Stray Gassing) 34 caused

by catalytic effects of zinc surfaces and oil .

Oil Quality Tests
Recommended oil quality tests for insulating oil
[IEEE Std C57.106-2006]
Test Dielectric Dissipation Interfacial Neutralizati PCB
Strength Factor tension on number
(IFT) (acidity)
Standard ASTM D1816 ASTM ASTM D- ASTM ASTM
-97 (1 mm D924-99 971-91 D974-92 4059-91
gap) @ 25 0C [min] [max] [max]
ASTM 877 [max]
[min]
Limit (new 1816:23kV 0.1% 35 mN/m 0.03 mg 2
oil) 877: 26 kV KOH/g
Limit 1mm 0.5% 24 mN/m 0.2 mg 50
(service gap:23kV KOH/g
aged oil)

35
Post Failure Test Interpretation
Suggested Problem Test Data
Category 1st priority 2nd priority 3rd priority
Turn-to-turn fault Out of tolerance Low winding Excitation increase
ratio resistance
Damage to major High power factor Low insulation Abnormal DGA
insulation resistance
Lead and terminal Abnormal DGA, DC resistance Excitation
issues trend inclines increases if load
increases
Through fault FRA shows Deviation of Change in impulse
mechanical different pattern exciting current
damage for faulty phase
Core heating Abnormal DGA Low core ground Excitation
resistance increases
Moisture High insulation Low dielectric oil Low insulation
power factor test 36
resistance
Selected Advanced Techniques

 Partial Discharge

 Dielectric Frequency Response (or Frequency Domain

Spectroscopy)

 Frequency Response Analysis

37
Partial Discharge

IEEE Std C57.127

Draft IEEE PC57.113™

38
 Partial Discharge-IEC 60270
 PD should be done along with induced voltage test
 Background noise < 100 pC
 max (pC)=100 at 110%Urated
 max (pC)=300 at 130%Urated
 max (pC)=500 at 150%Urated

Wide-Band PD Narrow-band PD
measurement measurement

39
Partial Discharge Measurement

 Signal from coupling capacitor or bushing tap

coupling device in series

with the coupling capacitor
frequently used circuit in test
laboratories

Via Bushing Tap often applied in 40

on-site offline /online PD investigations
 Bushing Tap Sensors
To get down the voltage
to U, it is necessary to
use capacitance (Cz)

Possible power that can be

taken from the test tap:

To avoid bushing damage:

41
Partial Discharge Patterns
1 Cycle screenshot 1 Cycle screenshot

Corona at HV electrode Corona at Ground

1 Cycle screenshot PD Resolved Pattern

42

Floated metal object Creeping discharges

UHF Measurement Via Oil Valve
 PD-signals :UHF frequency range (300 MHz – 1 GHz)
 Sensor application at oil valves, which are available e.g.
for oil filling or draining.

Courtesy of LDS GmbH (Lemke)

Case1 Case2

Drawback: High attenuation (high frequency); cannot43

determine which phase?; Hard to use for ball valves.

How to distinguish PD?
 External noises appear often independent from
the applied AC test voltage level.
 Pulse-shaped noises may appear unsynchronized
with the applied AC test voltage, whereas PD
pulses occur always phase-correlated.
 Rise-time of PD is different from noise signals
are different from pulse.
 Pattern recognition techniques help a lot!

44
T-F Classification Map

45
 Acoustic PD :Off-line/On-line
1. All-Acoustic (minimum 3 sensors)
2. Acoustic with Electrical PD trigger

Velocity of sound
46
in oil :1413 m/s at 20 °C
Acoustic PD
 Vibration noises (core,fan,pump) <50kHZ
 Band Pass filter: f1=50 kHz, f2=350 kHz
 Propagation path: direct , indirect

47
Sensor locations when
phase of PD source is not known
Acoustic PD
 Before placing the AE transducer, wipe the area (dirt, oil,
bugs,…).
 Acoustic couplant needed for enhancing the mechanical and
acoustical coupling between the transducer and the tank
surface.
 A sound transmitting epoxy to be used if the mounting
location is non-magnetic.
 Magnetic tank shielding causes extra signal attenuation.
 LTC operation contains a high electromechanical energy that
usually propagates through the entire transformer. To be
distinguished in post-analysis.
 Initial place to start: one sensor in the bottom connection
of each bushing.

48
Application of Acoustic PD
 When electrical PD is detected, for confirmation and source location
 When DGA indicates the possible presence of PD
 For PD detection during factory impulse testing
 When static electrification is suspected

49
Acoustic PD
 Electrical PD has a threshold 300 (500)pC. There is no similar
threshold for acoustic systems.
 A strong signal buried deep within a winding may be very weak by
the time it reaches the acoustic sensor.
 Sometimes longer monitoring period is necessary: weeks
 Only high PD levels can be detected.
 The correlation is weak between measured and real PD level due to
attenuation.
Direct signal
Wall propagation

50
Test Case:
Single phase autotransformer: 500/230/13.8
kV,146/194/243 MVA
 After two years in operation started gassing.

 Acoustic monitoring for 5 days :significant activity

Load is minimum
Voltage is maximum

51
Test Case:3-D Plot

52
Dielectric Frequency Response

 “Dielectric Frequency Response” also called

“Frequency Domain Spectroscopy”
 DFR is Power factor measured in a wide
range of frequency (mHZ-kHZ) unlike
conventional 60Hz measurement.
Power Factor @60Hz DFR

53
How to Measure DFR
 Measurement modes: UST, GST, GTS-g

54
Application

 Originally to Estimate the Moisture Content

 Now extend to find out other problems :
 Insulation Contamination
 Degradation of overall insulation system
 High resistance contacts
 Bushings issues
 ….

55
DFR to Estimate Moisture

56
Using DFR curve, the Wt% can be estimated.
How DFR Estimates Moisture?
 X-Y Model of Insulation

1 1 1
  
Ccomb ( ) Cspacer ( )  Coil ( ) Cboard (
57 )
How DFR Estimates Moisture?
l Oil
– Non-polar liquid; er = 2.2
l Pressboard, oil impregnated cellulose
– More polar; er = 4.5
– Sensitive to moisture

58
Why moisture is important?

59
Conventional Moisture Estimation
MOISTURE EQUILIBRIUM BETWEEN OIL AND CELLULOSE

Uncertain area

 Low accuracy at low temperatures because the water has migrated to

the paper

60
 Conventional Method Cons

 Transformer needs to reach Thermal Equilibrium

 Oil Moisture changes with temperature
 Not accurate in lower temperatures
 Aged oil resolved higher Water% than New oil

DFR found to be the most accurate method to

estimate the insulation moisture. 61
DFR & Moisture %

62
Test Case :500 MVA 230kV GSU,1976
Conventional Power Factor :

Measurement Year 2000 Year 2009

CHL 0.16 0.2
CH 0.29 0.59
CL 0.48 0.99
• CH and CL increased 100%!
• DGA had gone up in the past but was constant lately.
• The unit was taken out.
• One reason for increasing P.F. is moisture. Should the
unit be dry-out?
• Just shipping to the closest maintenance cost $500K.
• Kinectrics offered DFR to diagnose.
63
Test Case

 CHL is normal showing Water

content 0.5-1% DFR Result
 CL does not match with any
moisture model curve, So it is
not moisture. CL
CH
 The whole curves shifted up.
Insulation conductivity has
changed. CHL

 Conclusion: Contamination,
no dry-out needed. Shipped
out to replace the windings.

After opening tank: carbon deposit

found on LV and HV winding due to
arcing of tank shipping64bolt to the core.
 DFR Is Able to:
Estimate the moisture content of power
transformers accurately.
 Identify unsatisfactory conditions during
routine testing.
 Detect contamination on insulating
system.
Characterize transformers to avoid
potential catastrophic failures.
Drawbacks:

 Needs basic transformer design data

 Needs expertise to interpret results 65
FRA (SFRA)
Two methods:
- Applying LV Impulse (Obsolete) :Time domain
- AC , Sweep Frequency (SFRA)

66
Test techniques
Freq response analysis (FRA)
 Impedance/admittance/transfer measurements
 Typically 1kHz – 1MHz
 Network analyzer or equivalent
 Detects deformations/displacements
 Compare against other phases , previous
measurement, or sister unit
 The lead lengths need to be as short as possible,
and the test configuration must remain constant
for repeated tests.
67
 Application
 Detecting Faults which involves:
 Winding deformations
 Core movements
 Faulty core grounds
 Partial winding collapse
 Hoop buckling
 Broken clamping structures
 Shorted turns and open windings

 Generate a base-line data for future comparison

 To Confirm Smooth Transportation

68
FRA

69
FRA

70
FRA
Repeatability is Key in FRA Measurement

Core NOT
grounded
Core
grounded
71
FRA-Typical Curves

72
 FRA-Interpretation
 Low frequencies
 Core problems
 shorted/open
windings
 Medium frequencies
 Winding deformations
 High frequencies
 Tap connections
 Other winding
connection problems

73
 FRA-Applied voltage

It is usually 10V.

2.8 V
Omicron

10 V
FRAX, Doble and others
74
 FRA-Proper Grounding
Good Poor
grounding grounding
practice practice

75
FRA-Test Case -180 MVA off-shore
 Acetylene up
 Change in winding resistance

 LV distorted at 5 kHz – 500 kHz

76
Shipped for repair

77