Chapter 1: Introduction and Basic Concepts

DIMENSIONS & UNITS

Dimensions – it is a measure by which a physical variable is expressed.

Units – it is the magnitude assigned to the dimension.

Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t, and temperature T are selected as primary or
fundamental dimensions, while others such as velocity V, energy E, and volume V are expressed in terms of
the primary dimensions and are called secondary dimensions, or derived dimensions.

Example 1:

Units
Quantity Dimension
Primary Secondary/derived
Velocity m/s - [LT −1 ]
Mass kg - [M]
2
Force = ma Kg.m/s N [MLT −2 ]

MANOMETERS:

A manometer is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure differences. A manometer
contains one or more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil. See figure below.

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Understanding pressure in manometers:

- Analyse the left – arm of the manometer first and then the right arm.

left - arm analysis

right - arm analysis

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 Analysing multiple u-tube manometers:
• Select the lowest ARM on the u-tube manoneter and use it as the reference.

1. Analyse the Mercury U-tube manometer: 2. Analyse the Oil U-tube manometer:
- With reference to level X-X, the pressure on - With reference to level Y-Y, the pressure on the left side
the left side is equal to the pressure on the right is equal to the pressure on the right side.
side. Mercury (Hg) arm:
PY −left = PY −right
PX −left = PX −right
 PY −left = PY −right =  Hg ghHg + Pamt − oil ghoil ..........(1)
oil ghoil + PY − right =  Hg ghHg + P2 (orPamt )
PY − right =  Hg ghHg + Pamt − oil ghoil ..........(1)

3. Analyse the tank:

- With reference to level Y-Y, the pressure on
the left side is equal to the pressure on the right
side.
- The level Y-Y can also be extended inside the
tank because it still holds the same level in the
Oil U-tube manometer.
- A purple line between the tank and the arm
indicates that there is a U shaped water curve
which can be regarded as a U-tube.

Inside the tank the pressure is:

PY −left =  water ghwater + P1 ......(2)

(1) = (2):

 water ghwater + P1 =  Hg ghHg + Pamt − oil ghoil

 P1 =  Hg ghHg + Pamt − oil ghoil −  water ghwater

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CHAPTER 3: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES.

3.1. PROPERTY DIAGRAMS

3.1.1 Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapour State:

vf = specific volume of saturated liquid

vg = specific volume of saturated vapour
vfg = difference between vg and vf ( vfg = vg − vf )

3.1.2 Saturated Liquid–Vapour Mixture:

Quality, x: It is the ratio of the mass of vapour to the total mass of the mixture.

- Other textbooks uses Dryness fraction instead of steam quality.

- Quality is between 0 and 1. 0 is saturated liquid and 1 is saturated vapour.

The properties of the saturated liquid are the same whether it exists alone or in a mixture with saturated
vapour.

mvapour
x=
mtotal

v avg = (1 − x ) v f + xv g ( m3 / kg )

uavg = u f + xu fg ( kJ/kg )
havg = h f + xh fg ( kJ/kg )

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3.1.3 Superheated Vapour:

Degree of superheat: is the difference between the actual temperature of the superheated vapour and the
saturation temperature at the pressure of the vapour.

- If the above state at 0.5 MPa is at 200 ᵒC superheated, in order to determine the degree of
superheat, the saturation temperature has to be known (Tsaturation = 151.83ᵒC).
- Degree of superheat = 200 ᵒC - 151.83 ᵒC = 48.17 ᵒC.
- Alternatively, if the vapour is heated at constant pressure (0.5 MPa) from T sat = 151.83ᵒC until
48.17 ᵒC superheat degree is achieved, then the final state is at 200 ᵒC (48.17 ᵒC + 151.83ᵒC).

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3.2. PROCESSES WITH RESPECT TO SATURATION LINES:

i) Constant Pressure process

ii) Constant volume process

iii) Constant temperature process / Isothermal

process

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3.3 Property Tables – Linear Interpolation:

3.3.1 Linear interpolation is a method of finding an unknown point b between two known points a
and c. All information is known about point a and c, but some information about point b is unknown.
Assume that B1 is known and B2 is unknown.

B 2 − A2 C 2 − A2
=
B1 − A1 C 2 − A1
C 2 − A2
 B 2 = A2 +  ( B1 − A1)
C 2 − A1

Example 1: Determine the specific volume of water vapour at a state where P = 1 MPa &
T = 260 ᵒC.
• To find the specific volume corresponding to 260ᵒC at B, It is assumed that the data
point at B is on the same gradient slope between A & C.
• Using superheated water table between 250 ᵒC & 300 ᵒC, the slope for interpolation
is as follows. Find v:

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 3.3.1.1 Applying linear interpolation:
Example 2: Saturated water vapour at 350 oC is heated at constant pressure until its volume has
doubled. Determine the final temperature using the steam tables.

V1 = Vg@350ᵒC = 0.008806 m3/kg

V2 = 2V1 = 0.017612 m3/kg – state 2 is superheated

as V2 is greater than Vg@350ᵒC

From superheated tables:

@400ᵒC, V2 is not in this range, it’s greater than the specific volumes at 400ᵒC.

@450ᵒC, V2 = 0.017612 m3/kg is between 0.018477 m3/kg & 0.015204 m3/kg.

@500ᵒC, V2 = 0.017612 m3/kg is between 0.020828 m3/kg & 0.017385 m3/kg.

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 • At 350 oC, the saturation pressure is 16.529 kPa, and this pressure is not displayed on the table but
can found as it is between 15 MPa & 17.5 MPa.
- Interpolation at 450 ᵒC between 15 MPa & 17.5MPa:

V@16.529 MPa :
V@16.529 MPa − V@15 MPa V@17.5 MPa − V@15 MPa
=
P16.529 MPa − P15 MPa P17.5 MPa − P15 MPa
V@16.529 MPa − 0.018477 0.015204 − 0.018477
=
16.529 − 15 17.5 − 15
V@16.529 MPa = 0.016475 m kg
3

- Interpolation at 500 ᵒC between 15 MPa & 17.5MPa:

V@16.529 MPa :
V@16.529 MPa − 0.020828 0.017385 − 0.020828
=
16.529 − 15 17.5 − 15
V@16.529 MPa = 0.018722 m kg
3

- By comparing the interpolated volumes at 450 ᵒC & 500 ᵒC, it is now clear that V2 is between
450 ᵒC & 500 ᵒC.
T (ᵒC) V (m3/kg) @ P = 15 MPa V (m3/kg) @ P2 = 16.529 MPa V (m3/kg) @ P = 17.5 MPa
450 0.018477 0.016475 0.015204
T2 V2 = 0.017612
500 0.020828 0.018722 0.017385

T2 is determined by interpolation:

Interpolating to get T2 at P = 16.529 MPa :

T2 − T450 T −T
= 500 450
v2 − v450C v500C − v450C
T2 − 450 500 − 450
=
0.017612 − 0.016475 0.018722 − 0.016475
T2 = 475.30C

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3.2 Linear extrapolation is a method of finding an unknown point d outside two known points a and c.
All the information is known about point a and c, but some of the information about point d is unknown.

Assume D2 is known and D1 is unknown.

D1 − A1 D 2 − A2
=
C1 − A1 C 2 − A2
D 2 − A2
 D1 = A1 +  ( C1 − A1)
C 2 − A2

3.2.1 Applying linear extrapolation:

Example 3: A 0.5-m3 rigid tank contains refrigerant-134a initially at 160 kPa and 40 percent quality. Heat
is now transferred to the refrigerant until the pressure reaches 700 kPa.

Determine:

a) The mass of the refrigerant in the tank and

b) The amount of heat transferred. Also, show the process on a P-v diagram with respect to
saturation lines.

Solution: ↓↓

Ein Eout Esystem

N etenergy transfer Change in internal,kinetic,
by heat,w ork,and m ass potential,etc.energies

Q in U m (u2 u1) (since W KE PE 0)

Using data from the refrigerant tables (Tables A-11 through A-13), the properties of R-134a are determined
to be: ↓↓

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P1 160 kPa v f 0.0007435, v g 0.12355 m 3 /kg
x1 0.4 uf 31.06, u fg 190.31 kJ/kg

v1 vf x1v fg 0.0007435 0.4(0.12355 0.0007435) 0.04987 m 3 /kg

u1 uf x1u fg 31.06 0.4(190.31) 107.19 kJ/kg P
2

@ P2 = 700 kPa, Vf = 0.0008331 m3/kg & Vg= 0.029392 m3/kg 1

v
But V2= 0.04987 m3/kg > Vg, this means state 2 is superheated.

From superheated tables @ 0.7Mpa, there is no V2= 0.04987 m3/kg.

Therefore, linear extrapolation is required:

367.31 − 357.42
u2 = 357.42 +  (0.04987 − 0.047306) = 377.23 kJ /kg
0.048597 − 0.047306
P2 700 kPa
u2 377.23 kJ/kg (Superheated vapor)
(v 2 v1 )

Then the mass of the refrigerant is determined to be:

V1 0.5 m 3
m 3
10.03 kg
v1 0.04987 m /kg

(b) Then the heat transfer to the tank becomes

Q in m (u2 u1)
(10.03 kg)(377.23 107.19)kJ/kg
2708 kJ

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CHAPTER 4: ENERGY ANALYSIS OF CLOSED SYSTEMS
Moving Boundary Work:

Work-done at Constant-Volume Process Work-done at Constant-Pressure Process

2 2

Wb PdV P0 dV = P0 V 2 -V1
1 1

Wb mP0 v 2 -v1
Boundary Work for an Isothermal Compression Process

V2
2 2
C
Wb PdV dV PV 1n
1 1
V V1

C
PV mRT0 C or P
V

V2 V2
2 2 2
C dV
Wb PdV dV C C In P1V1 In
1 1
V 1
V V1 V1

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Boundary Work for a Polytropic Process

P = CV −n
2 2
n V2 n 1
V1 n 1
P2 V2 P1V1
Wb PdV CV dV C
1 1
n 1 1 n

mR T2 T1
Wb n 1 kJ For ideal gas
1 n

Example 1: A mixture of liquid water and vapour at 7.25 bar and 85 percent quality expands in a
cylinder behind a piston isothermally and reversibly to a pressure of 1.5 bar. The heat supplied during the
process is 615 kJ/kg.

a) Represent the process on a p-v diagram with respect to the saturation lines
b) Calculate the change of enthalpy per kg of steam,
c) The change of internal energy per kg of steam.

Solution: ↓↓

• Process is isothermal and has to be represented on a p-v diagram.

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Page 14 of 21
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CHAPTER 5: MASS AND ENERGY ANALYSIS OF CONTROL VOLUMES

Mass balance:

m1 m2 VA
1 1 1 V A2
2 2

Energy balance:

E in E out (kW)
Rate of net energy transfer Rate of net energy transfer
in by heat, work, and mass out by heat, work, and mass

Qin W in m Q out W out m

in out

V2 V2
Qin W in m h gz Q out W out m h gz
in 2 out 2
for each inlet for each exit

Example 1: Calculating Exit Area of a Steam Nozzle

Steam enters a converging–diverging nozzle operating at steady state with P1 = 40 bar, T1 = 400ᵒC, and a
velocity of 10 m/s. The steam flows through the nozzle with negligible heat transfer and no significant
change in potential energy. At the exit, P2 = 15 bar, and the velocity is 665 m/s. The mass flow rate is
2 kg/s. Determine the exit area of the nozzle, in m2.

Assumptions: (1) The control volume is at steady state. (2) The change in potential energy from inlet to exit
can be neglected. (3) Heat transfer is negligible.

The exit area can be determined from the mass flow rate m , which can be arranged to:
mv2
A2
V2

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 • To evaluate A2 from this equation requires the specific volume v2 at the exit, and this requires that the exit
state be fixed.
• The state at the exit is fixed by the values of two independent intensive properties. One is the pressure P2,
which is known. The other is the specific enthalpy h2, determined from the steady-state energy rate balance

. V12 . V22 .
Qin Win m h1 gz1 Q out Wout m h2 + +gz 2 ) (since Q W pe 0)
2 2
V12 V22
h2 h1
2
102 6652
h2 3214.5 103
2
h2 2993.44 kJ / kg

At state 2, steam is superheated: P2 = 15 bar and h2 = 2993.44 kJ/kg, the specific volume at the exit is:

• From superheat tables, there is no P = 1.5 MPa, interpolation is required.

• Compare enthalpy 2993.44 kJ/kg, at 1.4 MPa & 1.6 MPa from superheated tables.
• Find the average data at 1.5 MPa because it is between 1.4 MPa & 1.6 MPa (long interpolation
calculations are neglected at this point, but if interpolation is done, it will give the same results)
• V2 = 0.1635 m3/kg.

P = 1.4 MPa P = 1.5 MPa P = 1.6 MPa

T v (m3/kg) h (kJ/kg) v (m3/kg) h (kJ/kg) v (m3/kg) h (kJ/kg)
250 0.16356 2927.9 0.15273 2923.9 0.14190 2919.9
? 2993.44
300 0.18233 3040.9 0.17050 3038.25 0.15866 3035.6

Interpolation at P = 1.5 MPa for V2 :

P2 1.5 MPa 0.17050 0.15273
v2 0.15273 (2993.44 2923.9) 0.1635 m3 / kg
h2 2993.44 kJ / kg 3038.25 2923.9

Nozzle exit area:

mv2 2kg / s 0.1635 m3 / kg
A2 4.92 ×10-4 m2
V2 665 m / s

Example 2: A well-insulated turbine operating at steady state develops 28.75 MW of power. The
steam enters at 25 bar with a velocity of 70 m/s and exits as a saturated vapour at 0.065 bar with a
velocity of 130 m/s. The exit turbine area is 9.5 m2. Neglect potential energy effect and determine:

a) The mass flow rate of the steam, and

b) The inlet temperature in oC.
Solution: ↓↓

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Page 18 of 21
 CHAPTER 6: THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Example 1: Refrigerant -134a enters an adiabatic compressor superheated at -21.35 ᵒC. The inlet
pressure to the compressor is at 100 kPa with a volumetric rate of 700 litres/minute and exits at a pressure
of 1000 kPa. The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 85%.

a) Indicate the process on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines

b) Determine the temperature of the refrigerant at the exit of the compressor, and
c) The power input.
Solution: →

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CHAPTER 7: THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Example 1: Steam enters an adiabatic turbine steadily at 7 MPa, 525°C, and 55 m/s and leaves at
100 kPa and 85 m/s. The power output of the turbine is 5 MW and the isentropic efficiency is 80 percent,

a) Show the process on a T-s diagram with respect to the saturation lines.

Determine:

b) The temperature at the turbine exit,

c) The mass flow rate of steam through the turbine, and
d) The rate of entropy generation during this process.

Solution:

a)

b)

3411.4 3531.6
h1 = 3471.5 kJ / kg
P1 7 MPa 2
T1 525 C 6.8000 6.9507
s1 =6.8754 kJ / kg.K
2

6.8754 1.3028
x2 s sf x2 s s fg x2 s = 0.92
P2 100 kPa 6.0562
s2 s1 6.8754 kJ/kg.K
h2 s hf x2 s h fg 417.51 0.92 2257.5 2494.41 kJ / kg

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 Wa,out h1 h2
T 0.8
Ws ,out h1 h2 s
h2 h1 T h1 h2 s 3471.5 0.8 3471.5 2494.41 2687.93 kJ /kg

From superheated table:

P2 100 kPa 150 100

T2 100 2689.83 2675.8 106.96 C
h2 2687.93 kJ/kg 2776.6 2675.8

c) Energy balance on the turbine for the actual process:

V12 V22
m h1 m h2 Wa
2 2

3 55 2 3 852
m 3471.5 10 m 2687.93 10 5 106
2 2
m 6.40 kg / s

d) For an adiabatic turbine, the entropy generation is the entropy change of steam as it flows in the
turbine:

P2 100 kPa 7.6148 7.3611

S2 7.3611 2689.83 2675.8 7.3964 kJ / kg.K
h2 2687.93 kJ/kg 2776.6 2675.8

Sgen m( s2 s1 ) 6.40 (7.3964 6.8754) kJ/kg.K= 3.33 kW / K

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