Department of Mechanical Engineering

Laboratory Manual
Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]
III Semester Mechanical Engineering

Name

USN

Class with Section

Marks Scored

Faculty In-charge:

Name Signature with date

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I acknowledge the contribution of the following members of the Mechanical

Engineering faculty towards the preparation of manual.
 Dr. T N Sridhar, Former Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE
 Mr. Shamsundar S, Associate Professor and Head, Center for Renewable Energy
and Sustainable Technology (CREST), Department of Mechanical Engineering,
NIE.
 Dr. Anand A, Assistant Professor and Fuels & Renewable Energy Lab In-charge,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE.
 Mr. Vikram Athreya V, Assistant Professor and Head NIE-Eicher center for
Automobile Technology (NECAT), Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE.
 Dr. Sathisha H M, Assistant Professor and IC Engines Lab In-charge, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, NIE.
 Dr. Suresh Kumar S, Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
NIE.

Mysuru Dr.B Suresha

Professor and Head
21/11/2022
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
 Course Content

No. of No. of
Experiments Lecture Practical
Hours Hours
PART-A
1 1. Determination of Flash, Fire Points and Viscosity of Light and Heavy
Lubricating Oils
2 Performance Test on Four Stroke Petrol Engine
3 Performance Test on Four Stroke Diesel Engine
4 Performance Test on Multi–Cylinder Diesel Engine 0 8

5 Performance study of CRDi engine by varying fuel injection pressure at

constant load and speed
1. PeP
6 Performance study of CRDi engine by varying fuel injection timing at
constant load and speed

PART-B
1 Performance study of Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine
2 I-V and P-V Characteristics of PV Module
3 Performance Study and Evaluation of Heat Loss Coefficient, Heat
Removal Factor and Thermal Efficiency in Solar Water Heater 0 7
4 Performance Test on Internal Combustion Engine Using Diesel and B30
Bio-Diesel
5 Performance Test on Internal Combustion Engine using B30 and Biogas
Total No. of Lecture Hours 0
Total No. of Practical Hours 15
Total No. of Hours 15
 Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]
Cumulative Internal Evaluation
Date of
Experim
Sl. Marks
ent Experiment Page No.
No. conducte Awarded
d
Part-A
Concepts and Definitions 1-10
Determination of Flash and Fire Points of Light
1a 11- 12
Lubricating oils
Determination of Flash and Fire Points of Heavy
1b 13-14
Lubricating Oils
1c Measurement of Viscosity of Light Lubricating Oil 15-17
1d Measurement of Viscosity of Heavy Lubricating Oil 18-20
2 Performance Test on Four Stroke Petrol Engine 21-26
3 Performance Test on Four Stroke Diesel Engine 27-30
4 Performance Test on Multi–Cylinder Diesel Engine 31-37
Performance Study of CRDi Engine by Varying Fuel
5 38-41
Injection Pressure at Constant Load And Speed
Performance study of CRDi engine by varying fuel
6 42-45
injection timing at constant load and speed
Part-B
Introduction to Biofuels 46-47
Performance study of Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine
7a 48-50
(Coefficient of performance)
Performance study of Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine
7b 51-53
(Tip Speed ratio)
8 I-V and P-V Characteristics of PV Module 54-58
Performance Study and Evaluation of Heat Loss
9 Coefficient [Ul], Heat Removal Factor [Fr] and 59-61
Thermal Efficiency [Η] in Solar Water Heater
Performance Test on Internal Combustion Engine
10 62-64
Using Diesel and B30 Bio-Diesel
Performance Test on Internal Combustion Engine u
11 65-67
using B30 and Biogas
VViva questions 68-69
Average – Final CIE

Faculty In-charge:

Name Signature with date

2
 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

PART-A
Concepts and Definitions:

Flash Point: The flash point may be defined as the lowest temperature at which a fuel will
vaporize sufficiently to form a combustible mixture of fuel vapour and air above the fuel. It is
found by heating a quantity of the fuel in a special container while passing a flame above the
liquid to ignite the vapours. A distinct flash of flame occurs when the flash-point temperature
has been reached.
Fire Point: The fire point is the temperature which must be reached before enough vapours
will rise to produce a continuous flame above the liquid fuel. It is obtained in much the same
manner as the flash point.
Both the flash and the fire points give a relative measure of the safety properties of
fuels since a high flash point denotes that a high temperature must be reached. Flash point
permitted in a fuel lubricant is usually written in the specifications.
Classification of lubricating oils:
The lubricating oils are normally classified according to their viscosity. The SAE
(Society of Automotive Engineers, USA) method of assigning numbers to different oils is
universally used. SAE has assigned a numbers to oils whose viscosity at a given temperature
falls in a certain range. There are two temperatures used as reference in assigning numbers to
oils at -180C and at 990C. SAE 5W, 10W and 20W grades of oils are defined in terms of
viscosity at -18 oC. These are oils, which render starting of automobiles in cold climates easy.
SAE20, SAE30, SAE40 and SAE50 grades of oils are defined in terms of viscosity at 990C.
These oils work satisfactorily in normal and hot climates.
Definition of viscosity:
It is defined as the resistance of the adjacent layers of the fluid in motion. Viscosity
results fundamentally from cohesion and molecular momentum exchange between fluid
layers. As the fluid flows, tangential or shearing stresses between the moving layers is
developed.

Newton’s law of viscosity:

According to Isaac Newton,
  du/dy---- where  = shear stress and du/dy =velocity gradient.
τ = μ du/dy-----where „‟ is a proportionality constant which takes into
account, the effect of a particular fluid.
This constant is known as Absolute or Dynamic Viscosity. It is the more commonly used for
measurement of viscosity. It measures the resistance of a fluid to flow - in other words, the
internal friction of the fluid, or how easily it can deform under mechanical stress at a given
temperature and pressure.
Kinematic Viscosity:
Kinematic viscosity, measures the resistance of the liquid to flow in the presence of
gravity. In the majority of problems involving viscosity, the magnitude of the viscous forces

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 1

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

are prominent compared with the magnitude of the inertia forces, that is, those force causing

acceleration of the fluid. Since the viscous forces are proportional the absolute viscosity „‟
and the inertia forces are proportional to the density „‟, the ratio / is frequently involved,
this ratio is known as the Kinematic viscosity and is denoted by the symbol „‟(Nu).
Units of viscosity and Conversions:
Absolute viscosity: In CGS system it is given by poise.In S.I units the unit is Pas.
100 centipoises = 1 poise or 1 centipoise = 10-2 poise.
Kinematic Viscosity: Its unit is derived from CGS system and is called stokes.In S.I units the
unit is m2/s.
 = cm2/sec
1 cm2/sec = 1.0 stoke
100 centistokes = 1 stoke
Newtonian Fluids and Non-Newtonian Fluids:
Fluid in which the shear stress is directly proportional to rate of deformation is
Newtonian fluid. Ex: water, air, gasoline etc. Fluid in which shear stress is not directly
proportional to shear rate are termed as Non-Newtonian fluids.
Non-Newtonian Fluids are classified into following categories
a) Time independent Fluids
b) Time dependent Fluids Ex: Toothpaste, Paints etc.

Viscosity Measurements:
Apparatus suitable for the necessary measurements of viscosity is known as a viscometer.
A few methods used in determining viscosity are,
 Transpiration Methods: These methods are suitable for stream-lined or laminar
flows, The basis of this method is the "Poiseuille's Law" for a volume 'Q' discharged
in a unit time from a, tube of length 'L' and radius „r‟.
π P r4
i.e. Q =
8L
where, P = pressuredifference between the ends of the tube.
 = dynamicviscosity,
 Industrial Viscometers: For measuring viscosity of oils these instruments require the
measurement of the time taken for certain quantity of oil to flow through a certain
capillary tube -orifice having standard dimension.
Mainly, Redwood Viscometer and Saybolt's Viscometer is preferred.
 Rotary Viscometers: A simple method of applying a known rate of shear stress to a
fluid and measuring the viscous stress thus produced. The analysis of this method
illustrates the application of Newton's formula for viscosity,when angular velocity is
involved.
 Falling Sphere Method: For the determination of viscosity a small solid sphere of
known weight - invariably a steel ball of predefined mass- is allowed to fall vertically
down the center of a cylinder containing the oil under test. The velocity with which
this sphere falls is measured. The terminal velocity of the sphere which can be

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 2

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

measured, gives a picture of the value of viscosity.

Importance of Viscosity: Viscosity is one of the most important properties of an oil. When
the oil is used as a lubricant in bearings, its viscosity is important because the load carrying
capacity is proportional to the viscosity. When the oil is used as a fuel in either diesel engines
or furnaces, it is necessary that the oil atomizes so as to allow combustion to take place in a
short period of time. Oil viscosity is important also, when oils must be pumped.
Viscosity change with temperature: As oil is heated, its viscosity decreases. At elevated
temperatures, it is easier to pump oil and also the light viscosity will help to produce better
atomization for combustion.

Definition of a Fuel:
A combustible substance containscarbon as the main combustible element, which on
complete combustion liberates large quantity of heat that can be used for domestic, industrial
and power production.
Classification of Fuel:
Fuels are classified according to their
 Occurrence and Preparation
 State of existence
According to the occurrence and preparation, the fuels are classified as:
 Natural or Primary fuels
 Artificial or Secondary fuels
Natural Fuels are formed in nature. The examples of natural fuels are Wood, Peat, Lignite,
Coat, Petroleum, Natural Gas etc.
Artificial Fuels are prepared from the natural fuels and examples of artificial fuels are
Charcoal, Producer Gas, and Blast Furnace Gas etc.

According to their state, the fuels are classified as:

 Solid Fuels
 Liquid Fuels
 Gaseous Fuels
Solid fuels that occur in nature are wood, peat, lignite and coal.
Liquid fuelsare available in nature as crude petroleum. It is discharged from natural
reservoirs in the earth's crust through wells, which are drilled in likely places, until the oil is
struck. This crude petroleum is refined by a process of distillation and a number of oils of
different grades such as petrol, kerosene or paraffin oil, dieseletc are obtained and finally a
thick residue called Tar is left behind.
Gaseous fuelsoccur in nature as natural gas near the petroleum fields under the earth's
surface.

Calorific values of fuels:

The calorific value or the heat value of a fuel is defined as the total quantity of heat
liberated by complete combustion of unit quantity of a fuel at STP.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 3

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

[STP: 273.15 K (00C) and 1 atmospheric pressure- 760 mm of mercury or 1.013 bar or
101.33 kN/m2]

Further calorific values are classified as: Higher or Gross calorific value&Lower or Net
calorific value.

The higher calorific value (HCV) of a fuel is defined as the total amount of heat produced
when of the fuel has been burnt completely and the products of combustion are brought to the
temperature of the supplied air and fuel. This water vapour when allowed to cool to the room
temperature, its latent heat of condensation gets evolved and thus the total quantity of heat
generated by the combustion of the fuel will be maximized. This maximum value of the heat
generated is termed as the higher calorific value.
The lower calorific value (LCV)is obtained in most of the cases as it is not possible to cool
down all the water vapour to the room temperature and hence some part of the latent heat is
lost. The amount of latent heat carried depends upon the pressure at which the evaporation
takes place and the quantity of water vapour generated. It is difficult to determine the
pressure of vaporization. Hence, for practical purposes saturation pressure corresponding to
150C (288 K) is taken.

The latent heat of vaporization of saturated water at 150C is 2465 kJ/kg.

∴ LCV= HCV - (Heat carried by water vapour formed/kg of fuel burnt)

= HCV - (mw* 2465)kJ/kg.

Note:Calorific values can also be based on the volume of fuel burnt.

Calorific values of some common fuels (approx.):

Name of the fuel HCV (kJ/kg) LCV(kJ/kg)
Methane 555000 50000
Natural Gas 35300 (kJ/m3)
Petrol 43120
Biogas 18147.5
Kerosene 46500 43450
Diesel 45500 43100
LPG 5000 (kJ/m3) 4800 (kJ/m3)

Octane rating forfuels:

To determine theantiknock measure of a fuel, numbering or rating system called
octane rating has been introduced. In octane number tests, the performance of an unknown
fuel is compared with that of a series of a reference fuels consisting of mixtures of Iso-octane
and n-heptanes are used.
Iso-octane has been arbitrarily assigned an octane number of 100, while n-heptanes

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 4

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

detonates rapidly and hence has been arbitrarily assigned an octane number equal to zero.A
mixture of iso-octane and n-heptanes is prepared to produce the detonation under same
condition, as the fuel under test and the percentage by volume of iso-octane in this mixture is

the octane number of the fuel.Cetane numberis used to denote the knocking qualities of
heavier fuels such as Diesel oil etc.

Purpose of conducting tests on I.C engines:

 Routine and acceptance tests which are performed by the manufacturer on the engine to
assure that the engine performance is up to the prescribed standards.
 Comparative testswhich includes tests of new types, to ascertain the effects of
changes(Inlet system, Exhaust system, Lubrication system, Cooling system, Fuel injection
system, Ignition system, etc) of design or tests of different makes/classes of engines to
determine the suitability of the engine for different applications.
 Research testing is a branch of scientific investigation undertaken in order to study and to
explain complex actions that have been taking place in the engine.
 Educational testhave theprimary objectives to illustrate the fundamental theories
underlying the operation of internal combustion engines.

Definition of basic Performance Parameters:

 Brake Power (BP) - The power available at the output shaft of the engine is termed
the brake power. In other words, it is the power that is available at the crankshaft of
the engine or the useful work output from the engine.
 Indicated Power (IP) - The total power developed inside the engine cylinder/s is
called indicated power. The entire power developed inside the cylinder is not
available at the output shaft due to the effects of friction. Hence the indicated power
does take into the account frictional losses taking place in the engine.
 The Lost Power (LP) or commonly known as Friction power (FP) - The power lost
in overcoming the frictiondue to moving parts(i.e.,bearings, piston etc.,) and pumping
loss.
Lost Horse power= (IP - BP)
Pumping HP + Friction HP = Lost horse power
 Mechanical Efficiency - It is the ratio of work output to work input. It is expressed as
percentage. The efficiency of an ideal machine is 100% but an actual machine has an
efficiency which is always less than 100%, because of the Second law of
thermodynamics which states that the quality of energy will decay, eventually
becoming heat. This means that some of the work put into the system is transformed
(lost) into thermal energy (heat). In a mechanical system, friction is the most common
cause of the work lost to heat.
 Thermal efficiency can be defined either with reference to brake power output or the
indicated power output and accordingly it is classified as:
Brake thermal efficiency, 𝜂𝐵𝑇 is defined as the ratio of the brake power to the energy
released due to the combustion of the fuel inside the cylinder (also known as
available energy in the fuel), during a specific interval of time.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 5

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Brake power Brake power

𝜂𝐵𝑇 = Available =m
energy in the fuel f  Calorific value of the fuel

where, mf isthe mass flow rate of the fuel in kg/s and the calorific value of the
fuel is expressed in terms of kJ/kg.

Indicated thermal efficiency, 𝜂𝐼𝑇 is defined as the ratio of the indicated power to the
energy released due to the combustionof the fuel inside the cylinder, during a specific
interval of time.

Indicated power
𝜂𝐼𝑇 = m
f  Calorific value of the fuel
where, mf isthe mass flow rate of the fuel in kg/s and the calorific value of the fuel is
expressed in terms of kJ/kg.
Note:The swept volume of a cylinder is defined as the volume taken in by the cylinder in
suction stroke from TDC to BDC.
 Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the actual volume of charge admitted during the
suction stroke to the swept volume of the piston of internal combustion engine.
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑁𝑇𝑃
𝜂𝑉 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢 𝑚𝑒
 Mean effective pressure is defined as the theoretical mean pressure that is acting on
the piston throughout the power stroke. It can be determined by using an indicator
diagram.

Dynamometers are used for the purpose of measuring the brake power. This measures the
torque output of the engine.
TYPES OF DYNAMOMETERS:
Solid friction -Rope brake dynamometer
- Prony brake dynamometer
Fluid friction - Hydraulic dynamometer
Electric - Eddy current dynamometer
- Swinging field– DCdynamometer
- AC Dynamometer

Performance characteristics of a diesel engine –Full load and Part load conditions
The Spark Ignition (SI) engine cycle works on either 2 or 4strokes of the piston,
wherethe air-fuel mixture of a engine has more time to mix and is nearlyhomogeneous by the
time of ignition in the combustion chamber. The fuel-airequivalence ratio of the
homogeneous mixture in a SIengine must remain close enough to unity to be combustible.
The Compression Ignition(CI) engine cycle works on either 2 or 4strokes of the
piston, with the 4-cycle CI engine beingmore common.The air and fuel are not united in a CI
engine until fuel is injected into the combustion chamber. The fuel injected into a CI engine
(Static injection timing – Ex: 24o before TDC - which depends on Engine/Speed/Load/Air
temperature etc) has very little time to mix with air.Therefore, the mixture in the combustion

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 6

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

chamber isheterogeneous (very rich within fuel spray plumes and very lean outside the
plumes).
The compression ratio of a CI engine must be highenough to cause auto-ignition of
the air-fuel mixture.The compression ratio of a SI engine must be low enough to prevent
auto-ignition.Higher compression ratios increase the stress on a CI engine, and have to be
constructed more robustlythan a SI engine. A spark ignites the mixture in a SI engine, and a
flame front sweeps smoothly across the combustion chamber. Initial combustion in a CI
engine

is rough and uncontrolled because the mixture may ignite spontaneously at more than one
place in the combustion chamber.

Dynamometer trials on engine for full load performance (CI Engine)

In a CI engine, the peak performance is evaluated with the control lever of the pump
moved to full and locked in position (equivalent to fully depressed accelerator position) at
different speeds (say 1000 rpm to 4000 rpm - assumed as rated speed) in steps as desired.
The engine has to be taken to its operating temperature (recommended by the
manufacturer - 80o Cto 90oC) running at around torque speed at full load. After warm up the
engine has to be loaded to get the desired speeds (say 1000, 1200, ...... 4000 rpm) necessarily
including the peak torque speed (engine specific). These are the maximum loads possible at
each speed.

Performance data to be recordedat each speed:

 Load (dynamometer)
 Fuel consumption time
 Smoke density
 Exhaust gas temperature
 Coolant temperature
 Air intake temperature
 Barometric pressure
 Lubrication oil temperature
 Emission (CO, CO2, HC, NOx, particulate matter) etc...

Parameters evaluated (site condition)

 BP (kW) - observed
 Torque (Nm) - observed
 SFC (g/BP-hr) - observed
 Injected quantity mm3/stroke/cylinder

BP (corrected), Torque (corrected), SFC (corrected) are obtained by using suitable

correction factor/s. (DIN, JIS, IS ........ - standards). The plots of the above parameters are as
in figure 1, which shows the full load performance of the engine. The trials can be carried out

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 7

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

from the rated rpm to the lowest rpm or vice versa. But it is necessary to perform the trials
always the same way for subsequent trials in view of the hysteresis effect involved.

Power in kW
Brake Power in kW 100
80
60
40
20 BP in KW
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Speed in rpm

SFC
210
200
190
SFC in g/BP-hr

180
170
160 SFC in g/kW-hr
150
140
130
800 1800 2800 3800
Speed in rpm

Injected quantity in mm3/stroke/cylinder

44
Injected quantity

41
38
35
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Injected Quantity in
Speed in rpm
mm3/stroke/cylinder

Torque in N-m
20
18
Torque in N-m

16
14
Torque in Nm
12
10
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Speed in rpm

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 8

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Smoke density %
50

Smoke density
40
30
20
Smoke density %
10
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Speed in rpm

Figure 1 - Full load characteristics of a CI Engine

Influence of several variables of Fuel Injection Equipment (element diameter, nozzle

diameter, injection timings, etc) and the Engine Variables (turbocharger, fuel, oil, air intake,
exhaust system etc) can be studied by conducting the full load trials (varying one variable
only at a time) by comparing the performance of the engine with base line performance.

Part load performance for CI engine

The performance evaluation of a CI engine at a particular constant speed with various
loads is akin to running a vehicle at the desired speed (say 50 kmph or 60 kmph) with
accelerator position varied along with changing loads.
(Situation:Releasing the accelerator pedal in the down gradient and depressing in the up
gradient to keep the speed nearly constant).
The control lever is moved and also the load is increased in steps keeping the speed
constant viz.., 10%, 20%, 30% ….. 100%. As the load is increased control lever has to be
moved and this results in increased fuel to keep up the desired speed.

Part Load performance at 2750 rpm

500 50
Smoke desnity %
SFC in kg/kW-hr

400 40
300 30
200 20 SFC in g/BP-hr
100 10 Smoke Density
0 0
0 20 40 60 80

Power in kW

Figure 2 – Part Load performance at 2750 rpm for CI engine

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 9

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Part Load performance at 4000 rpm

600 50
45
500 40

Smoke density %
SFC in kg/kW-hr

400 35
30
300 25
20 SFC in g/kW-hr
200 15 Smoke Density
100 10
5
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Power in kW

Figure 3 – Part Load performance at 4000 rpm for CI engine

The speeds chosen (normally 4) are the lowest, rated speed, peak torque speed and
another intermediate speed. Peak torque speed and the rated speed are absolutely necessary.
Ex: Low speed 1000 rpm (10%, 20%, 30% …100% -- Load)
Maximum Torque speed 2750 rpm(10%, 20%, 30% … 100% -- Load)
Intermediate speed  3000 rpm (10%, 20%, 30% … 100% -- Load)
Rated speed  4000 rpm (10%, 20%, 30% … 100% -- Load)
Each of these speeds corresponds to a particular vehicle speed (50, 60, 70, 80, 100,
110, 120 kmph) depending on the gear and differential ratios and the tyre size. The end points
of each of the part loads are the full load points on the full load performance graph since the
accelerator control lever position will be full or at maximum.
Part load performance is equally relevant as full load condition to assess the engine
capability in terms of fuel consumption, emission, and smoke density etc…
Performance comparison with different variables has to be carried out similar to full
load condition.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 10

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

EXPERIMENT 1a:Determination of Flash and Fire Points of Light Lubricating Oils

Aim:
To determine the flash and fire points of light lubricating oils using Abel Pensky's
apparatus.

Apparatus:

Figure 1.1 Schematic representation of the apparatus.

Procedure for light lubricating oils:

1. The given oil is poured into the oil cup up to the index mark.
2. The outer jacket is filled with water up to the top of the outer vessel.
3. The cup is introduced into the water jacket and closed by means of its cover.
4. Water is heated till the vaporization starts.
5. A test flame (a burning stick) is introduced into the cup through the opening.
6. The readings are taken at intervals as indicated in the result sheet.
7. The Flash Point is taken as the temperature when a flash appears at any point on
the surface of the oil when the test flame is introduced.
8. The Fire Point is found by continuing until the test flame ignites the oil and it continues
to burn at least for 5 seconds.
9. The above Flash and Fire points are under theheating conditions.
10. Under cooling conditions also the procedure is repeated.
11. Heating is stopped 50 C above the fire point.
12. Oil is gradually cooled by supplying cold water into the outer vessel.
13. The above procedure is continued until the vapour inside the CUP just fails to flash.
14. This gives the flash point of the oil under cooling condition.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 11

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Tabular Column:
Heating Condition Cooling Condition
Temperature Observation Temperature Observation
0 0
in C in C

NOTE:
1. Flash Point obtained under cooling condition is slightly less than that obtained during
heating conditions.
2. For all practical purposes, the lower value is taken.

Result:
FLASH POINT: _______________0C,
FIRE POINT: _________________0C.

Inference:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 12

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

EXPERIMENT 1b:Determination of Flash and Fire Points of Heavy Lubricating Oils

Aim:
Determination of flash and fire point for heavy lubricating oil using Pensky Martins
Apparatus.

Apparatus:

1. Flexible shaft for stiffer.

2. Lever arrangement.
3. Brass cup.
4. Thermometer to measure oil
temperature.
5. Slit arrangement for
opening.
6. Hot plate.
7. Electrical connection.

Figure 2.1 Schematic representation of the apparatus

Procedure for heavy lubricating oils:

1. The oil to be tested is poured up to the mark in the brass or copper cup.
2. The lid fixed with the thermometers is placed on the cup.
3. Apparatus is heated electrically using the hot plate.
4. The oil is stirred continuously.
5. The test flame is introduced till a distinct flash appears.
6. Heating is continued after the flash point, till fire point is obtained.
7. These flash and fire points areunder heating conditions.
8. The above Flash and Fire points are under the heating conditions.
9. Under cooling conditions also the procedure is repeated.
10. Heating is stopped 50 C above the fire point.
11. Oil is gradually cooled by supplying cold water into the outer vessel.
12. The above procedure is continued until the vapour inside the CUP just fails to flash.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 13

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Tabular Column:
Heating Condition Cooling Condition
Temperature Observation Temperature Observation
0 0
in C in C

Tabular Column for Cooling Condition:

Results:
FLASH POINT: ___________ 0C
FIRE POINT: ___________ 0C

Inference:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 14

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

EXPERIMENT1c:Measurement of Viscosity of Light Lubricating Oil

Aim:
To determine the viscosity of the given lubricating oil using the Redwood
Viscometer.

Apparatus:

Figure 3.1 Schematic cross section view of the apparatus

Procedure:-
1. The apparatus is cleaned thoroughly.
2. The water jacket is filled with water.
3. The gate orifice is closed using the iron ball which acts as a valve.
4. The oil cup is filled with 50cc of the given lubricating oil.
5. The two thermometers for measuring the water and oil temperature are introduced to
the respective slots in the apparatus.
6. At room temperature, the ball valve is opened and oil is allowed to flow through the
standard orifice.
7. The weight of the oil collected is noted and the oil is poured back into the cup.
8. The specific gravity of the oil is calculated.
9. Now the apparatus is electrically heated.
10. At any particular temperature, the ball valve is opened and oil isallowed to flow

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 15

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

through the standard orifice

11. Time for the 50 cc of oil to flow through the orifice is noted.
12. The time in seconds is called as Redwood's seconds is noted down.
13. Readings to be tabulated in the tabular column.
14. To plot graphs
(A) The variation of Dynamic viscosity v/stemperature.
(B) The variation of Redwood number v/s temperature.

Observations and Specimen Calculation:(For Trial Number:_______)

1. Description of the oil under the test:______________________

2. Quantity of the oil taken: 50cc

3. Room temperature at which test is being conducted(TR): _________ 0C

4. Weight of empty measuring jar(X):______________ gm

5. Weight of the empty measuring jar + Weight of 50 cc the oil:(Y) = __________ gm

6. Weight of 50 cc of oil at room temperature:(Y- X) = ______________ gm

7. Mass Density of the given oil at room temperature (Z):(Y -X)/50 =___________gm

8. Specific gravity of the oil at room temperature ( _____ oC), (STR = Z)

9. Specific Gravity at any temperature is given by S T= S15 -0.0006( T – 15)

10. Therefore at room temperature, STR= S15- 0.0006 (TR – 15)

where, STR= Z and TRis the room temperature in 0C.

11. Specific gravity of the given oil at 150c will be,

S15 = STR + 0.0006`(TR - 15) = = ______________

12. Time taken to rundown 50 cc of the oil (Redwood seconds) at any temperature (T) =

't' Seconds=____________ seconds.

13. Kinematic Viscosity (ν) of the oil at TR0C = ____________ stokes (m2/s)

ν = (0.00246 t - 19) stokes, when t is in between 40 and 85 seconds

=_________stokes

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 16

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

OR
 0.65 
ν =  0.00247.t   stokes, when t is in between 85 and 2000 seconds
 t 
=________ stokes
TR = Room temperature; t= Redwood seconds
14. Absolute viscosity, = ν mass density of the oil at corresponding temperature (Z)

 = ________ poise

 100.t.S 
15. Redwood Number, (RWN)=  
 535(0.915) 
(t = Time for 50cc oil to run down; S= Sp. Gravity at the temperature „T‟)

Redwood Number=__________

Tabulation of Results:-
Sl. Temp. of oil Time taken to Sp. Redwood
No in0C run down 50cc Gravity of Number ν 
of oil in seconds oil
1

Graphs to be plotted:
1. Dynamic viscosity v/s Temperature.
2. Redwood number v/s Temperature.

Inference:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 17

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

EXPERIMENT 1d:Measurement of Viscosity ofHeavy Lubricating Oil

Aim:
To Determine the viscosity of lubricating oils using Saybolt‟sViscometer.

Apparatus:
Bath Thermometer

Electric
immersion heater

Oil for Test

Water Bath
Orifice

60ml Receiving flask

Figure 4.1 Schematic cross section view of the apparatus

Procedure:-
1. The apparatus is cleaned thoroughly.
2. The orifice should be closed.
3. 60 cc of the oil to be tested is filled.
4. The thermometer which measures the oil temperature is inserted in its position.
5. At the room temperature the oil is allowed to flow through the standard orifice.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 18

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

6. The weight of the oil collected is noted and the oil is poured back into the cup.
7. The specific gravity of tile oil is calculated.
8. Now the apparatus is electrically heated.
9. At any particular temperature, the oil is allowed to flow and the time for the oil to flow
out is noted.
10. Readings are tabulated.
11. Graph showing tile variation of dynamic viscosity v/s temperature is plotted.

Observations and Specimen Calculation:(For trial number:______ )

1. Description of tile Oil under tile test - ______________

2. Quantity of the Oil taken : 60 cc

3. Room temperature at which the test is being conducted, (TR) = _____________ 0C

4. Weight of empty measuring jar (X):________________gm

5. Weight of empty measuring Jar + Weight of 60 cc oil(Y):_________________gm

6. Weight of 60 cc of oil at room temperature(Y-X):________________ gm

7. Mass Density of the given oil at room temperature (Z):

[(Y- X)/60]=___________________ gm/cc,

8. Specific gravity of the oil at room temperature (290C), (STR = Z)

9. Specific gravity at any temperature is given by ST = S15 –0.0006 (T - 15)

Therefore, at room temperature SRT = S15 – 0.0006(TR - 15)

where, SRT = Z and TR is the room temperature in 0C

10. Specific gravity of the given oil at 150C will be

S15 = STR + 0.0006(TR - 15)

S15 =______________

11. Time taken to rundown 60cc of the oil (Saybolt's seconds) at any temperature (T)

= „t‟ seconds = __________ seconds

12. Kinematic viscosity (ν) of the oil at temperature T0C

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 19

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

 180 
ν =  0.220t   centistokes when„t‟ is less than 50 seconds
 t 

ν =___________ stokes
OR
 195 
ν =  0.220t   centistokes when„t‟ is in between 50 and 100 seconds.
 t 

ν =______________ stokes
OR
 135 
ν =  0.220t   centistokes when„t‟ is greater than 100 seconds
 t 

ν =___________ stokes
13. Absolute viscosity,= ν *mass density of the oil at corresponding temp (Z)

= = ______________ poises

Tabulation of Results:

Sl. Temp. of Time taken (t) to, Specific Saybolt‟s

No oil in 0 C rundown 60cc Gravity of Universal  
of oil in seconds Oil Seconds
1

Graphs to be plotted:
Dynamic viscosity v/s Temperature

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 20

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Inference:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 21

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

EXPERIMENT 2:Performance Test on Four Stroke Petrol Engine

Aim: To determine the performance characteristics of a four stroke petrol engine.

Specifications of engine:
Engine make: Greaves limited
Horse power: 3.4 HP (2.5 kW)
Maximum speed: 3000 rpm
Maximum torque: 0.812 mkg (8 Nm)
Bore diameter: 70 mm = 0.07 m
Bore length: 66.7mm = 0.0667 m
Volume = 256 cc
Dynamometer = AC Generator.
Compression ratio: 4.67(standard engine)
Cranking type: Rope start

Theory:
Four stroke petrol engines follow Otto cycle during their working. A pre-determined
stoichiometric (chemically required) amount of air-fuel is burnt with the help of spark inside
piston cylinder. In spark ignition engines a sufficiently homogeneous mixture of vaporized
fuel, air and residual gases is ignited by a single intense and high temperature spark between
the spark plug electrodes, leaving behind a thin thread of flame. The PV diagram for the same
is as shown in figure 8.1. It consists of 1-2 reversible adiabatic compression, 2-3 constant
volume heat addition, 3-4 reversible adiabatic expansion, and 4-1 constant volume heat
rejection.

3
P

2 4

Figure 8.1 Theoretical PV diagram for an Otto cycle

The combustion inside the cylinder takes place in two stages, one the growth and
development of a semi-propagating nucleus of flame called Ignition lag or the Preparation
phase, and the other spread of the flame throughout the combustion chamber. The following
engine variables affect the flame propagation, Fuel-air ratio, Compression ratio, Intake
temperature and Pressure, Engine load, Turbulence, Engine speed and Engine size. These
variables can be changed depending on the application but they might lead to abnormal
combustion and detonation or knocking (this should be avoided).

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 22

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Procedure to conduct Load test:

1. Ensure that there is sufficient petrol in the petrol tank. The petrol level in the burette
is an indication of the amount of petrol in the petrol tank. The burette reading must be
at 20ml. If not open the petrol tank lid and fill it with petrol.
2. Switch on the Main power supply by turning ON the mains ON switch, temperature
and speed display will be ON and will show the present temperature and speed.
3. Open the water flow valve. Water flow rate is indicated on the flow controller
provided on the control panel. The water flowing through the water flow controller
goes into the heat exchanger and is required for heat balance sheet computation. So
keep the water flow rate steady. The water coming out of the heat exchanger is to be
discharged into a drain and not to be circulated to the brake drum. It is very important
to ensure proper water flow into the heat exchanger inadequate water flow will result
in heating of the heat exchanger resulting in malfunction of the entire system.
4. Lock the swinging field AC generator using the locking pin. Set the spring balance to
zero – loading spring balance.
5. Ensure all the toggle switches are in OFF position and that there are no heaters
connected.
6. Wind the rope on to the engine shaft of the machine to crank it. Apply choke if
required.
7. The engine starts and the output speed will be approximately 3000 rpm.
8. Remove the pin of the AC generator; the AC generator will now swing. Adjust the
spring balance and measure the load required to counter the “swing” experienced by
the AC generator.
9. Match the pointer marked Red and record the corresponding load value.
10. This reading corresponds to no load condition, all the heaters are off and that there is
no load on the AC generator. Record the spring balance load, fuel consumption for 10
seconds, manometer reading, voltage, current, speed, temperature and water flow rate.
11. Switch ON one of the heaters. The voltage, current, speed values will immediately
change. Now adjust the spring balance and bring the AC generator back to horizontal
position by adjusting the RED pointer.
12. At each step note down the temperatures: T1, T2, T3 and T4.

Observations:
Lower calorific value of petrol = 45210 kJ/kg
Specific gravity of petrol = 0.75

Orifice diameter = ________mm

Water flow rate = ________lpm

Specific heat of water (Cp) = 4.19 kJ/kgoC

Dynamometer constant(K) = 2000

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 23

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Engine exhaust gas inlet temperature (T1) = __________0C

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 24

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Engine exhaust gasoutlet temperature (T2) = __________0C

Calorimeter water inlet temperature (T3) =___________0C

Calorimeterwater outlet temperature (T4)=___________0C

Observations Table:
Sl. No. Speed(N) in Load Voltage Current Time(t) for 10 ml of Manometer reading„hw‟ in mm T1 T2
o
T3 T4
V A fuel consumption in o C o o
rpm in kg C C C
sec

h1 h2 hw=
h1+ h2
1

Specimen calculations: (For trial number: _______)

1. Power(P1) = (Voltage x Current) / (1000 * Power Factor) = = ______ kW

Power(P2) = BP ={2  N (W x 0.2) / 60}x (Ratio of the Pulley)

= ______________ kW

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 25

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Note: -
 Pulley diameter 150 mm at the AC-generator and 75mm at the engine, so ratio of
the Pulley (75/150) = 0.5
 Torque arm radius = 0.2 m
 W= Load in Newton = Load in kg X 9.81
 Take BP = P2power for further calculations

SG Petrol  10
2. Total fuel consumption(𝑚𝑓 ) = = = _________ kg/sec
1000 ∗𝑡

where t = Time for 10 ml fuel consumption.

(𝑚 𝑓 ∗ 3600 )
3. Specific fuel consumption(SFC) = = = ________kg/kW-hr
𝐵𝑃

𝐵𝑃 ∗100
4. Brake thermal efficiency (ηBth) = 𝑚 = = ________ %
𝑓 ∗ 𝐶𝑉
where, CV = Calorific value of petrol in kJ/kg= 45000 kJ/kg

5. To calculate Volume of air (Va):

We know that PV = mRT or P= RT

𝑃
= 𝑅𝑇

At NTP,air = 1.033  104=1.176 kg/m3

Also, air hair= whw

 hw
hair = 𝜌w = = ________ m of air
𝑎𝑖𝑟

Cd x  x d2x 2 𝑔 𝑕 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Volume of air =Va = = = _______m3/sec
4

where, d = diameter of the orifice = _________ m

g = 9.81 m/s2

Cd = Co-efficient of discharge = 0.64

(ρ air x V a )
6. Air-fuel ratio: = = ______
𝑚𝑓

volume of air sucked 𝑉 60 x V a

7. Volumetric efficiency (ηV ) =volume = 𝑉𝑎 = D 2 N
* 100= _______ 
of the cylinder 𝑠 ( L )
4 2

where, D = diameter of the cylinder = _______ m,

L = stroke length = 0.0667 m

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 26

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Result table:
Sl. Speed(N) in Load Output Specific fuel Brake thermal Volumetric
No rpm in kg Power,BP consumption(SF efficiency (ηBth) efficiency (ηV )
C)

HEAT BALANCE SHEET:

1) Fuel consumption per minute =(𝑚𝑓 )*60 = _________kg/min.

2) Total heat input = Fuel consumption per minute x CV =

= ________ kJ/min.

3) Heat equivalent of brake power=BP*60 = ___________kJ/min.

4) Heat carried away by cooling water @ 2 lpm = mw * Cp *Tw =

= ___________kJ/min

where, mw = 2 kg/min (for 2 lpm)

Cp(water) = 4.18kJ/kg K
Tw=T4-T3
5) Heat carried away by Exhaust gas = mg CpTg= _________ kJ/min.

ρ air x d 2 x L x N
where, Mass of air = = = _______ kg/min
8

Exhaust gas(mg) = Mass of air + Fuel consumption per minute

= ________ kg/min.

where, Cp = 1.05 kJ/kg K , Tg= T1-T2

6) Heat unaccounted (radiation etc) =[(2) –{(3) + (4) + (5)}]

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 27

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

=__________________ kg/min.

Heat balance table:

Heat kJ/ min % Heat utilized kJ/ min %
supplied
Heat Equivalent of
brake power
Heat carried away by
Heat Energy cooling water
100
Input Heat carried away by
exhaust gas
Heat unaccounted
(radiation , etc)
Total 100 Total

Graphs to be plotted:
1. Brake thermal efficiency v/s BP
2. Volumetric efficiency v/s BP
3. Specific fuel consumption v/s BP

Nature of graphs:
ηBth
SFC

ηvol

BP BP BP

Inference:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 28

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

EXPERIMENT 3:Performance Test on Four Stroke Diesel Engine

Aim: To determine the performance characteristics for a four stroke diesel engine.

Specifications of Engine:
Engine make: Kirloskar TV 1
Horse power: 7 HP = 5.2 KW
Maximum speed: 1500 rpm
Bore diameter: 87.5mm = 0.0875 m
Stroke = 110mm = 0.11m
Volume = 661 cc
Compression ratio = 17.5
Governor: Mechanical – Centrifugal type
Cranking/Starting: Hand cranking with De-Compression lever

Theory:
The working of this engine is very much similar to four stroke petrol engine but
instead of spark ignition here a fuel injector which injects the diesel fuel at very high
pressures to piston cylinder which consists of air compressed at high pressure. The piston
begins the power stroke at top dead center. The air is compressed to as much as 35 bar and at
a compressed temperature of approximately 500oC. At this point, fuel is injected into the
combustion chamber and is ignited by the heat of the compression. Each minute droplet as it
enters the hot air is quickly surrounded by an envelope of its own vapour and this in turn and
after an appreciable interval of time, spreads to the entire cylinder. The expanding force of
the burning gases pushes the piston downward, providing power to the crankshaft. Here there
are four stages of combustion, first is the ignition delay period, second is the rapid or
uncontrolled combustion, third is the controlled combustion and final fourth stage is the after
burning stage. The diesel fuel will continue to burn through the entire power stroke (a more
complete burning of the fuel). The exhaust gases are sent out through the exhaust valve and
the next cycle is initiated.

Procedure to Conduct load test:

1. Ensure that there is sufficient diesel in the fuel tank.
2. Switch on the main power supply by turning on the mains on switch.
3. Open the water flow valve. Water flow rate is indicated on the flow controller provided
on the control panel. The water flowing through the water flow controller goes into the
heat exchanger and is required for heat balance sheet computation.
4. Make sure that there is sufficient water flow in to the break drum. If not, this will result
in rapid heating of the brake drum and will result in slip.
5. Make sure that the spring balance is set to zero.
6. The speed display will show zero rpm and the temperatures will show the present water
temperature and the air temperature.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 29

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

7. Using the hand cranking lever provided, rotate the lever in clockwise direction to start
the engine.
8. Once the required speed is achieved, note down the manometer reading and time for
consumption of 10 ml of fuel using the stop watch. This is for the no load condition.
Also record the temperature values.
9. Repeat the experiments for higher loads – maximum loading limit is equal to 30 kg, so
increasing the load in steps of 5 kg and record the speed, temperature, fuel consumption
and manometer readings.
10. At each step note down the temperatures: T1,T2,T3,T4.
T1 = Exhaust gas inlettemperature
T2 = Exhaust gas outlettemperature
T3 = calorimeter Water inlet temperature
T4 = calorimeter Water outlettemperature

Observations:
Lower calorific value of diesel = 44000 kJ/kg

Brake drum radius: ___________ m

Orifice diameter = ___________ mm

Water flow rate = ___________ lpm

Tabular column:
Sl. Speed(N) Load Time(t) for 10 Manometer reading „hw‟ T1 T2
o
T3 T4
ml of fuel o C o o
No. in rpm in kg in mm C C C
consumption
in sec
h1 h2 hw=
h1+ h2
1

Specimen calculations:
1. Brake power (BP) = 2  N T / 60= = __________ kW

T = Load x loading arm length = (W x 0.1) = = ________ kg-m

SG Diesel  10
2. Total fuel consumption(𝑚𝑓 ) = = = _________ kg/sec
1000 ∗ 𝑡

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 30

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

where t = Time for 10 ml fuel consumption = _________ sec

(𝑚 𝑓 ∗ 3600 )
3. Specific fuel consumption(SFC) = = = ________kg/kW-hr
𝐵𝑃

𝐵𝑃 ∗100
4. Brake thermal efficiency(ηBth%) = 𝑚 = = ________ %
𝑓 ∗ 𝐶𝑉

where, CV = Calorific value of diesel in kJ/kg = 44000 kJ/kg

5. To calculate Volume of air (Va):

air hair= whw

 hw
hair = 𝜌w = = __________ m of air
𝑎𝑖𝑟

C d x  x d 2 x 2 𝑔 𝑕 𝑎𝑖𝑟
6. Volume of air = Va = = = _____m3/sec
4

where, d = diameter of the orifice

g = 9.81 m/s2

Cd = Co-efficient of discharge = 0.65

ρair= Density of air at room temperature =

(ρ air x Va)
7. Air-fuel ratio: = = ______
𝑚𝑓

volume of air sucked 𝑉 60 x V a

8. Volumetric efficiency (ηV ) =volume = 𝑉𝑎 = D 2 N
* 100 = _______ 
of the cylinder 𝑠 ( L )
4 2

where, D = diameter of the cylinder = _______ m,

L = stroke length = _________ m

9. Frictional power: Plot a graph of BP on the X-axis and 𝑚𝑓 on the Y-axis. Extend the line
back to cross the negative X-axisaxis,and measure the FP from origin.The value of FP
for given engine is = ______________ kW

10. Indicated power(IP) = BP + FP = = _________ kW

IP x 100
11. Indicated thermal efficiency(IP)= 𝑚 = = ____
𝑓 x CV

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 31

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

BP
12. Mechanical efficiency(ηmech)= IP = = ________ 

Result table:
Sl. Speed Load BP IP IP mech ηV
No. in rpm in kg kW kW   
1

Graphs to be plotted:
1. Brake thermal efficiency v/s BP
2. Indicated thermal efficiency v/s BP
3. Volumetric efficiency v/s BP
4. Mechanical efficiency v/s BP (Willan's Line)

Nature of graphs:
SFC in kg/kW-hr
ηVol
ηBth

BP BP P in kW
LP BP
IP
Inference:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 32

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

EXPERIMENT4:Performance Test on Multi–Cylinder Diesel Engine

Aim: To determine Mechanical efficiency, Indicated power and frictional power of a multi
cylinder diesel engine by conducting Morse test.

Apparatus: Hydraulic dynamometer and Multi- cylinder diesel engine.

Specifications of the engine:

Engine Make: Ambassador
Number of strokes: 4
Number of cylinders: 4
Fuel used: Diesel
Rated Power: 36 HP at 4000 rpm
Type of cooling: Water Cooled
Bore diameter: 73mm
Stroke: 89 mm
Compression ratio:23:1
Cylinder capacity: 1489 cc

Theory:
Measurement of Friction Power
The link between the brake power and the indicated power of an engine is its friction
power. Friction has a dominating effect on the performance of an engine. Almost invariably,
the difference between a good engine and a bad engine is due the difference between their
frictional losses. Lower friction means availability of more brake power.
Friction power can be determined by one of the following methods:
1. Morse Test
2. Willan's linemethod

Morse test is used to find a close estimate of indicated power (IP) of a multi cylinder
engine. In this test the engine is coupled to a suitable brake dynamometer and the brake
power is determined by running the engine at the required speed. The first cylinder is cut out
by interrupting the fuel supply to the first cylinder in case of a diesel engine. As a result of
cutting out the first cylinder, engine speed will drop. Load on the engine is now removed so
that the original speed is attained. The brake power under this load is determined and
recorded as BP1.The first cylinder operation is restored normal and the second cylinder is
cut–out. The engine speed will again vary. By adjusting the load on the engine, speed is
brought to original value and the new BP is recorded BP2. Same procedure is continued till
the last cylinder is cut–out.

Morse Test:
A rapid and adequate measurement of indicated power of multi-cylinder engines can be
obtained by performing the 'Morse Test' which requires no special instrumentation. For

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 33

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

example, consider a four–cylinder diesel engine fitted with a dynamometer to measure the
brake power.

Let (IP)1, (IP)2, (IP)3, (IP)4 = indicated power of each individual cylinder
(BP)1, (BP)2, (BP)3,(BP)4 = brake power of each individual cylinder, and
(FP)1,(FP)2,(FP)3,(FP)4 = frictional power of each individual cylinder.

During normal operation, when all the cylinders are working

Total brake power = BP = (BP)1+ (BP)2 +(BP)3 + (BP)4
= [(IP)1 -(FP)1] + [(IP)2 -(FP)2] + [(IP)3 - (FP)3] + [(IP)4 - (FP)4]

BP = [(IP)1 - (IP)2 + (IP)3 - (IP)4]- [(FP)1+(FP)2+ (FP)3+ (FP)4]------ (A)

Now, let the first cylinder be 'cut off' by interrupting the fuel supply,
Then (IP)1 is cut out but (FP)1 remains.
Therefore, brake power with the first cylinder 'Cut off' is given by,
(BP)1=[(IP)2 + (IP)3 +(IP)4]-[(FP)1+(FP)2+(FP)3+(FP)4] ----- (B)
Subtracting eq. (B) from eq. (A)
BP – (BP)1 = (IP)1.
Thus the indicated power of the first cylinder is determined.
The indicated power of the second cylinder = (IP)2 = BP -(BP)2
The indicated power of the third cylinder = (IP)3 = BP - (BP)3
The indicated power of the fourth cylinder = (IP)4 = BP-(BP)4

Hence, the Total indicated power (IP) = (IP)1 + (IP)2 + (IP)3 +(IP)4

The indicated power determined this way is not quit accurate since the friction losses
while the cylinder is not working is not the same when the cylinder is working. However this
is a rapid and approximate procedure.

Procedure:
1. Remove all loads on the engine.
2. Start the engine using ignition key.
3. Adjust the throttle valve to obtain the designed speed of the engine.
4. Load the engine to its maximum by valve provided at the dynamometer and adjust the
throttle position to any desired speed.
5. Cut–off the first cylinder by 'cut-off' valve provided at the engine.
6. The speed of the engine decreases. Attain the normal speed by adjusting the load
without adjusting the throttle valve.
7. Repeat the experiment by cutting off other cylinders, one at a time and note down all
the readings.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 34

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Observations:
Lower calorific value of Diesel (CV) = 44000 kJ/kg
Specific gravity of diesel = 0.85
Specific heat of Water (Cp) = 4.19 kJ/kgoC
Dynamometer constant (K): 2000

T1in 0C = Air inlet Temperature

T2in 0C = Calorimeter water inlet Temperature

T3in 0C = Calorimeter water outlet Temperature

T4in 0C = water outlet Temperaturefrom Engine Head

T5=Exhaust gas inletTemperature

T6 =Exhaust gas outletTemperature

Tabular column:

Time(t) for Manometer reading in

Speed(N) Load 25 ml of mm
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
SlNo. in in fuel
˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C
rpm kg consumption h1 h2 hw=
in „sec‟ h1+ h2
1

Tabular Column for MORSE Test:

Sl. Speed
Load (kg) Cylinder cut off
No. (N) (rpm)
1500 (W) = All cylinders are working
1
1500 (W1) = 1
2

3 1500 (W2) = 3

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 35

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

1500 (W3) = 4
4
1500 (W4) = 2
5

Specimen Calculations: (For trial number:_________ )

WN
1. BP= 2000 ∗ 0.735= = _____________ kW

When all the cylinders are working

W N
1
(BP)1= 2000 ∗ 0.735 = = _____________ kW

When cylinder 1 is cut off and speed restored

W N
2
(BP)2 = 2000 ∗ 0.735 = = _____________ kW

When cylinder 2 is cut off and speed restored

W N
3
(BP)3 = 2000 ∗ 0.735 = = ___________ kW

When cylinder 3 is cut off and speed restored

4 W N
(BP)4 = 2000 ∗ 0.735 = = ___________ kW

When cylinder 4 is cut off and speed restored

Calculations to determine indicated power:

(IP)1 = (BP)All cylinders are working-(BP)1= = ___________ kW

(IP)2 = (BP)All cylinders are working-(BP)2= = ___________ kW

(IP)3 = (BP)All cylinders are working-(BP)3= = ___________ kW

(IP)4 = (BP)All cylinders are working-(BP)4= = ___________ kW

Total indicated power of the engine (IP) = (IP)1+ (IP)2+ (IP)3+ (IP)4

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 36

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

= __________ kW

Mass of fuel consumption per minute(𝑚f ):

Pipette reading ∗ p ∗ 60
𝑚f = = = ___________ kg/min
T ∗ 1000

where, p =Density of diesel = 0.85 gm/ml

Total fuel consumption (TFC):TFC = 𝑚f * 60 = = _________kg/hr

Specific fuel consumption (SFC):

TFC
SFC = = = __________ kg/kw-hr
𝐵𝑃

Heat Input (HI):

TFC x CV
HI = = = ___________ kW
60 ∗ 60

Brakethermal efficiency (BT):

BP ∗ 100
BT = = = __________ 
HI

Air fuel ratio (AF):

m
AF = 𝑚a
f

where, ma = 60 * Cd * A * Va * a

2 𝑔 𝑕𝑤 𝜌𝑤
Volume of air (Va)= ∗ − 1
1000 𝜌𝑎

𝑑 2
A= = = ________ mm2
4

Diameter of orifice ‟d‟ = __________ m

Cd = 0.62

ρw = Density of water = 1000 kg/m3

ρa = Density of air = 1kg/m3

Va= ______________ m3

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 37

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

ma= = _____________ kg/min

AF ratio = = ______________

Indicated Power (IP):

IP = (BP + FP) = = ____________kW

where, FP is obtained from Morse Test

Mechanical efficiency (mech):

𝐵𝑃
mech = 𝐼𝑃 ∗ 100 = = __________

Results:
Brake
Sl. Indicated Power Indicated thermal Mechanical
Power
No. (kW) efficiency, % Efficiency, %
(kW)
1
2
3
4
5

Heat Balance Sheet:

1. Fuel consumption per minute =(𝑚𝑓 )*60 _____________kg/min

2. Total heat input = Fuel consumption per minute x CV =

= _________ kJ/min

3. Heat equivalent of brake power = _________ kJ/min

4. Heat carried away by cooling water @ 2 lpm = m ∗ Cp ∗ ΔTw =

= _________ kJ/min

where, m = 2 kg/min (for 2 lpm); Cp(water) = 4.18 kJ/kg K

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 38

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

ΔTw =T3-T2

5. Heat carried away by Exhaust gas = mg CgTg=

= _________ kJ/min

ρ air x d 2 x L x N
where,Mass of air = =
8

= _______ kg/min

Cg = 1.05 kJ/kg K.

Exhaust Gas(mg) = Mass of Air + Fuel consumption per minute

= ___________ kg/min

6. Heat Unaccounted = [(2) – {(3) + (4) + (5)}]

= __________________ kg/min

Heat balance table:

Heat Supplied kJ/ min % Heat utilized kJ/ min %

Heat equivalent of
brake power
Heat carried away by
cooling water
Heat Energy Heat carried away by
100
Input exhaust gas
Heat unaccounted
(radiation , etc)
Heat lost due to
friction power
Total 100 TOTAL

Graphs to be plotted:
1. Brake thermal efficiency v/s BP
2. Mechanical efficiency v/s BP
3. Specific fuel consumption v/s BP

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 39

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Inference:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 40

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

EXPERIMENT5:Performance study of CRDi engine by varying fuel injection

pressure at constant load and speed
Aim: To determine the performance characteristicsof CRDi engine by varying fuel injection
pressure

Specifications of Engine:
Engine make : Mahindra and Mahindra
Engine Capacity (cc) : 625
Number of cylinders :1
Number of Strokes :4
Compression Ratio : 18:1
Bore (mm) : 93.0
Stroke Length (mm) : 92
Max. Power : 9 HP @ 3000 rpm
Max. Torque : 30 Nm @ 1800 rpm
Cooling system : Water Cooled
Type of ECU : Open (Configurable through PC based Software)
Dynamometer type : Eddy Current (Max. Power – 10HP)
Dynamometercooling system : Water cooled

Theory:
The engine is single cylinder water cooled four stroke automotive diesel engine. Diesel fuel is
injected directly into the combustion chamber with common-rail fuel injection equipment.
The fuel parameters like fuel quantity, injection timing, number of injections, fuel pressure in
the rail, etc. can be changed online with the help of an Open ECU. Open ECU based variation
in above parameters simplifies the research by brining so many parameters in the preview of
study.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 41

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Valve Timing Data

System Layout

Procedure:
1. Ensure that there is sufficient fuel in the fuel tank.
2. Remove all loads on the engine.
3. Switch on the main power supply by turning on the mains on switch.
4. Make sure that there is sufficient water flow in to the dynamometer. If not, this will
result in rapid heating.
5. Adjust the throttle valve to obtain the designed speed of the engine.
6. Load the engine to the desired value by valve provided at the dynamometer.
7. Varying fuel injection pressure for different value.
8. Tabulate the readings.

Observations:
Lower calorific value of diesel = 44000 kJ/kg

Water flow rate = ___________ lpm

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 42

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 43

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Tabular column:
Injection Mech. Effi.
Speed
Exp No Pressure Load (Nm) Fuel (Kg/h) BP (kW) SFC (kg/kWh) BTE (%) IP (kW) ITE (%)
(rpm) (ηmech)
(bar)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Specimen calculations:
1. Brake power (BP) = 2  N T / 60= = __________ kW

T = Load x loading arm length = (W x 0.1) = = ________ kg-m

SG Diesel  10
2. Total fuel consumption(𝑚𝑓 ) = = = _________ kg/sec
1000 ∗ 𝑡

where t = Time for 10 ml fuel consumption = _________ sec

(𝑚 𝑓 ∗ 3600 )
3. Specific fuel consumption(SFC) = = = ________kg/kW-hr
𝐵𝑃

𝐵𝑃 ∗100
4. Brake thermal efficiency = 𝑚 = = ________ %
𝑓 ∗ 𝐶𝑉

where, CV = Calorific value of diesel in kJ/kg = 44000 kJ/kg

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 44
 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

5. Frictional power: Plot a graph of BP on the X-axis and 𝑚𝑓 on the Y-axis. Extend the line

back to cross the negative X-axisand measure the FP from origin.The value of FP for

given engine is = ______________ kW

6. Indicated power(IP) = BP + FP = = _________ kW

IP x 100
7. Indicated thermal efficiency:IP= 𝑚 = = ____
𝑓 x CV

8. Mechanical efficiency: ηmech

mech = BP/IP= = ________ 

Inference:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 45

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

EXPERIMENT6: Performance study of CRDi engine by varying fuel

injection timing at constant load and speed
Aim: To determine the performance characteristicsof CRDi engine by varying fuel injection
timing

Specifications of Engine:
Engine make : Mahindra and Mahindra
Engine Capacity (cc) : 625
Number of cylinders :1
Number of Strokes :4
Compression Ratio : 18:1
Bore (mm) : 93.0
Stroke Length (mm) : 92
Max. Power : 9 HP @ 3000 rpm
Max. Torque : 30 Nm @ 1800 rpm
Cooling system : Water Cooled
Type of ECU : Open (Configurable through PC based Software)
Dynamometer type : Eddy Current (Max. Power – 10HP)
Dynamometercooling system : Water cooled

Theory:
The engine is single cylinder water cooled four stroke automotive diesel engine. Diesel fuel is
injected directly into the combustion chamber with common-rail fuel injection equipment.
The fuel parameters like fuel quantity, injection timing, number of injections, fuel pressure in
the rail, etc. can be changed online with the help of an Open ECU. Open ECU based variation
in above parameters simplifies the research by brining so many parameters in the preview of
study.

Valve Timing Data

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 46

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

System Layout

Procedure:
1. Ensure that there is sufficient fuel in the fuel tank.
2. Remove all loads on the engine
3. Switch on the main power supply by turning on the mains on switch.
4. Make sure that there is sufficient water flow in to the dynamometer. If not, this will
result in rapid heating.
5. Adjust the throttle valve to obtain the designed speed of the engine.
6. Load the engine to the desired value by valve provided at the dynamometer.
7. Varying fuel injection pressure for different value.
8. Tabulate the readings.

Observations:
Lower calorific value of diesel = 44000 kJ/kg

Water flow rate = ___________ lpm

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 47

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Tabular column:
Injection Mech. Effi.
Speed
Exp No Timing Load (Nm) Fuel (Kg/h) BP (kW) SFC (kg/kWh) BTE (%) IP (kW) ITE (%)
(rpm) (ηmech)
(Degree.CA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Specimen calculations:
1. Brake power (BP) = 2  N T / 60= = __________ kW

T = Load x loading arm length = (W x 0.1) = = ________ kg-m

SG Diesel  10
2. Total fuel consumption(𝑚𝑓 ) = = = _________ kg/sec
1000 ∗ 𝑡

where t = Time for 10 ml fuel consumption = _________ sec

(𝑚 𝑓 ∗ 3600 )
3. Specific fuel consumption(SFC) = = = ________kg/kW-hr
𝐵𝑃

𝐵𝑃 ∗100
4. Brake thermal efficiency = 𝑚 = = ________ %
𝑓 ∗ 𝐶𝑉

where, CV = Calorific value of diesel in kJ/kg = 44000 kJ/kg

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 48

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

5. Frictional power: Plot a graph of BP on the X-axis and 𝑚𝑓 on the Y-axis. Extend the line

back to cross the negative X-axisand measure the FP from origin.The value of FP for

given engine is = ______________ kW

6. Indicated power(IP) = BP + FP = = _________ kW

IP x 100
7. Indicated thermal efficiency:IP= 𝑚 = = ____
𝑓 x CV

8. Mechanical efficiency (ηmech) :

mech = BP/IP= = ________ 

Inference:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 49

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

PART-B
BIOFUELS
Introduction to Biofuels
Bio fuel refers to the fuel derived from living/organic matter; it is a renewable source
of energy and exists in all the three states of matter viz.,biodiesel (Liquid), Biogas (Gas) and
biomass (Solid).
The stability of Indian economy is solely dependent on the crude oil.
 About 85% of the crude oil is exported from foreign countries (mainly Arab countries).
 The cost of the fuel increases frequently and the public sector oil marketing companies
are bearing the losses by selling the oils in subsidized rates
 Petroleum sources are diminishing with time
Thus, there exists no energy security to replace crude oil
Biodiesel: An alternative to diesel: The alternative to the diesel can be any oil after
transesterification. In fact Rudolph Diesel, the discoverer of Compression Ignition engine ran
the engine for the first time with peanut oil, but using edible oil as biodiesel is not advisable
as it leads to scarcity of food commodities.
The oil extracted from Non Edibleseeds like pongamia (Honge), Simarouba, Neem,
Surahonne, Nagasampige, Caster, Jatropha etc. can be used as biodiesel after
transesterification. These oils can be used in blend with diesel up to 40% by volume.
Karnataka State Bio-fuel Board has taken up initiatives to popularize the concept of biodiesel
in Karnataka.
Though the application of bio-fuel to run engines is a recent development the bio-fuel
concept is not a new one, the Pongamia oil (Honge oil) was used in our ancestral times for
lighting lamps.
Biogas: A common solution to waste management and energy crisis
Biogas is an output of biomethanation of Organic waste by anaerobic bacteria. The process of
biomethanation involves breaking complex organic matter in to simpler molecules thereby
releasing biogas. The digested material obtained in the form of slurry is anorganic manure to
plants.

Organic/ Kitchen Waste Biogas

Waste  Plant Biogas (Product) + Manure
(Byproduct)

Biogas will be mainly comprised of methane which burns in presence of oxygen to form
carbon dioxide and water vapour
CH4 + O2 CO2 + H2O

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 50

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Typical composition of biogas is detailed in the table below

Table-1: - Typical composition of biogas

Sl No. Constituent Percentage
1 Methane 40 to 75
2 Carbon di-oxide 25 to 55
3 Traces [Hydrogen Sulphide, Ammonia Water, Nitrogen, Oxygen and 0 to 5
Hydrogen]

Calorific Value of Biogas will be around 30MJ/Kg.

Both Biodiesel and biogas can be used for thermal application as well as for electricity
generation
Mysore District Biofuel Information and Demonstration Centre at NIE, Mysuru, Karnataka is
involved in the field of biofuels owing to the efforts of [KSBDB] Karnataka State Biofuel
Development Board which has established Biofuel information and Demonstration centre in
each district of Karnataka. The centre was established at the premises of The National Institute
of Engineering. The plant is equipped with machinery and laboratory equipment to produce &
test the biodiesel of 50L/batch.

Concepts and Principles:

Purpose of conducting tests with biofuels: To study the performance of IC engines running
on biofuels

Objectives
 To find out the Specific fuel consumption [SFC] of IC Engine with biofuels
 To find the emissions from the exhaust of IC engine when biofuels are used to run the
engine

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 51

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

EXPERIMENT 7a: Performance study of Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (Coefficient of

performance)
Objective:
Evaluate the coefficient of performance of wind turbine.

Theory:
The Wind turbines convert wind movement (K.E.) into mechanical energy. Most modern
wind turbines are used to create electricity. That is what is referred to as a wind generator. If
the mechanical energy is used only for mechanical movement, it is a windmill. In the
commonly used wind generator, the wind turns the blades, which turn the shaft. The shaft
spins in a generator and electromagnetism in the generator produces electricity.

The Rotor blades are fitted on the main shaft in a horizontal hub. This direction of wind is
parallel to the axis of rotation of rotor blades. The horizontal hub is connected to a gearbox
and generator, which are located inside the nacelle. The nacelle houses the electrical
components and is mounted at the top of the tower. There is a supporting tower to withstand
the rotor and nacelle as well as wind kinetic energy.

Terms Used in Wind Energy

1. Wind speed: The speed at which the wind is flowing.
2. Cut-in speed: The minimum speed of turbine at which the turbine starts developing
power. e.g. 5 m/s
3. Cut-off (Furling) speed: The maximum speed of turbine at which the turbine stops
developing power. e.g. 30 m/s .It‟s for safe operation of wind turbine.
4. Power of wind, P = 0.5 ρ A Vw3
5. Where, A – Swept area of rotors,
6. Vw - Velocity of wind,
7. ρ – Density of air
8. Betz’ limit or law: The theoretical maximum possible power can be extracted from
the wind energy. Its value is 59.3% of power available in the wind.
9. Power co-efficient is the ratio of power output of the turbine to the power available in
the wind.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 52

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 53

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Tabular column:

Power Consumed by Power of

Rotor blade Wind Power Generated by Turbine
Sl. Battery Generated wind
speed (rpm) Speed COP
No Voltage Current Voltage Current Power (W) Wp
N (Vw) in m/s
(V) volts (I) amps (V) volts (I) amps

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 54

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Fig-7.1: - Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

Observations:
1. Diameter of the rotor, D = ________ m
2. Area of the rotor, A = ___________ m2
3. Cut-in speed= m/s
4. Density of air, ρ = _____________ Kg/m3
5. Power of wind Wp = 0.5 ρ A Vw3 = W
6. Generated Power, Gp = (Power Consumed by Battery + Power Generated by
Turbine) x Charge controller Efficiency
= W
Gp
7. COP = Wp =

Results:

INFERENCE:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 55

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

EXPERIMENT 7b: Performance study of Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine(Tip Speed

ratio)
Objective:

Evaluate the at different wind speeds

Theory:

The relationship between the wind speed and the rate of rotation of the rotor is characterized
by a non-dimensional factor, known as the tip speed ratio (TSR) or λ. The TSR for wind
turbines is the ratio between the tangential speed of the tip of a blade and the actual velocity
of the wind, . The tip-speed ratio is related to efficiency, with the maximum wind to electric
power conversion efficiency occurring at a specific tip speed ratio for a given turbine under
consideration. Higher tip speeds result in higher noise levels and require stronger blades due
to large centrifugal forces. Lower tip speeds mean an under-utilization of the wind turbine to
generate electricity. Thus it is generally desired to maintain the tip speed ratio at the optimal
value to extract the most from the wind.

Tip speed ratio = Tip speed of blade/wind speed

The tip speed of the blade can be calculated as ω times R, where ω is the rotor rotational
speed in radians/second, and R is the rotor radius in meters.

Therefore we can also write:

λ = ωR/vw
When wind speed is specified in meters/second, it should be constant for each wind
velocity. Optimum TSR value for three blades wind turbine is 6-7.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 56

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Rotor Power Consumed by Power Generated by

Wind
blade Angular Battery Turbine Power of
Sl. Speed Generated
speed Velocity wind COP TSR
No (Vw) in Voltage Current Voltage Current Power (W)
(rpm) (ω) Wp
m/s (V) volts (I) amps (V) volts (I) amps
N

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 57

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Observations:
1. Diameter of the rotor, D = ________ m
2. Area of the rotor, A = ___________ m2
3. Cut-in speed= m/s
4. Density of air, ρ = _____________ Kg/m3
5. Power of wind Wp = 0.5 ρ A Vw3 = W
6. Generated Power, Gp = (Power Consumed by Battery + Power Generated by
Turbine) x Charge controller Efficiency
= W
𝜔𝑅
7. TSR=λ = =
𝑉w
Gp
8. COP = Wp =

Draw the curve between TSR and coefficient of power

Results:

INFERENCE:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 58

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

EXPERIMENT 8:I-V and P-V Characteristics of PV Module

Aim:
To demonstrate the I-V and P-V characteristics of PV module with varying radiation
and temperature level.

Theory:
PV module is characterized by its I-V and P-V characteristics. At a particular solar
insolation and temperature, module characteristic curves are shown in Fig. 1.1(a) and 1.1(b)
respectively.

Fig 8.1 : P-V characteristic of PV module

Characteristic curves of solar cell
In I-V characteristic maximum current at zero voltage is the short circuit current (Isc) which
can be measured by shorting the PV module and maximum voltage at zero current is the open
circuit voltage (Voc). In P-V curve the maximum power is achieved only at a single point
which is called MPP (maximum power point) and the voltage and current corresponding to
this point are referred as Vmp and Imp. On increasing the temperature, Voc of module decreases
as shown in Fig. 1.2, while Isc remains the same which in turn reduces the power. For most
crystalline silicon solar cells modules the reduction is about 0.50%/°C.

Fig-8.2 : - Variation in Voc with change in Fig-8.3: - Variation in I-V characteristic

temperature with insolation.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 59

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

On changing the solar insolation Isc of the module increases while the Voc increases very
slightly.
Fill factor: The Fill Factor (FF) is essentially a measure of quality of the solar cell. It is the
ratio of the actual achievable maximum power to the theoretical maximum power (PT) that
would be achieved with open circuit voltage and short circuit current together. FF can also be
interpreted graphically as the ratio of the rectangular areas depicted in Fig.1.4. A larger fill
factor is desirable, and corresponds to an I-V sweep that is more square-like. Typical fill
factors range from 0.5 to 0.82. Fill factor is also often represented as a percentage.
PMAX IMP VMP
FF = = x
PT ISC 𝑉𝑂𝐶

Fig-8.4 : - Graphical interpretation of the Fill factor (FF)

Experimental set-up
The circuit diagram to evaluate I-V and P-V characteristics of a module is shown in Fig.1.5.
Form a PV system which includes PV module and a variable resistor (pot meter) with
ammeter and voltmeter for measurement. Pot meter in this circuit works as a variable load for
the module. When load on the module is varied by pot meter the current and voltage of the
module gets changed which shift the operating point on I-V and P-V characteristics.
PV characteristics evaluation can be achieved by following connections in control board

Fig-8.5 : - Circuit diagram for evaluation of I-V and P-V characteristics

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 60

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Precautions:
1. Readings for one set should be taken within 1-2 minutes (for indoor experiment) otherwise
temperature of the module may vary as radiation source used is halogen lamp.
2. Halogen lamp position should not be changed during one set otherwise radiation on
modules will change.
3. Connections should be tight.
Controller connections

Fig-8.6 : - Control board connections to Fig-8.7: - Logger plotter box with power
get I-V and P-V characteristics supply

One can also take I -V and P-V data from Logger and Plotter by connecting the Logger
Plotter Box with module output. Values of current and voltages can be taken from the data
logger and then I-V curve can be plotted at different radiation and temperature levels. One
can also use Real time plotter which will plot the curve of I-V and P-V.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 61

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Observations:
Table for I-V and P-V characteristics of PV module:
Set-1 Set-2
Sl.
Radiation Temperature V I P Radiation Temperature V I P
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Set-3 Set-4
Sl.
Radiation Temperature V I P Radiation Temperature V I P
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

These 4 sets are for different radiation and temperature levels but in one set the values of
radiation and temperature will be constant.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 62

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Results:
1. Draw the I-V curves of all the sets on a single graph and show the characteristics at
different radiation and temperatures levels (by using digital meters and data logger
separately).

2. Draw the P-V curves of all sets on a single graph and show the characteristics at
different radiation and temperatures levels (by using digital meters and data logger
separately).

3. Calculate the fill factor for the given module (by using digital meters and data logger
separately).

4. Also get all above mentioned curves from the Real time plotter.

INFERENCE:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 63

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

EXPERIMENT 9: Performance Study and Evaluation of Heat Loss Coefficient [Ul],

Heat Removal Factor [Fr] and Thermal Efficiency [Η] in Solar Water Heater

Aim: To determine the UL, FRand η in Solar Water Heater mode of flow with fixed input
parameters

Procedure:
1. Keep all valves closed
2. Fill cold water tank number 1
3. Open the valves 1 and 2 and fill cold water tank 2 by using th pump
4. Once the cold water tank 2 is full, open valve 3 and 4 and allows the water to flow into
the hot water tank and the collector by gravity.
5. Once the hot water tank overflows and water comeback to the cold water tank 1 close
the valves 1, 2 and 3.
6. Switch ON the wind generating fan
7. Measure the wind speed at different locations of the collector by using the Anemometer.
Use an average value for calculation.
8. Similar to the wind speed measure the ambient air temperature by using the same
Anemometer at different locations around the experimental setup. Use an average value
for calculation.
9. Connect all the meters and note all the readings
10. Switch ON the Halogen system and set the regulator for maximum radiation level
11. Measure the radiation level at different locations on the collector glazing by using the
radiation meter. To get the radiation levels at the desire value apply the regulator. Use
an average value for calculation.
12. Note the values shown by different meters after every 15 minutes.
13. To know the mass flow rate open the three ways valve and note the time required to fill
a desire amount of water in the beaker.
14. Repeat the above step (13) at least five times during the whole experiments. Use an
average value for calculation.
15. Keep the halogen system ON until the outlet water achieved a stable temperature.
16. Once the experiment is over drain the hot water to the cold water tank 1 by opening valve 5.

For all the calculations refer to Table no. 1

Important:
Before draining the hot water to the cold water tank 1, make sure that you have fill up the
cold water tank 2 for the next experiment.

Observations:
Tilt angle of collector (β):__________deg
Wind speed (v):______________ m/sec

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 64

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]
2
Radiation level (I):_____________ W/m

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 65

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Experimental values of different parameters during Solar Water Heater mode of flow with fixed input parameters

Time(t) Water
Water
to mass
Ambient Inlet water Plate Temperature outlet water Temperature Inlet water Outlet water
Sl collect flow Radiation
Temperature Temperature (Tp) in Temperature in storage pressure(pi) pressure(pout) in
No. 50 ml of rate in W/m2
(Ta ) in 0C (Tfi) in 0C ˚C (Tfo) in 0C tank (Ts) in in kpa kpa
water in 0 (m) in
C
„min‟ Kg/sec
1

Calculations:
1. Calculate Utand hence UL by using equations 1 through 4
2. Calculate Heat Removal Factor (FR) by using equation 7
3. Calculate Thermal Efficiency (η) of the collector by using equation 12
4. Evaluate time constant of collector by drawing the graph between R and time.

By using the values of different entities from the Table-1 user can examine some other characteristic parameters of the collector. The parameters
are,
a. Collector efficiency factor (F‟) by using equation 8.
b. Collector Flow Factor (F”) by using equation 9.
c. Comparison of the experimented and calculated value of plate temperature by using equation 10

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 66

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Results:
1. Draw the following efficiency graph

2. Find the value of optical efficiency of the collector from the graph

3. Find the slope of the curve which gives the sense of the overall heat loss coefficient of
the collector.

4. Find the gain and loss equalization point.

INFERENCE:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 67

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

EXPERIMENT 10: Performance Test on Internal Combustion Engine Using Diesel and
B30 Bio-Diesel

Aim: To determine the performance characteristics for a single cylinder four stroke vertical
Diesel engine.

Blends used:B-30, B40

B-30 refers to a fuel mixture comprising of 30% biodiesel and 70% Petro-diesel, i.e. 1L of
B30 fuel mixture contains 300ml of Biodiesel and 700ml of Diesel.

Specifications of the Engine:

Engine Make: KIRLOSKAR AV 1
Number of strokes: 4
Number of cylinders: 1
Fuel used: B30 biodiesel + diesel
Rated Power: 5 HP: 3.75K W
Speed: 1500 R .P.M
Type of cooling: Water Cooled.
Working cycle: Diesel cycle
Dynamometer used: Electrical Dynamometer (Water Rheostat type)

Name Plate Details of the DC Machine:

Make: Kirloskar
Speed: 1500/ 2000 R .P.M.
Voltage Rating: 220 /140 Volts
Current Rating (Full load current): 22.76 = 23 Amps at 85% Generator efficiency
Procedure to Conduct Load Test:
1. The engine is started mechanically by hand cranking.
2. A continuous flow of engine cooling water is maintained.
3. The speed of the engine is adjusted to 1500 R.P.M.
4. By adjusting the Rheostat, the generator voltage is brought up to 140 V.
5. At the no load condition, using a Stop - Watch, the time taken for 30 cc fuel
Consumption is noted (Total Fuel consumption).
6. The Lamps‟ Switch is closed and the lamps are switched on one by one.
7. On each lamp load, the values of voltage and current are noted down.
8. The cylinder cooling water inlet temperature is noted to be 40 c less than the room
temperature.
9. The temperature of water coming out of the cylinder jackets (engine cooling) is noted.
10. The mass of water collected per minute (engine cooling water) is noted. (This is the
mass flow rate of water.
11. After noting down the readings at full load, the lamps are switched off and the engine is
stopped.

OBSERVATIONS:
Lower Calorific Value of Biodiesel = 37000kJ / kg
Specific Gravity of B30= 0.84
Specific heat of water (Cp)=4.l9kJ/kg-℃
Engine and exhaust cooling water inlet temperature (Tl) = ________℃
Engine Cooling water outlet temperature (T2) =_______℃

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 68

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

To Find the Friction Power: Friction Power from the Graph

Willan's Line is the plot of the total fuel consumption and the brake power. Total fuel
consumption is plotted on the Y-Axis of the graph sheet and brake power is plotted on the X-
Axis of the graph sheet. The magnitude of the intercept of a tangent (on the X-Axis) drawn to
the curve gives the FP.

Tabular column for Load Test:

Voltage B.P Time for

Current T.F.C S.F.CηBT
Sl. No. [V] {V.I} 10cc of fuel
[I] Amps kg/sec kg/kW-sec (%)
Volts 1000 KW consumption

1 140
2 140
3 140
4 140
5 140

Sl.
I IP=BP+FP (KW) ηIT (%) Mechanical Efficiency
No.
1
2
3
4
5

Typical Graph of SFC of an IC Engine with Diesel and Biodiesel (B10)as Fuel

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 69

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Specimen Calculations:

For trail number: ________________

0.84 x 10
1. Total Fuel Consumption = = ____________kg/Sec
1000 𝑋 𝑡

Total Fuel Consumption

2. Specific Fuel Consumption = = __________kg /kW Sec
Brake Power

Brake Power
3. Brake Thermal Efficiency = =___________%
T.F.C x CV

4. Indicated Power = Break Power + Frictional Power =_______ KW

Indicated Power
5. Indicated Thermal Efficiency = = __________%
T.F.C x CV

Brake Power
6. Mechanical Efficiency = =____________ KW
Indicated Power

CV of Bio-Diesel – 37000 KJ/Kg

CV of Diesel- 43100 KJ/Kg
For blends Calorific value is given by
B-30 = (0.3CV of Bio-Diesel) + (0.7 CV Diesel)
B-40 = (0.4CV of Bio-Diesel) + (0.6 CV Diesel)

RESULT:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 70

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

EXPERIMENT 11: Performance Test on Internal Combustion Engine using B30 and
Biogas

Aim: To determine the performance characteristics for a single cylinder four stroke vertical
Bio-diesel engine.
Blends used: Biodiesel (B30)+ Biogas

Specifications of the Engine:

Engine Make: KIRLOSKAR AV 1
Number of strokes: 4
Number or f cylinders: 1
Fuel used: B30 biodiesel + diesel + biogas
Rated Power: 5 HP: 3.75KW
Speed: 1500 R .P.M
Type of cooling: Water Cooled.
Working cycle: Diesel cycle
Dynamometer used: Electrical Dynamometer (Water Rheostat type)

Name Plate Details of the DC Machine:

Make: Kirloskar
Speed: 1500/ 2000 R .P.M.
Voltage Rating: 220 /140 Volts
Current Rating (Full load current): 22.76 = 23 Amps at 85% Generator efficiency

Procedure to Conduct Load Test:

1. The engine is started mechanically by hand cranking.
2. A continuous flow of engine cooling water is maintained.
3. The speed of the engine is adjusted to 1500 R.P.M.
4. By adjusting the Rheostat, the generator voltage is brought up to 140 V.
5. At the no load condition, using a Stop - Watch, the time taken for 30 cc fuel Consumption is
noted (Total Fuel consumption).
6. The Lamps‟ Switch is closed and the lamps are switched on one by one.
7. On each lamp load, the values of voltage and current are noted down.
8. The cylinder cooling water inlet temperature is noted to be 40 c less than the room temperature.
9. The temperature of water coming out of the cylinder jackets (engine cooling) is noted.
10. The mass of water collected per minute (engine cooling water) is noted. (This is the mass flow
rate of water.
11. After noting down the readings at full load, the lamps are switched off and the engine is stopped.

OBSERVATIONS:
 Lower Calorific Value of Fuel to be assessed = CV of B30 + Cv of diesel + Cv of Biogas
 Specific Gravity of Biodiesel= 0.89
 Specific heat of water (Cp) = 4.l9KJ/Kg-℃
 Engine and exhaust cooling water inlet temperature (Tl) = ________℃
 Engine Cooling water outlet temperature (T2) =_____℃

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 71

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

To Find the Friction Power: Friction Power from the Graph

Willan's Line is the plot of the total fuel consumption and the brake power. Total fuel
consumption is plotted on the Y-Axis of the graph sheet and brake power is plotted on the X-
Axis of the graph sheet. The magnitude of the intercept of a tangent (on the X-Axis) drawn to
the curve gives the FP.

Tabular column for Load Test:

Bio-diesel

B.P
Voltage Time (t) for
Current {V.I} T.F.C S.F.C
Sl. No. [V] 10cc of fuel
[I] Amps 1000 kg/sec kg/kW-sec
Volts consumption
KW
1 140
2 140
3 140
4 140
5 140

Biogas

Time Gas Flowmeters Reading in m3

T.F.C S.F.C
Sl. No. (t)taken
m3/sec 3
m /kW-sec
in Sec Initial (Gi) Final (Gf) Difference

1
2
3
4
5

Specimen Calculations:
For trail number: ________________

For Bio-diesel

0.84 x 30
Total Fuel Consumption = = ____________Kg/Sec
1000 𝑋 𝑇

Total Fuel Consumption of Bio −diesel

Specific Fuel Consumption = = ________Kg /KWSec
Brake Power

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 72

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

For Biogas

(𝐆𝐟) −(𝐆𝐢)
Total Fuel Consumption = = ____________ m3/Sec
T

Total Fuel Consumption of Biogas

Specific Fuel Consumption = = __________ m3/KW Sec
Brake Power

RESULTS:

INFERENCE:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 73

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

Viva questions:

1. What are the desirable properties of a lubricant?

2. What are the Flash and fire points of petrol, diesel and kerosene?
3. List few light and heavy oils and differentiate between them.
4. What is the significance of flash & Fire points?
5. Why is the flash point under cooling condition less than that obtained during heating?
6. What is cloud point and pour point of oil? What is the importance of these points?
7. What are the precautions to be takes while conducting the fire and flash point
experiments?
8. What are the general lubricants used in Automobiles?
9. Define Viscosity and Newton‟s law of viscosity.
10. Define Newtonian Fluids and Non-Newtonian Fluids.
11. What is viscometer? What are the methods are used to determine the viscosity.
12. Explain the importance of viscosity.
13. What is meant by efflux time?
14. What is the name of the oil, used as a standard for viscosity measurements? What is its
efflux time?
15. Dimensionally show that the Kinematic viscosity () = [L2/T]
16. How do you relate redwood number and saybolt‟s number with viscosity ?
17. What is the viscosity of rapeseed oil?
18. List and explain the units used to measure viscosity.
19. Explain the principle of viscometry.
20. Explain the terms in the equation used to determine the red wood number.
21. Give the specific gravity, mass density, Sp. Wt, viscosity of petrol, diesel, kerosene, SAE
20, SAE 40, and SAE 80.
22. Define "Water Equivalent (Heat Capacity)" of a Calorimeter.
23. What is the significance of Radiation Correction?
24. List few solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.
25. What is the chemical composition of petrol, Diesel, kerosene and LPG?
26. Define octane number and cetane number.
27. Define calorific value of fuels.
28. What is the significance of determining the higher and lower colorific value of a fuel?
29. What are the desirable properties of fuel?
30. List the different apparatus used for determining the CV of solid, liquid and gaseous
fuels.
31. What is the chemical composition of petrol, Diesel, kerosene and LPG?
32. What is the necessity of determining valve timing diagram for an IC Engine?
33. What is valve overlap?
34. What is the Purpose of conducting tests on IC engines?
35. What is Mean Effective Pressure?
36. What are the different types of dynamometer?

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 74

 Manual - Thermodynamics Lab [21ME3C03]

37. Define Volumetric Efficiency.

38. Define brake thermal and indicated thermal efficiency?
39. For mobile propulsion in vehicles and portable machinery, internal combustion is
advantageous, why?
40. What causes the air-fuel mixture to be drawn into the cylinder of an IC engine?
41. What are the different types of carburetor used on petrol engines?
42. Draw the nature of the graph of volumetric efficiency v/s BP for four stroke petrol
engines.
43. What are the advantages of four stroke petrol engines over two stroke petrol engines?
44. What are the steps involved in combustion of fuels in two stroke petrol engine?
45. Draw the nature of the graph of mechanical efficiency v/s BP for four stroke Diesel
engines.
46. Why Morse test is conducted for multi cylinder diesel engine?
47. What is compression ratio?
48. How the compression ratio is varied in variable compression ratio four stroke petrol
engine?
49. Draw the nature of the graph of brake thermal efficiency v/s BP for variable compression
ratio four stroke petrol engine.
50. What is Heat Balance Sheet? And is it necessary for two stroke petrol engine?
51. What is planimeter? And why it is used?
52. What is the least count of planimeter?
53. What are the disadvantages of planimeter?
54. What is the range of compression ratio for the petrol, diesel and kerosene engines?
55. Correlate compression ratio with shaft power?
56. Draw a typical graph of volumetric efficiency Vs Engine speed of a CI Engine.
57. Draw a typical "Willan's Line" & Explain how Mechanical efficiency is arrived at.
58. What are the limitations of 'Morse Test' & 'Willan's Line'
59. Does motoring at different speed help arriving at accurate LHP.
60. What is the best way to arrive at the correct LHP.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIE, Mysore 75