Histology Notes

histology
LECTURE / INSTRUCTOR: JURA SORNILLO JUNQUEIRA’S BASIC HISTOLOGY TEXT AND ATLAS
CHAPTER 1: HISTOLOGY AND ITS METHODS OF STUDY Biopsy - tissue samples removed during surgery which are fixed
Histology – study of tissues of the body and how it is arranged in vials of formalin for processing and microscopic analysis in a
to make an organ. Also focuses on the optimization of cell’s pathology laboratory. It is rapidly frozen in liquid nitrogen
function through its structure and arrangements. because it, does not inactivate most enzymes and does not
dissolve cell lipids.
Two interacting components of tissue that function together in
Cryostat – a microtome with a subfreezing temperature used to
well-coordinated manner:
cut sections rapidly.
1. Cells – produce ECM Staining – used to give color since most cells and EXM are
2. Extracellular matrix (ECM) – consists of macromolecules completely colorless.
that forms complex structures. Supports the cells in terms Dyes stain materials - behaves like acidic or basic compounds
of fluid transportation as well as carrying away wastes and and forming electrostatic (salt) linkages with ionizable radicals
secretory products. of macromolecules in tissues.
Basophilic - net negative charge (anionic) components have an
PREPARATION OF TISSUES affinity for basic dyes (toluidine blue, alcian blue, and methylene
Preparation of Tissues is conducted through sections since blue).
most of them are thick for light to pass through. *Hematoxylin behaves like a basic dye, staining basophilic tissue
1. Fixation - preserves tissue structure and prevents components.
degradation by enzymes through fixatives. Acidophilic – net positive charge (cationic) components have an
- small pieces of tissue are placed in solutions of chemicals that affinity for acidic dyes (eosin, orange G, and acid fuchsin).
cross-link proteins and inactivate degradative enzymes, which
preserves cell and tissue structure. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) -
Fixative - solutions made up of stabilizing or cross-linking Hematoxylin stains DNA in the cell
compounds. react with the amine groups (NH2) of proteins, nucleus, RNA-rich portions of the
preventing their degradation by common proteases. cytoplasm, and the matrix of cartilage,
Formalin – buffered isotonic solution of 37% formaldehyde producing a dark blue or purple color;
and is widely used fixative for light microscopy. Eosin stains other cytoplasmic
Glutaraldehyde – fixative used for electron microscopy. structures and collagen pink.
*Glutaraldehyde treated tissue is then immersed in buffered
osmium tetroxide, which preserves (and stains) cellular lipids as Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS) reaction -
well as proteins. utilizes the hexose rings of
2. Dehydration – the water is removed using increasingly polysaccharides and other
concentrated alcohol solutions (50%, 70%, 90%, 100%). carbohydrate-rich tissue structures
3. Clearing - alcohol is removed in organic solvents in which and stains such macromolecules
both alcohol and paraffin are miscible. It gives the tissue a distinctly purple or magenta.
translucent appearance.
Feulgen reaction – stains DNA of cell nuclei.
4. Infiltration - the tissue is then placed in melted paraffin (52˚C-
*Heat and organic solvents remove lipids.
60˚C) until it becomes completely infiltrated with paraffin.
Lipid-soluble dyes (Sudan black) – are used to stain lipids
5. Embedding - the paraffin-infiltrated tissue is placed in a small
which can be useful in diagnosis of metabolic diseases that
mold with melted paraffin and allowed to harden at room
involve intracellular accumulations of cholesterol,
temperature.
phospholipids, or glycolipids.
6. Trimming - the resulting paraffin block is trimmed to expose
Metal impregnation - uses solutions of silver salts to visual
the tissue for sectioning (slicing) on a microtome.
certain ECM fibers and specific cellular elements in nervous
Paraffin - used routinely for light microscopy. tissue.
Plastic resins - used for both light and electron microscopies. *Slide preparation, from tissue fixation to observation with a light
Microtome - used for sectioning paraffin-embedded tissues for microscope, may take from 12 hours to 2½ days, depending on the
light microscopy. size of the tissue, the embedding medium, and the method of
staining.
* 3-10 μm thickness for light microscopy.
Mounting of coverslip on the side with clear adhesive - final step
*Less than 1 μm thick for electron microscopy.
before microscopic observation.
AMUAN, BERJAMIN, ERMITANIO, LARIOSA, RESURRECCION – BSMLS2B 1
histology
LIGHT MICROSCOPY *Fluorescent compounds with affinity for specific cell

Light microscopy - interaction of light with tissue components macromolecules may be used as fluorescent stains.
and are used to reveal and study tissue features.
Acridine orange - binds both DNA and RNA
Bright-field microscope - stained tissue which emit slightly different fluorescence,
is examined with ordinary light passing allowing them to be localized separately in
through the preparation. It includes an cell.
optical system and mechanisms to move
and focus the specimen.
Optical components: DAPI and Hoechst stain - specifically bind

1. Condenser - collects and focuses a cone of light that DNA and are used to stain cell nuclei,
illuminates the tissue slide on the stage. emitting a characteristic blue fluorescence
2. Objective lens - enlarging and projecting the image of the under UV.
object toward the observer; In a light microscope, resolution and Phase-Contrast microscopy - uses a
magnification of cells are largely dependent on this part of the lens system that produces visible
microscope. images from transparent objects and,
Magnifications: importantly, can be used with living,
X4 - observing a large area (field) of the tissue at low cultured cells without fixation or
magnification. staining. Light changes its speed when
X10 - medium magnification of a smaller field. passing through cellular and
X40 - high magnification of more detailed areas. extracellular structures with different refractive indices. These
3. Eyepiece (or ocular lens) - further magnifying (X10) the changes are used by the phase-contrast system to cause the
image and projecting it onto the viewer’s retina or a charge- structures to appear lighter or darker in relation to each other.
coupled device (CCD) highly sensitive to low light levels with a
camera and monitor. Differential interference microscopy
*Total magnification = objective x ocular lenses. (with Nomarski optics) - produces an
Resolving power - smallest distance between two structures at image of living cells with a more
which they can be seen as separate object. Determines the apparent three-dimensional (3D) aspect.
quality of the image, its clarity and richness of detail, and
depends mainly on the quality of its objective lens.
*Maximal resolving power of the light microscope (LM) is
approximately 0.2 μm. Smaller or thinner objects can’t be Confocal microscopy - reduces
distinguished by LM). the stray lights which reduces
Virtual microscopy - conversion of a stained tissue preparation the contrast within the image by
to high-resolution digital images and permits study of tissues using a small point of high-
using a computer or other digital device, without an actual intensity light (laser) and a plate
stained slide or a microscope. with a pinhole aperture in front of
Advantages: the image detector where in it
 Cost achieves s high resolution and
 Ease of use sharp focus.
*Virtual microscopy is rapidly replacing light microscopes and
collections of glass slides. *The point light source, the focal point of the lens, and the
detector’s pinpoint aperture are all optically conjugated or
Fluorescence Microscopy - tissue sections are usually aligned to each other in the focal plane where no unfocused light
irradiated with ultraviolet (UV) light and the emission is in the could pass through the pinhole.
visible portion of the spectrum. The fluorescent substances
appear bright on a dark background.
Fluorescence - cellular substances are irradiated by light of a
proper wavelength, they emit light with a longer wavelength.

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Polarizing Microscopy - allows the resolution since it binds cellular macromolecules, increasing
recognition of stained or unstained their electron density and visibility.
structures made of highly organized Cryofracture and freeze etching - techniques that allow TEM
subunits. Polarizing filter – normal study of cells without fixation or embedding since the tissue is
light vibrates when it passes rapidly frozen in liquid nitrogen and then cut or fractured with a
through. knife. A replica of the frozen exposed surface is produced in a
*If a second filter is placed in the vacuum by applying thin coats of vaporized platinum or other
microscope above the first one, with metal atoms. This split the lipid bilayers, exposing protein
its main axis perpendicular to the first filter, no light passes components whose size, shape, and distribution.
through. If, however, tissue structures containing oriented
Scanning Electron Microscopy
macromolecules are located between the two polarizing filters,
(SEM) - provides a high resolution
their repetitive structure rotates the axis of the light emerging
view of the surfaces of cells, tissues,
from the polarizer and they appear as bright structures against
and organs but it does not pass
a dark background.
through the specimen. The surface
Birefringence - ability to rotate the direction of vibration of
of the specimen is first dried and
polarized light by crystalline substances or substances
spray-coated with a very thin layer of
containing highly oriented molecules, such as cellulose,
heavy metal (gold) which reflects
collagen, microtubules, and actin filaments.
electrons in a beam scanning the
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY specimen. The reflected electrons
Electron microscopy - interaction of tissue components with (secondary electrons) are captured
beams of electrons. by a detector, producing signals that
*The wavelength in an electron beam is much shorter than that are processed to produce a 3D black-
of light, allowing a 1000-fold increase in resolution. and-white image.
Transmission Electron Microscope AUTORADIOGRAPHY

Autoradiography -localizing newly synthesized macromolecules
(TEM) - imaging system like an
in cells or tissue sections
upside-down microscope has a
metallic (tungsten) filament cathode Radioactively Labeled Metabolites - incorporated into specific
that emits electron which travels to macromolecules (DNA, RNA, protein, glycoproteins, and
an anode at an accelerating voltage polysaccharides) and emit weak radiation that is restricted to
of 60 and 120 kV that permits those regions where the molecules are located.
resolution around 3nm that allows Silver bromide crystals – photographic emulsion that act as
isolated particles magnified as microdetectors of the radiation in the same way that they
much as 400,000 times to be respond to light in photographic film. It reduced by the radiation
viewed in detail using very thin produce small black grains of metallic silver, which under either
(40-90 nm), resin-embedded tissue the light microscope or TEM indicate the locations of
sections. radiolabeled macromolecules in the tissue.
*A beam of electrons focused using Silver grains - indicate the cells or regions of cells in which
electromagnetic “lenses” (hole in the anode) passes through the specific macromolecules were synthesized just prior to fixation.
tissue section to produce an image with black, white, and
intermediate shades of gray regions.
Brighter or electron-lucent - electrons passed readily.
Darker or electron-dense - electrons were absorbed or
deflected.
*Heavy metal ions (osmium tetroxide, lead citrate, and uranyl
compounds) are often added to the fixative or dehydrating LIGHT MICROSCOPE TEM
solutions used for tissue preparation to improve contrast and

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CELL AND TISSUE CULTURE Peroxidase - promotes the oxidation of substrates with the
Cell culture - direct observation of cellular (living cells & transfer of hydrogen ions to hydrogen peroxide. (b)
tissues) behavior under a phase-contrast microscope. Dehydrogenases - transfer hydrogen ions from one substrate
“in vitro” – in glass; outside normal biological context. to another, such as many enzymes of the citric acid (Krebs)
“in vivo” – within the living. Cells are bathed in fluid derived cycle, allowing histochemical identification of such enzymes in
from blood plasma and containing many different molecules mitochondria.
required for survival and growth. SPECIFIC MOLECULES
Primary cell cultures – is a preparation of cells where in cells Tagged compounds or macromolecules – used in identifying
are grown in complex solutions of known composition (salts, specific macromolecule in a tissue section which it binds
amino acids, vitamins) to which serum or specific growth specifically. It must be visible with the light or electron
factors are added. They are then dispersed mechanically or microscope which are tagged with detectible label.
enzymatically from a tissue or organ and placed with sterile Examples:
procedures in a clear dish to which they adhere, usually as a Phalloidin - compound extracted from mushroom, (Amanita
single layer. phalloides), interacts strongly with the actin protein of
Cell line – part of cells that was maintained in vitro for long microfilaments.
periods of time and become immortalized. Protein A - purified from (Staphylococcus aureus) bacteria. It
Transformation – process where in changes in the finite, binds to the Fc region of antibody molecules, and can therefore
genetically programmed life span of cells promotes cell be used to localize naturally occurring or applied antibodies
immortality. bound to cell structures.
ENZYME HISTOCHEMISTRY Lectins - glycoproteins from plant seeds, bind to carbohydrates
Enzyme Histochemistry (cytochemistry) - method for localizing with high affinity and specificity.
cellular structures using a specific enzymatic activity present in
those structures. The tissues used are mildly fixed or unfixed Immunohistochemistry - highly specific interaction between
and is sectioned using a cryostat since heat and organic macromolecules (antigen and its labeled antibody) which are
solvents has adverse effects on enzymic activities. used to identify and localize many specific proteins.
Process:
1. Tissue sections are immersed in a solution containing the Antibodies – product of body’s
substrate of the enzyme to be localized. immune cells after it interacts
2. Enzyme is allowed to act on its substrate. (bind specifically) against other
3. Section is then put in contact with a marker compound that macromolecules (protein) to
reacts with a product of the enzymatic action on the eliminate it. It belongs to the
substrate. immunoglobulin family of
4. The product from the marker, that is insoluble and visible glycoproteins and are secreted
by light or electron microscopy, precipitates over the site of by lymphocytes.
enzymes which identifies their location.
Examples: Antigens – macromolecules that are recognized as “foreign,”
Phosphatases not a normal part of the organism, and potentially dangerous.
- remove phosphate groups from macromolecules. (a)
Polyclonal antibodies - different groups (clones) of
lymphocytes are used to recognize different parts of protein x
where in each clone produces an antibody against its specific
part.
Hybridoma cells – isolated and activated lymphocytes which is

placed in a culture where in it will be fused with lymphocytic
tumor cells. They produce different clones that produce
different antibodies.

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Monoclonal antibody - each In situ hybridization (ISH) -

clone can be isolated and Hybridization at stringent
cultured separately so that conditions allows the specific
the different antibodies identification of sequences in
against protein x can be genes or RNA. This occur with
collected separately. cellular DNA or RNA when nucleic
Advantage: acid sequences in solution are
It can be selected to be highly specific and to bind strongly to applied directly to prepared cells
the protein to be detected, with less nonspecific binding to other and tissue sections.
proteins that are similar to the one of interest. “in situ” – on site
Process: Importance:
1. Tissue section (contains the protein of interest) is incubated 1. Determining if a cell has a specific sequence of DNA, such
in a solution containing antibody (either monoclonal or as a gene or part of a gene.
polyclonal) against this protein. 2. Identifying the cells containing specific messenger RNAs
2. Antibody binds specifically to the protein. (mRNAs) (in which the corresponding gene is being
3. Protein’s location in the tissue or cells can be seen with transcribed).
either the light or electron microscope by visualizing the 3. Determining the localization of a gene in a specific
antibody after a rinse. chromosome.
*Antibodies are commonly tagged with fluorescent compounds, Process:
with peroxidase or alkaline phosphatase (histochemical 1. DNA and RNA of the cells must be initially denatured by heat
detection), or with electron dense gold particles (TEM). or other agents to become completely single-stranded.
2. Probe is used to detect nucleotide sequences of interest.
Probe - consisting of single-stranded complementary DNA
(cDNA). The probe may be obtained by cloning, polymerase
chain reaction (PCR) amplification of the target sequence, or
chemical synthesis if the desired sequence is short.
3. Probe is tagged with nucleotides containing a radioactive
isotope (autoradiography) or modified with a small
Direct method - just involves a labeled antibody that binds the
compound such as digoxigenin (immunocytochemistry).
protein of interest.
4. A solution containing the probe is placed over the specimen
Indirect method - involves sequential application of two
under conditions allowing hybridization and after the excess
antibodies and additional washing steps. It is more sensitive
unbound probe is washed of.
since there is an extra level of antibody binding that amplifies
5. localization of the hybridized probe is revealed through its
the visible signal.
label.
*More than one labeled secondary antibody can bind each
Microscopic preparations - end result of a series of processes
primary antibody molecule.
that began with collecting the tissue and ended with mounting a
Primary antibody – binds to the protein of interest but it is not
coverslip on the slide.
tagged (in indirect method).
Artifacts - minor structural abnormalities due to the distortion
Secondary antibody – has a
of the tissues.
detectable tag which attaches to
Shrinkage - create artificial spaces between cells and other
the primary antibody since it is
tissue components. Such spaces can also result from the loss
“foreign” and came from another
of lipids or low-molecular-weight substances not preserved by
species.
the fixative or removed by the dehydrating and clearing fluids.
Hybridization - specific binding *Slight cracks in sections may also appear as large spaces in
between two single strands of the tissue.
nucleic acid, which occurs under appropriate conditions if Small wrinkles - confused with linear structures in tissue.
the strands are complementary and produces double-strand Precipitates from the stain - confused with cellular structures
molecules. such as cytoplasmic granules.
*The more similar, the more hybrid.

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Three-dimensional (3D) - cut into very thin sections, the  This is used to manipulate the stage to focus the image under the
microscope in LPO and Scanner. (Coarse Adjustment knob)
sections appear microscopically to have only two dimensions:  This part of the microscope controls the amount of the intensity and the
length and width. size of the beam of light that passes through the specimen. (Diaphragm)
*FRONT AND BACK PART ARE ALWAYS MISSING IN 3D  This type of Microscopy uses a lens system that produces visible images
from transparent objects and unstained tissue sections. (Phase-Contrast
Round structures - may actually be portions of spheres or Microscopy)
tubes.  In preparing tissue for routine light microscopic study, the tissue is placed
Two-dimensional (2D) - appearance will also vary depending on in melted paraffin until it becomes completely permeated with the
substance. (Infiltration)
the plane of section.  In a light microscope, resolution and magnification of cells are largely
dependent on which component? (Objective lenses)
 This type of Microscopy uses ordinary light to pass through the
preparation. (Bright-Field Microscopy)
 This histologic technique extracts the water gradually from the fixed tissue.
(Dehydration)
 This part of the microscope holds the objective lenses and allows
switching of the objectives to change magnification. (Revolving nosepiece)
 This histologic technique involves the addition of a solvent that is miscible
to both alcohol and embedding medium, and it gives the tissue a
translucent appearance. (Clearing)
 Cellular storage deposits of glycogen, a free polysaccharide, could be best
detected histologically by using what procedure? (Periodic Acid-Schiff
reaction)
 This is defined as the smallest distance between two structures at which
they can be seen as separate objects under the microscope. (Resolving
power)
 This simple combination is the most commonly used in staining.
(Hematoxylin and Eosin)
 This is used to manipulate the stage to focus the image under the
REVIEW: microscope in HPO and OIO. (Fine Adjustment knob)
 In preparing tissue for routine light microscopic study, which procedure  This part of the microscope holds the specimen used for viewing and has
immediately precedes clearing the specimen with an organic solvent? stage clips to hold the slide in place. (Mechanical Stage)
(Dehydration)
 Which of the following staining procedures relies on the cationic and
anionic properties of the material to be stained? (Hematoxylin & eosin
staining)
 In a light microscope used for histology, resolution and magnification of
cells are largely dependent on which component? (Objective lens)
 Cellular storage deposits of glycogen, a free polysaccharide, could best be
detected histologically using what procedure? (Periodic Acid-Schiff
reaction)
 Adding heavy metal compounds to the fixative and ultrathin sectioning of
the embedded tissue with a glass knife are techniques used for which
histological procedure? (Transmission electron microscopy)
 Resolution in electron microscopy greatly exceeds that of light microscopy
due to which of the following? (The wavelength of the electrons in the
microscope beam is shorter than that of a beam of light.)
 Microscopic autoradiography uses radioactivity and can be employed to
study what features in a tissue section? (Cellular sites where various
macromolecules are synthesized)
 To identify and localize a specific protein within cells or the extracellular
matrix one would best use what approach? (Immunohistochemistry)
 In situ hybridization is a histological technique used to visualize what type
of macromolecule? (Nucleic acids)
 Hospital laboratories frequently use unfixed, frozen tissue specimens
sectioned with a cryostat for rapid staining, microscopic examination, and
diagnosis of pathological conditions. Besides saving much time by
avoiding fixation and procedures required for paraffin embedding, frozen
sections retain and allow study of what macromolecules normally lost in
the paraffin procedure? (Lipids)
 In this type of Microscopy, tissue sections are irradiated with UV light and
the emission is in the visible portion of the spectrum. (Fluorescence
Microscopy)

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CHAPTER 2: THE CYTOPLASM

Cells – basic structural and functional units, and the smallest
living parts of the body.
Eukaryotic – has nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm, a system of
membranous organelles, nonmembranous molecular
assemblies, and a cytoskeleton.
Prokaryotic – has a cell wall, lacks nuclei and membranous
cytoplasmic structures.
CELL DIFFERENTIATION
Blastomeres – cells produced by the first zygotic cellular
divisions.
Embryonic Stem cells – explanted to tissue culture cells of the
inner cell mass
Cell differentiation – the process by which cells of an embryo
become specialized structurally to augment specific cytoplasmic
activities for functions at the level of tissues and organs
Organelles - metabolically active structures or complexes, with
or without membranes, in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.
PLASMA MEMBRANE
Plasma membrane (cell membrane or plasmalemma) - the lipid
bilayer with embedded proteins that surrounds a cell and is seen
only with the TEM.
molecules cross the plasma membrane through channel
Integrins (plasma membrane protein) - linked to both the
proteins called aquaporins.
cytoskeleton and ECM components; allow continuous exchange
Carriers - transmembrane proteins that bind small molecules
of influences
and translocate them across the membrane via conformational
Glycolipids - outer layer’s ipids extend outward from the cell
changes.
surface
Endocytosis - cellular uptake of macromolecules or fluid by
Glycocalyx - delicate cell surface coating
plasma membrane engulfment or invagination, followed by the
*The lipid bilayer forms from amphipathic phospholipids,
“pinching off” of a filled membranous vesicle in the cytoplasm.
stabilized by cholesterol, and contains:
*Major types of endocytosis include:
-- integral proteins - incorporated directly within the lipid bilayer
-- phagocytosis - uptake of particulate material
-- peripheral proteins - bound to one of the two membrane
-- pinocytosis - uptake of dissolved substances
surfaces on the cytoplasmic surface.
-- receptor-mediated endocytosis - uptake of specific
*The polypeptide chains of many integral proteins span the
molecules bound to integral membrane receptor proteins
membrane from one side to another several times and are
Exocytosis - a type of cellular secretion in which cytoplasmic
accordingly called multipass proteins
membrane vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and release
*Membrane proteins move laterally within the lipid bilayer, with
their contents to the extracellular space.
less movement in areas referred to as lipid rafts, which have
Constitutive secretion - used for products that are released
higher concentrations of cholesterol and saturated fatty acids.
from cells continuously
*Integral membrane proteins include:
Regulated secretion - occurs in response to signals coming to
-- receptors for external ligands,
the cells (the release of digestive enzymes from pancreatic cells
-- channels for passive or active movement of molecules across
in response to specific stimuli)
the membrane, and
membrane trafficking - membrane movement and recycling
-- pumps for active membrane transport.
*All types of cell signaling use membrane receptor proteins that
Diffusion - transports small, nonpolar molecules directly
are often linked to enzymes such as kinases or adenylyl cyclase
through the bilayer
whose activities initiate intracellular signaling pathways.
Channels - multipass proteins forming transmembrane pores
where ions or small molecules pass selectively. Water

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o In endocrine signaling, the signal molecules (here called Endoplasmic Reticulum

hormones) are carried in the blood from their sources to - The ER is a convoluted network of membrane enclosing
target cells throughout the body. continuous spaces called cisternae and extending from the
o In paracrine signaling, the chemical ligand diffuses in nucleus to the plasma membrane.
extracellular fluid but is rapidly metabolized so that its effect - Rough ER has a granular, basophilic cytoplasmic surface
is only local on target cells near its source. due to the presence of polysomes making most membrane
o In synaptic signaling, a special kind of paracrine interaction, proteins, proteins in certain other organelles, or for
neurotransmitters act on adjacent cells through special exocytosis; RER is always well developed in cells actively
contact areas called synapses. secreting proteins.
o In autocrine signaling, signals bind receptors on the same *Proteins to be processed through the RER contain initial signal
cells that produced the messenger molecule. peptides which bind receptors in the ER membrane, localizing
o In juxtacrine signaling, important in early embryonic tissue them to that organelle.
interactions, the signaling molecules are cell membrane– *After translocation across the membrane into the cisterna, the
bound proteins which bind surface receptors of the target proteins undergo posttranslational modification and folding in
cell when the two cells make direct physical contact. a process monitored by RER molecular chaperones and
Signal Transduction - activating a series of intermediary enzymes.
enzymes downstream to produce changes in the cytoplasm, the - Smooth ER (SER) lacks ribosomes, but includes enzymes
nucleus or both. for lipid and glycogen metabolism, for detoxification
CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES reactions, and for temporary Ca2 + sequestration.
Ribosomes
- The two ribosomal subunits, each a complex of rRNA and
many proteins, attach to mRNA and translate that message
into protein.
- Multiple ribosomes on the same mRNA make up a
polyribosome (polysome), and an abundance of these
produces basophilic cytoplasm after H&E staining.
Golgi Apparatus
- The Golgi apparatus is a dynamic organelle consisting of
stacked membranous cisternae in which proteins made in
RER are processed further and packaged for secretion or
other roles.
*Proteins in transport vesicles enter the cis or receiving face of
the Golgi, move through medical cisternae of the Golgi network
for enzymatic modifications, and are released in other vesicles
at the trans face.
*Vesicle movement through the Golgi apparatus is guided by
specific coat proteins such as COPII and COPI.
*Important protein modifications in the Golgi apparatus include
sulfation and many glycosylation reactions.

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*Modified proteins leave the Golgi apparatus after packaging in *The mitochondrial matrix contains enzymes for β-oxidation of
vesicles with coat proteins that direct movement to lysosomes, fatty acids and the citric acid (Krebs) cycle.
the plasma membrane, or secretion by exocytosis. *The inner membrane includes enzyme assemblies of the
Lysosomes electron-transport system and ATP synthase.
- Primary lysosomes emerge from the Golgi apparatus *Mitochondria of stressed cells may release cytochrome c from
containing inactive acid hydrolases specific for degrading a the inner membrane, triggering a regulated series of events
wide variety of cellular macromolecules. culminating in cell death (apoptosis).
- Secondary lysosomes are more heterogeneous, having
fused with vesicles produced by endocytosis that contain Peroxisomes
material to be digested by the hydrolytic enzymes. - Peroxisomes are small spherical organelles containing
*During autophagy, lysosomes digest unneeded or enzymes for various metabolic reactions, notably for
nonfunctional organelles after these are surrounded by oxidation and detoxification, and catalase that breaks
membrane that then fuses with a lysosome. down the H2 O2 resulting from those reactions.
* Residual Bodies - products of digestion in secondary
lysosomes are released to the cytoplasm for reuse; final Cytoskeleton
condensed vesicles containing any indigestible molecules. *The cytoskeleton contains three types of polymers:
(1) microtubules 25 nm in diameter;
(2) actin filaments or microfilaments (5-7 nm); and
(3) intermediate filaments (8-10 nm).
*Microtubules are semirigid tubular structures with walls
composed of polymerized tubulin heterodimers; their structure
is often very dynamic, with steady addition and dissociation of
tubulin.
- Microtubules are important in maintaining cell shape and
as tracks for transport of vesicles and organelles by the
motor proteins kinesin and dynein.
*Microfilaments are short, flexible, highly dynamic filaments of
actin subunits, in which changes in length and interactions with
binding proteins regulate cytoplasmic viscosity and movement.
*Myosins are motor proteins that bind and move along actin
filaments, carrying vesicles or producing cytoplasmic
movement.
- Movements of cytoplasm produced by actin filaments and
myosins are important for endocytosis, cell cleavage after
Proteasomes mitosis, and cell locomotion on substrates.
- Proteasomes are small cytoplasmic protein complexes *Intermediate filaments are the most stable cytoskeletal
which degrade improperly folded proteins after they are component, conferring strong mechanical stability to cells.
tagged with the polypeptide ubiquitin. - Intermediate filaments are composed of various protein
subunits in different cells; they include vimentin; nuclear
Mitochondria lamins; neurofilament proteins; and keratins, which are
- Mitochondria are the major sites of ATP synthesis and are especially important in epithelial cells.
abundant in cells or cytoplasmic regions where large
amounts of energy are expended. Inclusions
*Mitochondria are usually elongated organelles and form by - Unlike organelles, inclusions are not metabolically active
fission of preexisting mitochondria. and are primarily storage sites, such as lipid droplets,
*Mitochondria have two membranes: a porous outer membrane glycogen granules, pigment granules, or residual bodies
encloses the intermembrane space and an inner membrane (also called lipofuscin).
with many folds (cristae) enclosing a gel-like matrix.

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CHAPTER 3: THE NUCLEUS Nucleolus - very basophilic or electron-dense area of chromatin

Nucleus is the command center of the cell and contains the localized where rRNA transcription and ribosomal subunits
molecular machinery to replicate the DNA and to synthesize and assembly occur.
process all types of RNA. *By TEM, an active nucleolus is seen to have fibrous and
granular parts where rRNA forms and ribosomal subunits are
assembled, respectively.
THE CELL CYCLE
Cell cycle - the sequence of events that controls cell growth and
division.
-- G1 phase - the longest part of the cycle, begins immediately
after mitosis and includes all preparations for DNA replication.
-- S Phase - the period of DNA and histone synthesis.
-- G2 phase - the cell prepares for division during mitosis.
COMPONENTS OF THE NUCLEUS
*Cell cycling is controlled by the sequential appearance of key
Nuclear Envelope - forms a selectively permeable barrier
cytoplasmic proteins, the cyclins, which bind cyclin-dependent
between the nuclear and cytoplasmic compartments.
kinases (CDKs).
-- penetrated by nuclear pore complexes, large assemblies of
*CDKs phosphorylate and activate the enzymes and
nucleoporins with 8-fold symmetry through which proteins and
transcription factors whose functions characterize each phase
protein-RNA complexes move in both directions.
of the cell cycle.
-- supported internally by a meshwork called nuclear lamina,
*Progress through the cell cycle stages is monitored at
and composed of intermediate filament subunits called lamins.
checkpoints, including the G1 restriction point; only when each
*Cytoplasm is separated from nucleoplasm by the nuclear
phase’s activities are completed are the cyclins changed to
envelope, a double set of membranes with a narrow perinuclear
trigger those of the next phase.
space; the outer membrane binds ribosomes and is continuous
Mitosis
with the RER.
*Stages of mitotic cell divisions include:
Chromatin - the combination of DNA and its associated proteins.
-- Prophase - when chromosomes condense, the nuclear
-- euchromatin - active in transcription stains lightly
envelope disassembles, and the microtubular spindle forms.
-- heterochromatin - inactive chromatin stains more darkly
-- Metaphase - when chromosomes are aligned
-- Constitutive heterochromatin is generally similar in all cell
-- Anaphase - when they begin to separate toward the two
types and contains mainly repetitive, gene-poor DNA
centrosomes
sequences, including the large chromosomal regions called
-- Telophase - when nuclear envelope re-forms around the
centromeres and telomeres, which are located near the middle
separated chromosomes; Telophase ends with cytokinesis or
(most often) and at the ends of chromosomes respectively.
cell cleavage into two daughter cells by a contractile ring of actin
-- Facultative heterochromatin contains other regions of
filaments and myosin.
DNA with genes where transcription is variably inactivated in
*Stem cells occur in all tissues with rapid cell turnover; they
different cells by epigenetic mechanisms and can undergo
divide slowly in an asymmetric manner, with one daughter cell
reversible transitions from compact, transcriptionally silent
remaining a stem cell and one becoming committed toward
states to more open, transcriptionally active conformations
differentiation.
*The DNA molecule initially wraps around complexes of basic
*Cells committed to differentiate (transit amplifying or
proteins called histones to form nucleosomes, producing a
progenitor cells) typically divide more rapidly than stem cells
structure resembling beads on a string.
before slowing or stopping division to differentiate.
*Additional levels of chromatin fiber condensation are less well
understood and involve nonhistone proteins, including
complexes of condensins.
*The extra X chromosome in cells of female mammals forms
facultative heterochromatin and can be seen as the Barr body.
*Karyotyping – process of analyzing chromosomes.

histology
Meiosis - the process by which two successive cell divisions CHAPTER 4: EPITHELIAL TISSUE
produce cells called gametes containing half the number of Epithelium - a tissue in which cells are bound tightly together
chromosomes found in somatic cells. structurally and functionally to form a sheet-like or tubular
*Prophase of the first meiotic division is a unique, extended structure with little extracellular material between the cells.
period in which homologous chromosomes pair and undergo *Cells in epithelia each have an:
genetic recombination during the process called synapsis. -- apical side facing the sheet’s free surface and
*Synaptic pairs separate toward two daughter cells at the first -- basal side facing a basement membrane and underlying
meiotic division. connective tissue.
*The second meiotic division occurs with no intervening S phase *Epithelia are often specialized for absorption or transcytosis,
and separates the sister chromatids into two final cells that are pinocytosis of material at the apical side and exocytosis at the
haploid. basolateral side (or vice versa).
*Cells of most epithelia exhibit continuous renewal, with the
locations of stem cells and rates of cell turnover variable in
various specialized epithelia.
Functions of Epithelial Tissues:
o Covering, lining, and protecting surfaces
o Absorption
o Secretion
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES
*Epithelial cell nuclei vary in shape and may be elliptic (oval),
spherical, or flattened, with nuclear shape corresponding
roughly to cell shape.
Apoptosis - the process by which redundant or defective cells
*Epithelial cells are frequently indistinguishable by light
are rapidly eliminated in a manner that does not provoke a local
microscopy because of its lipid-rich membranes.
inflammatory reaction in the tissue.
Lamina Propria - connective tissue that underlies the epithelia
*Apoptosis involves a cascade of events controlled by the Bcl-2
lining the organs of the digestive, respiratory, and urinary
family of proteins regulating the release of death-promoting
systems.
factors from mitochondria.
Papillae - area of contact between the two tissues may be
*Cytochrome C from mitochondria activates cytoplasmic
increased by small evaginations.
proteases called caspases, which degrade proteins of the
- projects from the connective tissue into the epithelium.
cytosol, cytoskeleton, and cell membrane.
- occur most frequently in epithelial tissues subject to
*Endonucleases are activated, which degrade all nuclear DNA.
friction, such as the covering of the skin or tongue.
*Cell and nuclear volumes shrink rapidly, and the cell membrane
*Epithelial cells generally show polarity, with organelles and
changes produce extensive blebbing of the cell surface.
membrane proteins distributed unevenly within the cell.
*Late in apoptosis, the cell breaks into many small apoptotic
Basal Pole - region of the cell contacting the ECM and
bodies that undergo phagocytosis by neighboring cells.
connective tissue.
*Apoptosis occurs rapidly, with little or no release of proteins
Apical Pole – the opposite end which usually facing a space.
that would trigger inflammation, unlike the death of injured cells
*Regions of cuboidal or columnar cells that adjoin neighboring
by necrosis that typically induces local inflammation.
cells comprise the cells’ lateral surfaces; cell membranes here
often have numerous folds which increase the area and
functional capacity of that surface.
Basement Membrane
– a semipermeable filter
for substances reaching
epithelial cells from
below.

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*Functions of Basal Membrane: Hemidesmosomes - anchoring junctions composed of

– helping to provide structural support for epithelial cells and transmembrane integrins attach cells to proteins of the basal
attach epithelia to underlying connective tissue. lamina.
– its components help organize integrins and other proteins in Focal adhesion or focal contact - basal anchoring junction
the plasma membrane of epithelial cells, maintaining cell polarity found in cells that are moving during epithelial repair or
and helping to localize endocytosis, signal transduction. reorganization.
Focal adhesion kinase - a signaling protein which upon integrin
– mediate many cell-to-cell interactions involving epithelia and
binding to laminin or other specific ECM proteins initiates a
mark routes for certain cell migrations along epithelia.
cascade of intracellular protein phosphorylation affecting cell
– serves as a scaffold that allows rapid epithelial repair and adhesion, mobility, and gene expression
regeneration. Gap or communicating junctions - are points of cell contact
*Two Parts of Basal Membrane: where both plasma membranes have numerous hexameric
o basal lamina - a thin, electron-dense, sheet-like layer of complexes of transmembrane connexons, each forming a
fine fibrils; meshwork of IV collagen & laminin. channel allowing passage of small molecules from one cell to
Contains: the other.
– Type IV Collagen – monomers of type IV collagen *Connexin – gap junction proteins which produces connexons
– Laminin - large glycoproteins that attach to SPECIALIZATIONS OF THE APICAL CELL SURFACE
transmembrane proteins called integrins at the cells’ basal Microvilli - small membrane
surface and project through the network of type IV collagen. projections with cores of actin
filaments that generally function to
– Nidogen and Perlecan - a short, rod-like protein and a
increase epithelial cells’ apical
proteoglycan, both of
surface area for absorption.
these cross-link laminin
*The average microvillus is about
to the collagen network
1-μm long and 0.1-μm wide.
and help determine the
*The total surface area can be
porosity of the basal
increased by 20- or 30-fold.
lamina and the size of
Stereocilia - long microvilli with
molecules able to filter
specialized mechanosensory
through it.
function in cells of the inner ear
o reticular lamina -
and for absorption in tissues of
contains type III collagen
the male reproductive tract.
and anchoring fibrils of VII collagen, all secreted by cells of
the immediately adjacent connective tissue.
Intercellular Junctions
Cilia - long, highly motile
- well developed in epithelia and consist of three major types,
apical structures, larger
with different functions:
than microvilli, containing
o Tight or occluding junctions (zonula occludens)
internal arrays of
– form a seal between adjacent cells
microtubules
– formed by interacting transmembrane proteins such as
- larger projecting
claudin and occludin
structures with a well-
*linear arrangements of these linked proteins surround the
organized core of
apical ends of the cells and prevent paracellular passage of
microtubules (in a 9 + 2
substances between the cells
arrangement called the
o Adherent or anchoring junctions (zonula adherens)
axoneme) in which
– sites of strong cell adhesion
restricted, dynein-based
– formed by interacting proteins of the cadherin family
sliding of microtubules
*Adherent junctions - encircle epithelial cells just below their
causes ciliary movement
tight junctions or scattered, spot-like attachment sites called
that propel material along
desmosomes or maculae adherens, both of which are attached
an epithelial surface.
to cytoplasmic keratins.
*Cilia exhibit rapid beating patterns that move a current of fluid
and suspended matter in one direction along the epithelium.

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*Ciliary motion occurs through successive changes in the -- Pseudostratified epithelia

conformation of the axoneme, in which various accessory are thick and appear to have
proteins make each cilium relatively stiff, but elastic. several cell layers; all cells
MORPHOLOGICAL TYPES OF EPITHELIA attach to the basal lamina but
Epithelia’s two main groups: not all extend to the free
o Covering Epithelia - lining epithelial surface.
o Secretory Epithelia - secretory
Simple Epithelia – an epithelium in which the basement Epithelial Secretion/Glands
membrane has one cell layer. *The major function in many epithelial cells is synthesis and
*Based on cell shape, it is classified as: secretion of specialized products
-- squamous (thin cells), Goblet cell – similar individual cells abundant in the lining of the
small intestine and respiratory tract, which secretes lubricating
mucus that aids the function of these organs.
Glands - specialized organs composed primarily of epithelia.
-- develop from covering epithelia in the fetus by cell
-- cuboidal (cell width and proliferation and growth into the underlying connective tissue,
thickness roughly similar), followed by further differentiation.
o Exocrine glands have epithelial ducts carrying secretions to
specific sites; the ducts of simple glands are unbranched
and those of compound glands are branched.
-- columnar (cells are taller than -- the secretory portions of exocrine glands may form
they are wide) round, saclike acini (also called alveoli) or elongated
tubules; both types of secretory units may themselves
branch.
o Endocrine glands lack ducts; secreted substances are
Stratified Epithelia – contain two or hormones carried throughout the body by the interstitial
more epithelial layers fluid and blood, with specificity produced by the hormone
*Almost all such epithelia are receptors of target cells.
stratified squamous, in which the -- thin-walled blood vessels (capillaries) adjacent to
outer cell layers are thin and endocrine cells absorb their secreted hormone products for
flattened. transport in blood to target cells throughout the body.
*Classified according to the cell shape of the superficial outer -- Endocrine glands lack myoepithelial cells and are
layer(s): squamous, cuboidal, or columnar. specialized for either protein or steroid hormone synthesis,
-- Stratified squamous keratinized epithelium such as the with cytoplasmic staining characteristic of RER or SER.
epidermis cover the body surface, protecting underlying tissues *Glands can be:
from excess water loss (dehydration) and microbial invasion. -- Simple (ducts not branched)
-- Stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium lines moist -- Compound (ducts with two or more branches)
internal cavities (eg, mouth, esophagus, and vagina) where *Secretory portions can be:
water loss is not a problem. Here the flattened cells of the -- Tubular (either short or long and coiled)
surface layer retain their nuclei and most metabolic functions. -- Acinar (rounded and saclike)
-- Stratified cuboidal epithelium occurs in the excretory ducts *Glands have three basic secretory mechanisms:
of salivary and sweat glands. o Merocrine - most common method of protein or
-- Stratified columnar epithelium seen in the conjunctiva lining glycoprotein secretion and involves typical exocytosis from
the eyelids, where it is both protective and mucus secreting. membrane-bound vesicles or secretory granules.
-- Transitional epithelium or o Holocrine - cells accumulate product continuously as they
urothelium lines only on the urinary enlarge and undergo terminal differentiation, culminating in
tract, extending from the kidneys to complete cell disruption which releases the product and cell
the proximal part of the urethra, debris into the gland’s lumen; terminally differentiated cells
and is characterized by a superficial filled with lipid product are released.
layer of large, dome-like cells sometimes called umbrella cells. o Apocrine - product accumulates at the cells’ apical ends,
portions of which are then extruded to release the product
together with small amounts of cytoplasm & cell membrane

histology
Mucous Glands - exocrine glands producing mucus CHAPTER 5: CONNECTIVE TISSUE

*Oligosaccharide components of mucus stain poorly with Connective tissue provides a matrix that supports and
routine dyes but stain well with PAS stain. physically connects other tissues and cells together to form the
Serous Glands - exocrine glands producing largely enzymes organs of the body.
(proteins) and stain darkly with H&E due to the cells’ content of Interstitial fluid – gives metabolic support to cells as the
RER and secretory granules. medium for diffusion of nutrients and waste products.
Seromucous Glands - having both serous acini and mucous Extracellular Matrix (ECM) – major constituent of connective
tubules with clustered serous cells. The product of these glands tissue consists of protein fibers (collagen and elastic) and
is a mixture of digestive enzymes and watery mucus. ground substance, which is a complex of anionic, hydrophilic
TRANSPORT ACROOSE EPITHELIA proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), and multiadhesive
Transcellular Transport – a process when some epithelial cells glycoproteins (laminin, fibronectin, and others).
specialize in the transfer of ions (by ion pumps) and water (via *Glycoproteins help stabilize the ECM by binding to other matrix
the membrane channels called aquaporins) in either direction components and to integrins in cell membranes.
across the epithelium. Mesenchymal cells - undifferentiated and have large nuclei,
* Apical tight junctions prevent paracellular diffusion or backflow with prominent nucleoli and fine chromatin. They are often said
between the cells. to be “spindle-shaped,” with their scant cytoplasm extended as
*Epithelia of kidney tubules are key sites for ion and water two or more thin cytoplasmic processes.
transport, maintaining the body’s overall balance of salt and *All adult connective tissues are derived from an embryonic
water. form of connective tissue called mesenchyme, which contains
*Cells of the proximal renal tubules are specialized structurally uniformly undifferentiated cells scattered in a gel-like matrix.
for transcellular transport. CELLS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
*Osmotic and electrical balance is maintained by the passive Fibroblasts (fibrocytes) - the
transfer of chloride ions (Cl–) and water into the cell. major cells of connective tissue
Transcytosis – when cells cross the thin cells in both directions proper, are elongated, irregularly
and release their contents on the opposite side by exocytosis. shaped cells with oval nuclei that
-- occurs between the apical and basolateral membranes synthesize and secrete most
domains in cells of simple cuboidal and columnar epithelia and components of the ECM.
is important in many physiologic processes. *Active fibroblast has more
RENEWAL OF EPITHELIAL CELLS abundant and irregularly
Epithelia are normally capable of rapid repair and replacement branched cytoplasm, containing
of apoptotic or damaged cells. much rough endoplasmic
*Cells of undamaged regions quickly begin active proliferation reticulum (RER) and a well-developed Golgi apparatus, with a
and the organ or tissue affected is regenerated. large, ovoid, euchromatic nucleus and a prominent nucleolus.
Adipocytes (fat cells) - are very large cells specialized for
storage of triglycerides; they predominate in a specialized form
of connective tissue called adipose tissue.
Macrophages - are short-lived cells that differentiate in
connective tissue from precursor cells called monocytes
circulating in the blood; they function in ECM turnover,
phagocytosis of dead cells and debris, and antigen presentation
to lymphocytes.
Mast cells - are oval or irregularly shaped cells of connective
tissue, between 7 and 20 μm in
diameter, filled with basophilic
secretory granules which often
obscure the central nucleus.
-- originate from blood cell
precursors and are filled with
granules for the release of various
vasoactive agents and other
substances during inflammatory
and allergic reactions.

histology
-- metachromasia, which means that they can change the color

of some basic dyes (eg, toluidine blue) from blue to purple or
red. -- immediate hypersensitivity reactions – allergic reactions
due to the release of certain chemical mediators stored in mast
cells (e.g. anaphylactic shock - causes antibody-producing cells
to produce an immunoglobulin of the IgE class which binds
avidly to receptors on the surface of mast cells and triggers the
rapid release of histamine, leukotrienes, chemokines, and
heparin from the mast cell granules which can produce the
sudden onset of the allergic reaction).
*Molecules released from these cells’ secretory granules
includes:
o Heparin - a sulfated GAG that acts locally as an
anticoagulant
o Histamine - promotes increased vascular permeability and
smooth muscle contraction
o Serine proteases - activate various mediators of
inflammation
o Eosinophil and neutrophil chemotactic factors - attract
those leukocytes
o Cytokines - polypeptides directing activities of leukocytes FIBERS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
and other cells of the immune system The most important and abundant fibers of connective tissue
o Phospholipid precursors - are converted to prostaglandins, are composed of the protein collagen, of which there are some
leukotrienes, and other important lipid mediators of the 20 related types.
inflammatory response *Synthesis of collagen by fibroblasts and certain other cells
involves posttranslational modifications in the RER, notably
hydroxylation of the numerous prolines and lysines, and
formation of helical trimeric subunits of procollagen.
*Upon exocytosis, the nonhelical ends of the procollagen
subunits are removed, forming trimeric collagen molecules
that aggregate and become covalently bound together in large
collagen fibrils.
Collagenases – specific enzyme that initiates degredation.
Metalloproteinases (MMPs), produced primarily by
macrophages, and clip collagen fibrils or sheets in such a way
that they are then susceptible to further degradation by non-
specific proteases.
Crossbanding - a characteristic pattern of highly regular
assembly of collagens in the fibrils visible ultrastructurally along
Plasma cells – are short-lived cells the fibrils of some collagen types.
that differentiate from B *Fibrils of type I collagen are bundled together by other forms
lymphocytes and are specialized for of nonfibrillar, linking collagens to produce large collagen
the abundant secretion of specific bundles.
antibodies (immunoglobulins). Reticular fibers – cinsist mainly of
Their average lifespan is only 10-20 collagen type III which stain very
days. dark with silver stains
Leukocytes normally wander through all types of connective (argyrophilic) and are abundant in
tissue proper, providing surveillance against bacterial invaders immune and lymphoid tissues.
and stimulating tissue repair. *Reticular fibers produced by
*Inflammation, a vascular and cellular defensive response to fibroblasts occur in the reticular
injury or foreign substances, including pathogenic bacteria or lamina of basement membranes
irritating chemical substances. and typically also surround adipocytes, smooth muscle and
nerve fibers, and small blood vessels.
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Elastic fibers, or sheets called TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

elastic lamellae, are composed Connective tissue - usually classified as loose or dense
of the proteins elastin and according to the amount of collagen and ground substance
fibrillin, which exist in a present.
stretchable conformation that o Loose connective tissue (or
provides elastic properties to areolar tissue) has relatively
connective tissues rich in this more ground substance than
material. collagen, and it typically
*Elastic fibers are stained surrounds small blood
more darkly than collagen with vessels and occupies areas
other stains such as orcein and adjacent to other types of
aldehyde fuchsin. epithelia.
*Elastic fibers (and lamellae) are a composite of fibrillin (350 o Dense irregular connective
kDa), which forms a network of microfibrils, embedded in a tissue is filled primarily with
larger mass of cross-linked elastin (60 kDa), randomly distributed bundles
*Elastin accumulates around the microfibrils, eventually making of type I collagen, with some
up most of the elastic fiber, and is responsible for the rubberlike elastic fibers, providing
property. resistance to tearing from all
GROUND SUBSTANCE directions as well as some
Ground substance - the watery, largely unstained extracellular elasticity.
material that is more abundant than fibers in some types of o Dense regular connective
connective tissue proper. tissue, prominent in tendons
-- mixture of three major kinds of macromolecules: and ligaments, features
glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), proteoglycans, and bundles of essentially parallel
multiadhesive glycoproteins. type I collagen, providing
-- allows diffusion of small molecules and acts as both a great strength (but little
lubricant and a barrier to the penetration of invaders. stretch) in binding together
o GAGs - mucolpolysaccharides components of the
*The major types of GAGs are: musculoskeletal system.
-- hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid), which is a very long polymer of o Reticular tissue consists of
the disaccharide glucosamine-glucuronate; forms a viscous, delicate networks of type III
pericellular network that binds a considerable amount of water collagen and is most
which allows molecular diffusion through connective tissue and abundant in certain lymphoid
in lubricating various organs and joints. organs where the fibers form
-- various shorter chains of sulfated GAGs composed of other attachment sites for
disaccharide polymers. lymphocytes and other
*Sulfated GAGs such as chondroitin sulfate and keratan sulfate immune cells.
have various sizes and compositions, but they are all bound to o Mucoid tissue is a gel-like
the core proteins of proteoglycans and are produced in the Golgi connective tissue with few
apparatus before secretion. cells found most abundantly
o Proteoglycans – synthesized on RER, mature in the golgi around blood vessels in the
complex, and secreted from cells by exocytosis. umbilical cord.
-- attach to polymers of HA via linker proteins to form huge
complexes in ground substance that bind water and other
substances, including certain polypeptide growth factors that
help regulate fibroblast proliferation.
o Multiadhesive glycoproteins such as fibronectin and
laminin have binding sites for collagens and for integrin
proteins in cell membranes, thus allowing temporary
attachments between cells and the ECM required for cell
migration and positioning.

histology
CHAPTER 6: ADIPOSE TISSUE Storage and Mobilization of Lipids:

Adipose Tissue - a connective tissue which stores fat cells. Chylomicrons – formed from ingested lipids or dietary fats that
-- derived from mesenchyme and specialized for energy storage are brought to the cells thru circulation
in lipid droplet with triglycerides. VLDLs (very low-density llipoproteins) – transports
-- has two types: white and brown fat tissues chylomicrons; synthesized from lipids in liver cells.
*Adipocytes – stores lipids from: Lipoprotein lipase – enzyme synthesized by the adipocytes and
-- dietary fats packaged as chylomicrons in the intestines
transferred to the capillary cell membrane.
-- triglycerides produced in the liver and circulating as VLDLs
*Insulin stimulates glucose uptake by adipocytes w/c
-- fatty acids synthesized locally
*Lipids are mobilized from adipocytes by hormone-sensitive accelerates its conversion into triglycerides, and the production
lipase activated by norepinephrine released from the adrenal of lipoprotein lipase.
gland and various peptide hormones. *Hormonal activity of adipocytes produces leptin which helps
*Cells of adipose tissue are supported by reticular fibers, with regulate the appetite under normal conditions and participates
connective tissue septa dividing the tissue into lobules of in regulating the formation of new adipose tissue.
various sizes.
*Function:
-- energy storage
-- key regulator of overall body metabolism
-- thermal insulator
-- responds to both nervous and hormonal stimuli
WHITE ADIPOSE TISSUE
Also called as “unilocular” becausethese are often empty in

standard light microscopy.
-- has a flattened nucleus, and a signet-ring appearance.
-- found in many organs throughout the body, typically forming
about 20% of the body weight in adults.
*Adipocytes of white fat are typically very large cells, ranging in
diameter from 50 to 150 μm.
*These cells each contain primarily one large lipid droplet (they
are unilocular), causing the nucleus and remaining cytoplasm to
be pushed against the plasmalemma.
*Fatty acids are released from white adipocytes by lipase activity
when nutrients are needed and carried throughout the body on
plasma proteins such as albumin.
Leptin is a polypeptide hormone with target cells in the
hypothalamus that is released from white adipocytes and helps
regulate eating behavior.

histology
BROWN ADIPOSE TISSUE CHAPTER 7: CARTILAGE

Brown fat comprises up to 5% of the newborn body weight but Cartilage is a tough, durable form of supporting connective
smaller amounts in adults. tissue, characterized by an extracellular matrix (ECM)
- quickly metabolized *Cartilage ECM has a firm consistency that allows the tissue to
*Adipocytes of this tissue are typically smaller than those of bear mechanical stresses without permanent distortion.
white fat and contain primarily many small lipid droplets (they *Cartilage provides cushioning and sliding regions within
are multilocular) in cytoplasm containing many mitochondria skeletal joints and facilitates bone movements.
Chondrocytes synthesize and maintain all ECM components and
and a central nucleus.
are located in matrix cavities called lacunae.
*Function:
-- exhibit low metabolic activity.
-- fatty acids released in adipocytes of brown fat are metabolized
*The physical properties of cartilage depend on electrostatic
in mitochondria of these cells for thermogenesis rather than
bonds between type II collagen fibrils, hyaluronan, and the
ATP synthesis, using uncoupling protein-1.
sulfated glycosaminoglycans on densely packed
-- stores lipid as multiple droplets
proteoglycans.
-- best developed in hibernating animals for heat generation
*The high content of bound water allows cartilage to serve as a
*The number of brown adipocytes increases during cold
shock absorber, an important functional role.
adaptation, usually appearing as clusters of multilocular cells in
*All types of cartilage lack vascular supplies and chondrocytes
white adipose tissue.
receive nutrients by diffusion from capillaries in surrounding
*Autonomic nerves also promote brown adipocyte
connective tissue (the perichondrium).
differentiation and prevent apoptosis in mature brown fat cells.
Perichondrium is a sheath of dense connective tissue that
surrounds cartilage.
Articular cartilage – covers the ends of bones in movable joints
and erodes in the course in the course of arthritic degeneration,
lacks perichondrium and is sustained by the diffusion of oxygen
and nutrients from synovial fluid.
HYALINE CARTILAGE
Hyaline cartilage - homogeneous
and semitransparent in the fresh
state.
-- located where it makes possible
for bone growth.

histology
*A schematic representation of the most abundant molecules in *More flexible than hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage is found in
cartilage matrix shows the interaction between type II collagen the auricle of the ear, the walls of the external auditory canals,
fibrils and proteoglycans linked to hyaluronan. the auditory (Eustachian) tubes, the epiglottis, and the upper
respiratory tract.
FIBROCARTILAGE
Matrix is basophilic due to proteoglycans. Most of the collagen Fibrocartilage - a mingling of hyaline cartilage and dense
in hyaline cartilage is type II. connective tissue.
Aggrecan - most abundant proteoglycan of hyaline cartilage. -- found in intervertebral discs, and all places where it serves as
Chondronectin - a structural multiadhesive glycoprotein and very tough, yet cushioning support tissue for bone.
another important component of cartilage matrix. *Chondrocytes of fibrocartilage occur singly and often in aligned
Territorial Matrix - surrounds the lacunae. isogenous aggregates, producing type II collagen and other ECM
Chondrocytes - cells responsible for cartilage formation, and components.
they are crucial for the process of endochondral ossification, *The relative scarcity of proteoglycans overall makes
which is useful for bone development. fibrocartilage matrix more acidophilic than that of hyaline or
*In living tissue chondrocytes fill their lacunae completely. elastic cartilage.
*Because cartilage matrix is avascular, chondrocytes respire *There is no distinct surrounding perichondrium in
under low-oxygen tension. Hyaline cartilage cells metabolize fibrocartilage.
glucose mainly by anaerobic glycolysis. Nutrients from the blood *Fibrocartilage provides very tough, strong support at tendon
diffuse to all the chondrocytes. insertions and in intervertebral discs and certain other joints.
Growth hormone or somatotropin - the pituitary-derived protein
which is the major regulator of hyaline cartilage growth.
Perichondrium - a dense connective tissue, essential for the
growth and maintenance of cartilage.
*The outer region of the perichondrium consists largely of
collagen type I fibers and fibroblasts, but an inner layer
adjoining the cartilage matrix also contains mesenchymal stem
cells which provide a source for new chondroblasts that divide
and differentiate into chondrocytes.
ELASTIC CARTILAGE
-- contains an abundant
network of elastic fibers in
addition to a meshwork of
collagen type II fibrils,
which give fresh elastic
cartilage a yellowish color.

histology
CARTILAGE FORMATION, GROWTH, AND REPAIR CHAPTER 8: BONE

All cartilage forms from embryonic mesenchyme in the process Bone tissue provides solid support for the body, and serve as
of chondrogenesis. reservoir of calcium, phosphate, and other ions for maintenance
of constant concentrations in body fluids.
*Confers mechanical and metabolic functions to the skeleton.
*Metabolites from blood are unable to diffuse through calcified
bone matrix communication of blood capillaries to the bone
depends on the Canaliculi
*All bones are lined on their internal surfaces with endosteum
and the external surface with periosteum.
BONE CELLS
*Bone is a specialized connective tissue compose of calcified
extracellular material (bone matrix) and 3 major types:
o Osteocytes
(a) Mesenchyme is the precursor for all types of cartilage.
(b) Mitosis and initial cell differentiation produces a tissue with - found in cavities (lacunae)
condensations of rounded cells called chondroblasts. between bone matrix layers
(c) Chondroblasts are then separated from one another again by (lamellae) with cytoplasmic
their production of the various matrix components, which processes called canaliculi
collectively swell with water and form the very extensive ECM. that extends into the matrix.
(d) Multiplication of chondroblasts within the matrix gives rise -- enclosed singly within a
to isogenous cell aggregates surrounded by a condensation of lacuna in the bone matrix.
territorial matrix. -- Maintain the calcified matrix.
*During embryonic development, the cartilage differentiation -- Network of dendritic processes extending from
takes place primarily from the center outward; therefore, the osteocytes has be called a mechanosensory monitoring
more central cells have the characteristics of chondrocytes, areas where loading has increased or decreased and
whereas the peripheral cells are typical chondroblasts.
signaling cells to adjust ions levels and maintain bone
*Once formed, the cartilage tissue enlarges both by interstitial
matrix.
growth, involving mitotic division of preexisting chondrocytes,
and by appositional growth, which involves chondroblast o Osteoblast - growing cells which synthesize and secrete
differentiation from progenitor cells in the perichondrium. the organic components of the matrix.
*Cartilaginous structures grow by mitosis of existing -- Produces bone matrix that includes type 1 collagen
chondroblasts in lacunae (interstitial growth) or formation of fibers, proteoglycans, and glycoproteins such as
new chondroblasts peripherally from progenitor cells in the osteonectin.
perichondrium (appositional growth). -- When their synthetic activity is completed, some
*In articular cartilage, cells and matrix near the articulating osteoblasts differentiate as osteocytes entrapped in matrix
surface are gradually worn away and must be replaced from bound lacunae, some flatten and cover the matrix surface
within, because there is no perichondrium to add cells by as bone lining cells, and the majority undergo apoptosis.
appositional growth. -- Matrix components are secreted at the cell surface that
*Except in young children, damaged cartilage undergoes slow
produces a collagen-rich material called osteoid.
and often incomplete repair, primarily dependent on cells in the
-- Osteocalcin, secreted by osteoblasts, will bind
perichondrium.
Ca2+ions and will allow an increase of local concentration
*In damaged areas the perichondrium produces a scar of dense
connective tissue instead of forming new cartilage. The poor of Ca2+.
capacity of cartilage for repair or regeneration is due in part to -- Osteoblast will then release matrix vesicles that are rich
its avascularity and low metabolic rate. in alkaline phoisphate which increases the local PO43-
ions; Ca2+ and PO43-concentrations will continue to
increase.
-- Matrix vesicles serve as foci for the formation of
hydroxyapatite [Ca10(PO4 )6 (OH)2] crystals, the first
visible step in calcification.

histology
o Osteoclasts - giant PERIOSTEUM AND ENDOSTEUM

multi nucleated cells Periosteum - outer fiberous layer of dense CT containing mostly
involved in removing collagen type I, fibroblasts, and blood vessels.
calcifies matrix and -- bundles of peristeal collagen, called perorating or sharpey’s
remodeling bone fibers penetrate the bone matrix and bind periosteum to bone.
tissue. -- Inner layers is more cellular, containing osteoblasts bone
-- are very large, lining cells, and osteoprogenitor cells.
motile cells with Endosteum - the internal covering of small trabeculae of bony
multiple nuclei that are essential for matrix resorption matrix that project into narrow cavity.
during bone growth and remodeling. TYPES OF BONES
-- Osteoclast development requires two polypeptides o Compact bone
produced by osteoblasts: - dense area near the surface
macrophage-colony-stimulating factor, and - represents 80% of total bone
receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL). mass
-- In areas of bone undergoing resorption, osteoclasts on o Cancellous (trabecular)
the bone surface lie in depressions or cavities in the matrix bone
known as resorption lacunae (or Howship lacunae). - deeper bone with
-- an active osteoclast, the membrane domain that contacts interconnecting cavities
the bone forms a circular sealing zone that binds the cell - constitutes 20% of total bone
tightly to the bone matrix and surrounds an area with many mass.
surface projections, called the ruffled border. *In long bones, the bulbous areas are called epiphyses and are
-- Into this subcellular pocket the osteoclast pumps protons composed of cancellous bone with a thin covering of compact
to acidify and promote dissolution of the adjacent bone
hydroxyapatite, and releases matrix metalloproteinases and *The cylindrical part the diaphysis is almost totally dense
other hydrolytic enzymes from lysosome-related secretory compact bone, with a thin region of cancellous bone on the inner
vesicles for the localized digestion of matrix proteins. surface around the central marrow cavity.
-- Activity is activated by PTH which targets osteoblasts to *Short bones such as those of the wrist and ankle usually have
secrete RANKL and MCSF to increase osteoclast activity. cores of cancellous bone surrounded completely by compact
bone.
*The flat bones that form the calvaria (skullcap) have two layers
of compact bone called plates, separated by a thicker layer of
cancellous bone called the diploë.
*both compact and cancellous bones typically show two types
of organization: mature lamellar bone, with matrix existing as
discrete sheets, and woven bone, newly formed with randomly
arranged components.
o Lamellar Bone
- most bones are organized as
this in adults
- consists of multiple layers of
calcified, each is 3-7nm thick.
BONE MATRIX - organized as parallel sheets
*Consists of 90% type I collagen, including proteoglycans
or concentrically around a
and multiadhesive glycoproteins such as osteonectin.
central canal.
*Calcium binding proteins, osteocalcin, and the
phosphatases released from cells in matrix vesicles
*Highly organized collagen fibers causes birefringence in
promote calcification of the matrix.
polarizing light microscopy
*The association of minerals with collagen fibers during
calcification provides the hardness and resistance of bones.

histology
*An osteon (or Haversian system) refers to the complex of STEPS:

concentric llamelae and are typically 100-250 nm in diameter. 1. A bone cellar develops beneath the perichondrium around
*All cells of osteon receive nutrients from central canal. the middle of the cartilage models.
*Outer boundary of each osteon is called cement line. 2. Bone collar causes chondrocytes hypertrophy in underlying
*Central canals communicate with each other through cartilage.
perforating canals (Volksmann canals). 3. Formation of primary ossification center is formed by
*Scattered among the osteons are irregular shaped groups of invading the osteoprogenitor cells.
parallel lamellae is called the interstitial lamellae (these 4. At birth secondary ossification centers begin to develop in
lamellae are remaining from partially destroyed osteons by the epiphyses and primary and secondary ossification
osteoclasts) centers will be separated by epiphyseal plate (provides for
*Compact bone also includes parallel lamellae organized as continued bone elongation)
multiple external circumferential llamellae immediately 5. Ossification center merge when full structure is achieved
beneath the periosteum.
Bone remodeling - occurs continually throughout life *The epiphyseal plate shows distinct regions of cellular activity:
1. Osteoclasts remove old bone and form small, tunnel-like
cavities.
2. These tunnels are quickly invaded by osteoprogenitor cells
3. Osteoblasts develop and line walls of the tunnels and begins
to secrete osteoid in a cyclic manner, forming a new osteon
with concentric lamallae of bone and trapped osteocytes.
o Woven Bone
- nonlamellar
- random disposition of type 1 collagen fibers
- first bone to appear in embryonic development and in
fracture repair
- has lower mineral content but has a higher osteocytes
proportion
- forms more quickly but less strength than lamellar bone
OSTEOGENESIS
Bone development occurs one of two processes:
1. Intramembranous ossification
- osteoblasts differentiate directly from mesenchyme and begin o Zone of reserve - composed of typical hyaline cartilage
secreting osteoid o Proliferative zone - cartilage cells divide, enlarge and
- most flat bones begins this way secrete type II collagen and become organized into
*Within the condensed mesenchymal cells, bone formation columns.
begins ossification centers, areas in which osteoprogenitor o Zone of hypertrophy - contains swollen, terminally different
cells arise. chondrocytes which compress the matrix into aligned
*Osteoid calcifies, forming areas of woven bone with spicules by secretion of type X collagen.
osteocytes, lacunae, and canaliculi. o Zone of calcified cartilage - chondrocytes is about to
*Anatomical bone forms as woven bone gets replaced by a undergo apoptosis release matrix vesicles and osteocalcin
compact bone. to begin matrix ossification.
*Mesenchymal regions that do not give undergo ossification will o Zone of ossification - bone tissue first appears.
give rise to the periosteum and endosteum of a new bone.
2. Endochondral ossification *Growth in bone circumference occurs through appositional
- pre-existing matrix of hyaline cartilage is eroded and invaded growth, with formation of the bone collar on central marrow
by osteoblasts which then begin osteoid secretion. cavity and the central marrow cavity enlarges via osteoclasts in
*The hyaline is shaped as a smalls version/model of the bone to the endosteum.
be formed.
- This type of ossification forms most bones in our body
histology
METABOLIC ROLE OF BONE CHAPTER 9: NERVOUS TISSUE AND NERVOUS SYSTEM

*Skeleton serves as a calcium reservoir that contains 99% of the Nerve Tissue is distributed throughout the body as an integrated
body’s total calcium in hydroxyapalite crystals. communications network.
*Calcium mobilization is regulated by paracrine interaction *The general organization of the nervous system has two major
among bone cells: divisions:
-- Parathyroid hormone (PTH) - increase blood calcium by Central nervous system (CNS) - consisting of the brain and
stimulating osteoclasts and osteocytes resorb bone matrix and spinal cord
release calcium. PTH receptors are on osteoblasts; which Peripheral nervous system (PNS) - composed of the cranial,
respond by secreting RankL to stimulate osteoclast activity. spinal, and peripheral nerves conducting impulses to and from
the CNS (sensory and motor nerves, respectively) and ganglia
-- Calcitonin - produced by thyroid, can reduce elevated blood
that are small aggregates of nerve cells outside the CNS.
by opposing PTH, targets osteoclasts to slow their activity.
Neurons - cells that typically have numerous long processes.
JOINTS Glial cells - have short processes, support and protect neurons,
o Synarthroses - allow very little to no movement and participate in many neural activities, neural nutrition, and
-- Syntoses: bones linked to bone and allow essentially no defense of cells in the CNS.
movement. Neurons respond to environmental changes (stimuli).
- joints held together by sutures (Ex: uniting skull bones) Irritable or Excitable cells - rapidly change their potential in
o Amphiarthroses - allows some movement response to stimuli (eg, neurons, muscle cells, some gland
-- Syndesmoses cells).
- join bone by dense connective tissue only. Membrane depolarization - activates sodium channels.
-- Symphyses Action potential, the depolarization wave, or the nerve impulse
- thick pad of fiber cartilage between thin articular cartilage - capable of traveling long distances along neuronal processes,
covering the ends of the bones. transmitting such signals to other neurons, muscles, and
- occur in the midline of the body glands.
o Diarthroses or synovial joints
- permit free bone movement
- capsule encloses a sealed Joint Cavity
- joint cavity that contains synovial fluid and is lined by a
synovial membrane
- synovial membrane characterized by 2 specialized cells:
-- type A cells (Macrophage-like synovial cells)
- remove wear-and-tear debris from synovial fluid.
- regulate inflammation within diarthrotic joints.
-- type B cells (Fibroblastic synovial cells)
- produce hyaluronan to produce synovial fluid.
DEVELOPMENT OF NERVE TISSUE

Nervous tissue develops in the early embryo when the dorsal
ectoderm neural plate folds lengthwise to form the neural tube,
the precursor of the CNS, and releases neural crest cells,
precursors for much of the PNS.

histology
Neural tube is the primordium of the brain and spinal cord, and Cell body – acts as a trophic center, producing cytoplasm for
the process of its formation is called neurulation. the nerve processes.
NEURONS Nissl bodies (chromatin granules), intensely basophilic, occupy
Neuron - the functional unit in both the CNS and PNS is the the perikaryon and dendrites but not the axon hillock. They are
neuron. more prominent in motor than in sensory neurons.
Neurons consist of: Neurofilaments - are proteins selectively expressed in the
cell body (perikaryon) - containing the nucleus, cytoskeleton of neurons, and increased levels are a marker of
damage.
axon - a long cytoplasmic extension, and
dendrites - one or more shorter processes covered with many
Dendrites - the principal signal reception and processing sites
synapses. on neurons.
*Neurons can be classified according to the number of Dendritic spine - a small, club-like cell protrusion from
processes extending from the cell body: neuronal dendrites that form the postsynaptic component of
-- Multipolar neurons, each with one axon and two or more most excitatory synapses in the brain.
dendrites, are the most common. *Cross-linked with certain fixatives and impregnated with silver
-- Bipolar neurons, with one dendrite and one axon, comprise stains, neurofilaments are also referred to as neurofibrils by light
the sensory neurons of the retina, the olfactory epithelium, and microscopists.
the inner ear. *Changes in dendritic spines are of key importance in the
-- Unipolar or pseudounipolar neurons, which include all other constant changes of the neural plasticity that occurs during
sensory neurons, each have a single process that bifurcates embryonic brain development and underlies adaptation,
close to the perikaryon, with the longer branch extending to a learning, and memory postnatally
peripheral ending and the other toward the CNS.
-- Anaxonic neurons, with many dendrites but no true axon, do Axon – vary in length and diameter according to its type.
not produce action potentials, but regulate electrical changes of Axolemma - the plasma membrane of the axon the and its
adjacent CNS neurons. contents are known as axoplasm.
Axon hillock - where axons originate from a pyramid-shaped
region of the perikaryon.
Axon collaterals - An axon typically develops side branches, so
that one neuron can send information to several others. These
collaterals, just like the roots of a tree, split into smaller
extensions called terminal bouton. Each of these has a synaptic
terminal on the tip.
*Axons generally branch less profusely than dendrites, but do
undergo terminal arborization, a multiple branching at the end
of a nerve fiber.
Anterograde transport - transport from the soma to the distal
axon through kinesin.
Retrograde transport - transport from distal regions back to the
soma via dyenein.
Sensory neurons are afferent, receiving stimuli from receptors
Nerve impulse, or an action potential - an electrochemical
throughout the body.
Motor neurons are efferent, sending impulses to effector process initiated at the axon hillock when other impulses
organs such as muscle fibers and glands. received at the cell body or dendrites meet a certain threshold.
Somatic motor nerves are under voluntary control and typically *The action potential is propagated along the axon as a wave of
innervate skeletal muscle. membrane depolarization produced by voltage-gated Na+ and
Autonomic motor nerves - control the involuntary or K+ channels in the axolemma that allow diffusion of these ions
unconscious activities of glands, cardiac muscle, and smooth into and out of the axoplasm.
muscle. Resting potential - the imbalance of electrical charge that exists
Interneurons - establish relationships among other neurons, between the interior of electrically excitable neurons (nerve
forming complex functional networks or circuits in the CNS. cells) and their surroundings.

histology
Depolarization – a process when the inside of the cell becomes Astrocytes, the most numerous cell of the CNS, all produce
less negative. hundreds of processes to cover and provide regulated
microenvironments for neuronal perikarya, synapses, and
capillaries.
Ependymal cells are

epithelial-like cells, lacking
basement membranes,
which line the fluid-filled
cerebral ventricles and
central canal of the spinal
cord.
Synapse – where nerve impulses are transmitted from one Microglia differs from all other
neuron to another, or from neurons and other effector cells. glial cells in originating from
*Neurotransmitter is released at the presynaptic membrane and blood monocytes, not from
binds receptors on the postsynaptic cell, initiating a new action neural tissue precursors; they
potential there; synaptic cleft separates these presynaptic and mediate immune defense
postsynaptic membranes. activity within the CNS.
*Major categories of neurotransmitters:
-- Amino acids, such as glutamate and γ-aminobutyrate (GABA)
-- Monoamines, such as serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5- Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes) enclose all axons in nerves
HT) and catecholamines, such as dopamine, all of which are of the PNS, producing myelin sheaths around large-diameter
synthesized from amino acids axons, whose impulse conductivity is augmented at the nodes
-- Polypeptides, such as endorphins and substance P. of Ranvier between successive Schwann cells.
Satellite cells are located

GLIAL CELLS AND NEURONAL ACTIVITY within PNS ganglia,
Glial cells support neuronal survival and activities, and are 10 aggregated sensory or
times more abundant than neurons in the mammalian brain. autonomic neuronal cell
Oligodendrocytes wrap processes around portions of axons in bodies, where they enclose
the CNS, forming myelin sheaths that insulate the axons and each perikaryon and regulate
facilitate nerve impulses. its microenvironment.

histology
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Cerebral nuclei - contain large numbers of aggregated neuronal
*The major structures comprising the CNS are the cell bodies.
cerebrum, Cerebral cortex - function in the integration of sensory
information and the initiation of voluntary motor responses.
Cerebellar cortex - coordinates muscular activity throughout the
body and is organized with three layers.
Pyramidal neuron - important neurons of the cerebrum w/c
transforms synaptic inputs into a patterned output of action
potentials.
*3 layers of cerebral cortex:
molecular layer (outer),
Purkinje cells (middle),
granular layer (inner)
cerebellum, *In cross sections of the spinal cord, the white matter is
peripheral and the gray matter forms a deeper.
Anterior horns - contain cell bodies of very large motor neurons

whose axons make up the ventral roots of spinal nerves.
Posterior horns - contain interneurons which receive sensory
fibers from neurons in the spinal (dorsal root) ganglia.
Central canal - continuous with the ventricles of the brain, is
lined by ependymal cells, and contains CSF.
*The skull and the vertebral column protect the CNS, but
between the bone and nervous tissue are membranes of
spinal cord.
connective tissue called the meninges.
*Three meningeal layers are distinguished:
o dura, consists of dense irregular connective tissue
organized as an outer periosteal layer continuous with the
periosteum of the skull and an inner meningeal layer.
*The dural venous sinuses lie between the periosteal and
meningeal layers of the dura mater.
*The epidural space is the area between the dura mater (a
membrane) and the vertebral wall, containing fat and small
blood vessels.
*The CNS is completely covered by connective tissue layers, the *The dural venous sinuses lie between the periosteal and
meninges, but CNS tissue contains very little collagen. meningeal layers of the dura mater.
*The central nervous system of the brain is made up of two o arachnoid, layer contains much CSF, which helps cushion
kinds of tissue: the CNS within its bony enclosure.
-- grey matter contains the cell bodies, dendrites and the axon *Subarachnoid usually refers to the space between
terminals, where all synapses are. the arachnoid and the pia mater that contains CSF.
-- white matter is made up of axons, which *Arachnoid villi act as one-way valves for the flow of CSF into
connect different parts of grey matter to each other; the main venous blood, and hydrostatic pressure is the main stimulus
components of white matter are myelinated axons often that causes these valves to open.
grouped together as tracts. *Subarachnoid usually refers to the space between
*Gray matter makes up the thick cortex or surface layer of both the arachnoid and the pia mater that contains CSF.
the cerebrum and the cerebellum; most white matter is found in o pia mater consists of flattened, mesenchymally derived
deeper regions. cells closely applied to the entire surface of the CNS tissue.

histology
*The innermost pia mater Blood vessels penetrate CNS tissue

through long perivascular spaces, (also known as a Virchow–
*Robin space, is a fluid-filled space surrounding certain blood
vessels) covered by pia mater.
Unmyelinated nerve fibers conduct impulses at low velocities.
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a functional barrier that allows
They represent the majority of peripheral sensory and
much tighter control than that in most tissues over the passage
autonomic fibers. They are also found in the spinal cord and
of substances moving from blood into the CNS tissue.
brain.
Capillary endothelium - main structural component of the BBB
*In most CNS regions, neurons are also protected by the blood- Endoneurium is a thin connective tissue layer immediately
brain barrier, consisting of the perivascular feet of astrocytic surrounding Schwann cells in peripheral nerves, containing a
processes and the nonfenestrated capillary endothelial cells’ few nonfenestrated capillaries and much reticulin.
tight junctions.
Choroid plexus - consists of elaborate folds of vascularized pia Groups of axons with Schwann cells and endoneurium are
mater covered by ependymal, that project from walls of the bundled together as fascicles by a sleeve of perineurium.
cerebral ventricles; there water is removed from capillaries and The Blood Nerve Barrier (BNB) consists of the endoneurial
transferred into the ventricles as CSF. microvessels within the nerve fascicle and the investing
Arachnoid villi - provide the main pathway for absorption of CSF perineurium.
back into the venous circulation.
Externally, peripheral nerves have a dense, irregular fibrous coat
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM called the epineurium, which extends deeply to fill the space
The main components of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
between fascicles.
are the nerves, ganglia, and nerve endings. Peripheral nerves
are bundles of nerve fibers (axons) individually surrounded by Ganglia, which can be either sensory or autonomic, contain
Schwann cells and connective tissue. neuronal cell bodies and their satellite cells and are surrounded
by connective tissue continuous with that of nerves.
Nerves are analogous to tracts in the CNS, containing axons
enclosed within sheaths of glial cells. NEURAL PLASTICITY AND REGENERATION
Certain regions of the CNS, such as near the ependyma, retain
In peripheral nerves, axons are sheathed by Schwann cells or rare neural stem and progenitor cells that allow some
neurolemmocytes. replacement of neurons throughout life; neural plasticity
As axons of large diameter grow in the PNS, they are engulfed involving formation and remodeling of synaptic connections is
along their length by a series of differentiating neurolemmocytes also prevalent throughout life.
and become myelinated nerve fibers. The complexity and distances of the neuronal and glial
The multiple layers of Schwann cell membrane unite as a thick interconnections with the CNS make regeneration and
myelin sheath. restoration of function within this tissue after major injury very
difficult.
The major dense line (MDL) is a 3-nm compartment between
two cytoplasmic leaflets of stacked myelin membranes, mostly The more simply organized peripheral nerves have better
occupied by a myelin basic protein (MBP) phase. capacity for axonal regeneration, a process involving
reactivation of the perikaryon, Schwann cells, and macrophages.
Myelin clefts which are conical tube-like cytoplasmic structures
that cross the compact myelin and connect the Schwann cell
peripheral (abaxonal) cytoplasm to the periaxonal (adaxonal)
cytoplasm.
Between adjacent Schwann cells on an axon the myelin sheath

shows small nodes of Ranvier where the axon is only partially
covered by interdigitating Schwann cell processes.

histology
CHAPTER 10: MUSCLE TISSUE Myofibrils - smaller subunits composing each muscle fiber that
Functions: extend the entire length of the fiber.
-- Movement Myofilament - composes the myofibrils formed by the
-- Maintenance of posture contractile thin protein actin and the thick protein myosin.
-- Joint stabilization Muscle satellite cells - small population of reserve progenitor
-- Heat generation cells that remains adjacent to most fibers of differentiated
*Actin microfilaments and associated proteins generate the skeletal muscle.
forces necessary for the muscle contraction, which drives
movement within organ systems, of blood, and of the body as a
whole.
*All muscle cells are of mesodermal origin and differentiate by
a gradual process of cell lengthening with abundant synthesis
of the myofibrillar proteins actin and myosin.
Fibers – elongated cells
Sarcoplasm (Gr. sarkos = flesh + plasma = thing formed) –
cytoplasm of muscle cells
Sarcoplasmic reticulum – smooth ER of muscle cells
Sarcolemma (sarkos + Gr. lemma = husk) – cell membrane
(plasmalemma) and its external lamina of the muscle cells.
*3 types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, smooth.
SKELETAL MUSCLE Organization of a skeletal muscle:
Skeletal (striated) muscle) Three thin layers of connective tissue surrounds and organizes
- consists of muscle fibers, the contractile fibers:
which are long, cylindrical o epimysium - external sheath of dense irregular connective
multinucleated cells with tissue, surrounds the entire muscle. Septa of this tissue
diameters of 10-100 μm. extend inward, carrying the larger nerves, blood vessels,
*During embryonic muscle and lymphatics of the muscle.
development, mesenchymal o perimysium - thin connective tissue layer that immediately
myoblasts (L. myo = surrounds the fascicle (bundle of muscle fibers).
muscle) fuse, forming o endomysium - a very thin, delicate layer of reticular fibers
myotubes with many nuclei and scattered fibroblasts surrounds the external lamina of
which further differentiate individual muscle fiber that brings O2 to the muscle fibers.
to form striated muscle *Collagens in the connective tissue of the muscle serve to
fibers. transmit the mechanical forces generated by the contracting
*Elongated nuclei - found muscle cells/fibers; individual muscle fibers seldom extend from
peripherally just under the one end of a muscle to the other
sarcolemma, a characteristic nuclear location unique to skeletal Myotendinous junctions - joins the muscle to bone, skin, or
muscle fibers/cells. another muscle.
*Development of skeletal muscle: Organization within muscle fibers:
-- Begins when myoblast (mesenchymal cells) differentiate.
aligning and fusing together to make myotubes (longer,
multinucleated tubes).
-- Myotubes synthesize the proteins to make up myofilaments
and gradually begin to show cross-striations by light
microscopy.
-- Myotubes continue differentiating to form functional
myofilaments, and the nuclei are displaced against the
sarcolemma.

histology
*Longitudinally sectioned skeletal muscle fibers show striations Myosin heads - bind both actin, forming transient crossbridges
of alternating light and dark bands. The sarcoplasm is highly between the thick and thin filaments, and ATP, catalyzing energy
organized, containing myofibrils (primarily long cylindrical release (actomyosin ATPase activity).
filament bundles that run parallel to the long axis of the fiber
o A-bands (anisotropic or birefringent in polarized light
microscopy) - dark bands on the myofibrils
o I-bands (isotropic, do not alter polarized light) – light bands
o H zone – lighter zone in the A band that has only the rod-
like portions of the myosin molecule and no thin filaments
o M-line (Ger. Mitte = middle) – bisects the H zone that
contains myomesin and creatine kinase
*Containing a myosin-binding protein myomesin that holds the

thick filaments in place, and creatine kinase catalyzes transfer of
phosphate groups from phosphocreatine, a storage form of
high-energy phosphate groups, to ADP, helping to supply ATP
for muscle contraction Helical actin filaments - are 1.0-μm long and 8-nm wide and
*The banding pattern of A and I of sacromeres is due to the run between the thick filaments.
regular symmetric arrangement of myofilaments (myosin & F- G-actin monomer - contains a binding site for myosin
actin).
o Z-line or Z disc (Ger. Zwischen = between) - a dense dark *Thin filaments have two tightly associated regulatory proteins:
transverse line that bisects I bands. Tropomyosin - 40-nm-long coil of two polypeptide chains
located in the groove between the two twisted actin strands
Troponin - a complex of three subunits: TnT (attaches to
tropomyosin); TnC (binds Ca2+) and TnI (regulates the actin-
myosin interaction).
Sarcomere - smallest structural and functional contractile unit

of the muscle that can be found between two adjacent Z lines.
It is a repeating contractile units seen along the entire length of Organization of important myofibril components:
each myofibril and are highly characteristic features of the o α-actinin - binds thin actin filaments to dense Z disc and
sarcoplasm of skeletal and cardiac muscle fibers. They are about exhibit opposite polarity on each side of the disc
2.5-μm long in resting muscle. o titin (3700 kDa) - large accessory proteins in the I band that
Myosin - a large complex (~500 kDa) with two identical heavy anchors, positions, and centers myosin filaments and the Z
chains and two pairs of light chains. line. It also acts as a spring between the end of the myosin
Myosin filament - are 1.6-μm long and 15-nm wide; they occupy filament and the Z line.
the A band at the middle region of the sarcomere. o nebulin - extends the length of the thin filaments actin and
Myosin heavy chains - thin, rod-like motor proteins (150-nm anchors them to the Z disc laterally. It regulates the length
long and 2-3 nm thick) twisted together as myosin tails of the actin polymers during myogenisis.
Myosin light chains - can be found in globular projection. Four o desmin - acts as a support that extends from Z line of one
of these will form a head at one end of each heavy chain. myofibril to the adjacent myofibril, linking them together
and attaching them to the sarcolemma which stabilizes the
position of muscle myofibrils within the sarcoplasm.

histology
o myomesin - holds the thick filaments in place

o creatine kinase - catalyzes transfer of phosphate groups
from phosphocreatine (storage form of high-energy
phosphate groups) to ADP, helping to supply ATP for
muscle contraction.
o sarcoplasmic reticulum - membranous smooth ER that
contains pumps and other proteins for Ca2+ sequestration
and surrounds the myofibrils
Principle:
*Calcium release from cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum
through voltage-gated ca2+ channels is triggered by membrane
depolarization produced by a motor nerve
*To trigger ca2+ release from sarcoplasmic reticulum
throughout the muscle fiber simultaneously and produce
uniform contraction of all myofibrils
Transverse or T-tubules - tubular infoldings long fingerlike 1 - A nerve impulse triggers release of ACh from the synaptic
invaginations of the cell membrane penetrate deeply into the knob into the synaptic cleft. ACh binds to ACh receptors in the
sarcoplasm and encircle each myofibril near the aligned A- and motor end plate of the neuromuscular junction, initiating a
I-band boundaries of sarcomeres. muscle impulse in the sarcolemma of the muscle fiber.
Terminal cisternae (Triad in TEM) - Adjacent to each T-tubule 2 - As the muscle impulse spreads quickly from the sarcolemma
that allows depolarization of the sarcolemma in a T-tubule to along T tubules, calcium ions are released from terminal
affect the sarcoplasmic reticulum and trigger release of Ca2+ cisternae into the sarcoplasm.
ions into cytoplasm around the thick and thin filaments, which 3 - Calcium ions bind to troponin. Troponin changes shape,
initiates contraction of sarcomeres. moving tropomyosin on the actin to expose active sites on actin
Mechanism of contraction: molecules of thin filaments. Myosin heads of thick filaments
*Ca2+ binding to troponin causes tropomyosin to change shape attach to exposed active sites to form cross bridges.
and allow the myosin heads to bind the actin subunits, forming 4 - When the impulse stops, calcium ions are actively
crossbridges between thick and thin filaments. transported into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, tropomyosin re-
*The myosin heads then pivot with ATP hydrolysis, which pulls covers active sites, and filaments passively slide back to their
the thin filaments along the thick filaments. relaxed state.
*With Ca2+ and ATP present, a contraction cycle ensues in 5 - When the impulse stops, calcium ions are actively
which myosin heads repeatedly attach, pivot, detach, and return, transported into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, tropomyosin re-
causing the filaments to slide past one another, shortening the covers active sites, and filaments passively slide back to their
sarcomere relaxed state.
*When the membrane depolarization ends, Ca2+ is again
sequestered, ending contraction and allowing the sarcomeres to *Muscle spindles & tendons:
lengthen again as the muscle relaxes. Proprioceptors (L. proprius = one’s own + capio = to take)
*Synapses of motor axons with skeletal muscle are called motor - sensory receptors in Striated muscles and myotendinous
end plates (MEPs), neuromuscular junctions (NMJs), or junctions that provides central nervous system (CNS) with data
myoneural junctions; the neurotransmitter is acetylcholine. from the musculoskeletal system
*A motor axon may form many terminal branches, each ending Muscle spindles - stretch detectors in the muscle fascicles that
on an MEP of a muscle fiber; all fibers innervated by branches is approximately 2-mm long and 0.1-mm wide
of that axon comprise a motor unit. Intrafusal fibers - thin muscle fibers filled with nuclei found in
perimysium, with concentric layers of flattened cells, and
interstitial fluid
Golgi tendon organs - much smaller encapsulated structures
that enclose sensory axons penetrating among the collagen

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bundles at the myotendinous junction. It detects changes in Fast glycolytic fibers - specialized for rapid, shortterm
tension within tendons produced by muscle contraction and act contraction, having few mitochondria or capillaries and
to inhibit motor nerve activity if tension becomes excessive. depending largely on anaerobic metabolism of glucose derived
*Both help regulate the amount of effort required to perform from stored glycogen, features that make such fibers appear
movements that call for variable amounts of muscular force. white. Rapid contractions lead to rapid fatigue as lactic acid
produced by glycolysis accumulates
Fast oxidative-glycolytic fibers - have physiological and
histological features intermediate between those of the other
two types.
CARDIAC MUSCLE
*Form complex
junctions between
interdigitating
processes.
Mature cardiac
muscle cells - 15-
30 μm in diameter
and 85-120 μm
long, with a striated
banding pattern
comparable to that
of skeletal muscle
Cardiac muscle cell - usually has only one nucleus and is
centrally located.
Cardiac muscle fibers - are also striated, but they consist of
individual cylindrical cells, each containing one (or two) central
nuclei and linked by adherent and gap junctions at prominent
intercalated discs.
Intercalated discs - represent the interfaces between adjacent
cells and consist of many junctional complexes. Transverse
regions of these irregular, steplike discs are composed of many
desmosomes and fascia adherens junctions, which together
provide strong intercellular adhesion during the cells’ constant
contractile activity.
*Unique characteristic of cardiac muscle is the presence of
transverse lines that cross the fibers at irregular intervals where
the myocardial cells join
Secretory granules - 0.2-0.3 μm in diameter are found near
atrial muscle nuclei and are associated with small Golgi
complexes.
- these release the peptide hormone atrial natriuretic factor
(ANF) that acts on target cells in the kidney to affect Na+
*Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types: excretion and water balance.
Slow oxidative muscle fibers - adapted for slow contractions *The contractile cells of the heart’s atria thus also serve an
over long periods without fatigue, having many mitochondria, endocrine function
many surrounding capillaries, and much myoglobin, all features
that make fresh tissue rich in these fibers dark or red in color.

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*Fibers of smooth muscle (also called visceral muscle) are

elongated, tapering, and unstriated cells, each of which is
enclosed by an external lamina and a network of type I and type
III collagen fibers comprising the endomysium
Smooth muscle cells - 20 μm (small vessel) - 500 μm (pregnant
uterus)
Nucleus - single and elongated in the central broadest part. Its
diameter is 5-10 μm
Peristalsis - contract in a coordinated manner to produce a
wave that moves the tract’s contents.
SMOOTH MUSCLE
Smooth muscle - is a major
component of blood vessels
and of the digestive,
respiratory, urinary, and
reproductive tracts and their
associated organs.
*Specialized for slow, steady
contraction under the
influence of autonomic nerves
and various hormones.

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*Regeneration of muscle tissue: Adipose tissue

Skeletal muscle - although the multinucleated cells cannot
undergo mitosis, the tissue can still display limited regeneration.
*The source of regenerating cells is the sparse population of
mesenchymal satellite cells lying inside the external lamina of
each muscle fiber
Principle:
*After injury the normally quiescent satellite cells become
activated, proliferating and fusing to form new skeletal muscle
fibers.
*Similar activity of satellite cells has been implicated in muscle
growth after extensive exercise, a process in which they fuse
Anaphase
with existing fibers to increase muscle mass beyond that which
occurs by cell hypertrophy.
*Following major traumatic injuries, scarring and excessive
connective tissue growth interferes with skeletal muscle
regeneration.
Cardiac muscle - lacks satellite cells and shows very little
regenerative capacity beyond early childhood. Defects or Simple squamous epithelial cells
damage (infarcts) to heart muscle are generally replaced by
proliferating fibroblasts and growth of connective tissue,
forming only myocardial scars.
Smooth muscle - composed of simpler, smaller, mononucleated
cells, is capable of a more active regenerative response. After
injury, viable smooth muscle cells undergo mitosis and replace
the damaged tissue. As discussed in Chapter 11, contractile
Generate and conduct
pericytes from the walls of small blood vessels participate in the Axon
nerve impulses to
repair of vascular smooth muscle
other cells
REVIEW:
Simple cuboidal epithelium

Pseudostratified epithelium
found in Trachea
Cardiac muscle
Skeletal muscle

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Stratified squamous CHAPTER 11: THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

nonkeratinized The circulatory system pumps and directs blood cells and
epithelium substances carried in blood to all tissues of the body.
*Consists of:
-- Heart which propels blood through the system
-- Arteries - series of vessels efferent from the heart that
become smaller as they branch into the various organs, carry
blood to the tissues
-- Capillaries - the smallest vessels, are the sites of O2, CO2,
nutrient, and waste product exchange between blood and
tissues.
Simple columnar epithelium Microvasculature or microvascular bed - complex network of
thin, anastomosing tubules
-- Veins - the convergence of venules into a system of larger
channels that continue enlarging as they approach the heart,
toward which they carry the blood to be pumped again.
Pulmonary circulation - where blood is oxygenated in the lungs

Systemic circulation - where blood brings nutrients and
removes wastes in tissues throughout the body
Lymphatic capillaries - are thin-walled, closed-ended tubules
carrying lymph, that merge to form vessels of steadily
increasing size; returns fluid from tissue spaces all over the
body to the blood.
*The internal surface of all components of the blood and
lymphatic systems is lined by a simple squamous epithelium
called endothelium.
HEART
Loose areolar connective tissue Right and Left ventricles - propel blood to the pulmonary and
systemic circulation
Right and Left atria - receive blood from the body and the
pulmonary veins
Superficial layer of large, dome like
*Three major layers of the heart:
cells that protect underlying tissues
o Endocardium consists of a thin inner layer of endothelium
from the hypertonic effects of urine. and supporting connective tissue.
-- subendocardial layer - a middle myoelastic layer of
smooth muscle fibers and connective tissue, and a deep
layer of connective tissue.
o Myocardium – the thickest layer of the heart which consists
mainly of cardiac muscle with its fibers arranged spirally
around each heart chamber.
o Epicardium - a simple squamous mesothelium supported
by a layer of loose connective tissue containing blood
Little ground substance with few vessels and nerves.
-- The epicardium corresponds to the visceral layer of the
cells and collagen fibers are
pericardium, the membrane surrounding the heart.
random in arrangement.
*Dense fibrous connective tissue of the cardiac skeleton forms
part of the interventricular and interatrial septa, surrounds all
valves of the heart.

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such as heparin, tissue plasminogen activator, and von

Willebrand factor.
- cells regulate local vascular tone and blood flow by secreting
various factors that stimulate smooth muscle contraction or
relaxation.
- cells induce specific white blood cells to stop and undergo
transendothelial migration at sites of injury or infection. - cells
also secrete various factors called interleukins that affect the
activity of local white blood cells during inflammation.
- secrete various growth factors, including proteins promoting
proliferation of specific white blood cell lineages and cells that
make up the vascular wall.
Smooth muscle fibers - occur in the walls of all vessels larger
than capillaries and are arranged helically in layers. In arterioles
*Functions of dense irregular connective: and small arteries, the smooth muscle cells are connected by
-- Anchoring and supporting the heart valves. many more gap junctions and permit vasoconstriction and
-- Providing firm points of insertion for cardiac muscle. vasodilation which are of key importance in regulating the
--Helping coordinate the heartbeat by acting as electrical overall blood pressure.
insulation between atria and ventricles. Connective tissue components are present in vascular walls in
Conducting system of the heart - generates and propagates variable amounts and proportions based on local functional
waves of depolarization that spread through the myocardium to requirements:
stimulate rhythmic contractions. -- Elastic fibers provide the resiliency required for the vascular
*Consists of: wall to expand under pressure.
-- Sinoatrial (SA) node or pacemaker -- Elastin - major component in large arteries where it forms
-- Atrioventricular (AV) node with AV bundle (of His) and parallel lamellae, regularly distributed between the muscle
subendocardial conducting network. layers.
Purkinje fibers -- Collagen fibers are found in the subendothelial layer, between
- located just beneath the endocardium of both ventricles the smooth muscle layers, and in the outer covering
- are distinguished from contractile fibers by their greater *Variations in the amount and composition of ground substance
diameter, abundant glycogen, and more sparse bundles of components such as proteoglycans and hyaluronate also
myofibrils. contribute to the physical and metabolic properties of the wall
*Masses of dense irregular connective tissue make up the in different vessels, especially affecting their permeability
cardiac skeleton, which surrounds the bases of all heart valves, VASCULATURE
separates the atria from the ventricles, and provides insertions *Three major layers or tunics:
for cardiac muscle. (1) tunica intima includes the endothelium, connective tissue,
*Ganglionic nerve cells and nerve fibers are present in the and an internal elastic lamina in larger vessels;
regions close to the SA and AV nodes, where they affect heart (2) tunica media contains alternating layers of smooth muscle
rate and rhythm and collagen or elastic lamellae; and
*Stimulation of the parasympathetic division (vagus nerve) (3) tunica adventitia (or externa) contains connective tissue,
slows the heartbeat, whereas stimulation of the sympathetic small vessels (vasa vasorum), and nerves.
nerve accelerates activity of the pacemaker.
TISSUES OF THE VASCULAR WALL
Walls of all blood vessels except capillaries contain smooth
muscle and connective tissue in addition to the endothelial
lining.
Endothelium - a specialized epithelium that acts as a
semipermeable barrier between two major internal
compartments: the blood and the interstitial tissue fluid.
*Function:
- presents a nonthrombogenic surface on which blood will not
clot and actively secretes agents that control local clot formation

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*Through the vasculature, endothelial cells are not simply heart (1) continuous capillaries with
and vessel liners; they actively produce factors that prevent many tight junctions so that all
blood clotting, factors that cause adjacent smooth muscle cells exchange must occur through
to contract or relax, and factors that initiate inflammation at sites the cells;
of damage or infection.
*Arteries are grouped by size and wall composition:

o large elastic arteries, with fenestrated elastic laminae in the
thick tunica media;
o muscular, medium-sized arteries; and
o small arteries, with fewer than 10 layers of smooth muscle
in the media.
(2) fenestrated capillaries with
*A microvasculature too small for surgical manipulation small pores or fenestrations
permeates most organs and consists of: through the cells; and
o arterioles, with one to three
smooth muscle layers;
(3) discontinuous capillaries,

or sinusoids, with larger
o capillaries, consisting only lumens, large spaces between
of an intima endothelial layer; the endothelial cells, and a
discontinuous basal lamina.
*Capillary beds generally drain into venules, the last segment of

the microvasculature; postcapillary venules are the sites at
o venules, with large lumens which white blood cells enter damaged or infected tissues.
and thin walls, which drain *The endothelium of continuous capillaries and postcapillary
capillaries. venules is frequently surrounded by thin cells called pericytes,
whose contractions facilitate blood flow and which can give rise
to smooth muscle and connective tissue during microvascular
remodeling or repair.
*Two alternative microvascular pathways include:
(1) arteriovenous anastomoses, or AV shunts, in which
arterioles can bypass a capillary bed, and
*Terminal arterioles branch into metarterioles, in which smooth (2) venous portal systems, in which venules draining a capillary
muscle sphincters contract to resist blood flow and relax bed quickly branch again to form another capillary bed.
cyclically to allow pulsatile flow of blood into an anastomosing LYMPHATIC VASCULAR SYSTEM
capillary bed, where metabolic exchange with surrounding cells Lymphatic Vessels - with thin walls and increasing amounts of
occurs. connective tissue and smooth muscle which never form clearly
distinct outer tunics, and have valves comprised of complete
*Capillaries are classified as three structural and functional intimal folds
types, with features that allow different degrees of molecular or *Interstitial fluid that is not pulled into venules by colloidal
even cellular exchange: osmotic pressure drains as lymph into blind vessels called
lymphatics, or lymphatic capillaries, which have very thin
endothelial cell walls with spaces between the cells.

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CHAPTER 12: BLOOD

The liquid portion of circulating blood is plasma, while the cells
and platelets comprise the formed elements; upon clotting,
some proteins are removed from plasma and others are
released from platelets, forming a new liquid termed serum.
* Important protein components of plasma include:

-albumin,
-diverse α- and β-globulins,
-proteins of the complement system, and
-fibrinogen, all of which are secreted within the liver, as well as
*Lymphatics converge into larger, thin-walled lymphatic vessels
the immunoglobulins.
in which lymph is propelled by movements of surrounding
muscles and organs, with intimal valves keeping the flow
unidirectional. Red blood cells or erythrocytes
*The largest lymphatic vessels: - make up the hematocrit portion (~45%) of a blood sample
the thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct, both with walls - enucleated, biconcave discs 7.5 µm in diameter, filled with
having tunics like those of veins, return lymph to the circulatory hemoglobin for the uptake, transport, and release of O2, and
system by joining veins near the heart. with a normal life span of about 120 days.
White blood cells or leukocytes

- broadly grouped as granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils,
basophils) or agranulocytes (lymphocytes, monocytes).
*All leukocytes become active outside the circulation,
specifically leaving the microvasculature in a process involving
cytokines, selective adhesion, changes in the endothelium, and
transendothelial migration or diapedesis.
*All granulocytes have specialized lysosomes called azurophilic
granules and smaller specific granules with proteins for various
cell-specific functions.
o Neutrophils, the most abundant type of leukocyte, have
polymorphic, multilobed nuclei, and faint pink cytoplasmic
granules that contain many factors for highly efficient
phagolysosomal killing and removal of bacteria.

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o Eosinophils have bilobed nuclei and eosinophilic specific

granules containing factors for destruction of helminthic
parasites and for modulating inflammation.
o Monocytes are larger agranulocytes with distinctly indented

or C-shaped nuclei that circulate as precursors of
macrophages and other cells of the mononuclear
phagocyte system.
o Basophils, the rarest type of circulating leukocyte, have
irregular bilobed nuclei and resemble mast cells with
strongly basophilic specific granules containing factors
important in allergies and chronic inflammatory conditions,
including histamine, heparin, chemokines, and various
hydrolases.
o Platelets are small (2-4 µm) cell fragments derived from

megakaryocytes in bone marrow, with a marginal bundle
of actin filaments, alpha granules and delta granules, and
an open canalicular system of membranous vesicles; rapid
degranulation on contact with collagen triggers blood
clotting.
o Lymphocytes, agranulocytes with many functions as T- and
B-cell subtypes in the immune system, range widely in size,
depending on their activation state, and have roughly
spherical nuclei with little cytoplasm and few organelles.

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CHAPTER 13: HEMOPOIESIS *2 major lineages of progenitor cells:

Hemopoiesis AKA Hematopoiesis 1. Lymphoid cells - migrate from the bone marrow to the
- the formation of blood cells. thymus or the lymph nodes, spleen, and other lymphoid
- occurs in the bone marrow of adults and children structures, where they proliferate and differentiate.
STEM CELLS, GROWTH FACTORS, & DIFFERENTIATION 2. Myeloid cells - includes granulocytes, monocytes,
Hemopoiesis, Development, and Aging erythrocytes, and megakaryocytes.
Progenitor & Precursor Cells

Colony Forming Units (CFU) - is the progenitor cells for blood
cells because they give rise to colonies of only one cell type
when cultured in vitro or injected into a spleen.
*Four Major types of progenitor cells/CFUs:
1. Erythroid lineage of erythrocytes
2. Thrombocytic lineage of megakaryocytes for platelet
formation
3. Granulocyte-monocyte lineage of all three granulocytes and
monocytes
4. Lymphoid lineage of B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, and
natural killer cells
Progenitor cells - committed to forming each type of mature
blood cell, proliferate and differentiate within
microenvironmental niches of stromal cells, other cells, and
Origin and Maturation of Cells: ECM with specific growth factors.
Erythropoiesis = Erythrocytes Colony stimulating Factors (CSF)
Granulopoiesis = Granulocytes - hemopoietic growth factor
Monocytopoiesis = Monocytes - also known as cytokines that stimulate proliferation of
Thrombocytopoiesis = Platelets progenitor and precursor cells and promote cell differentiation
Lymphopoiesis = Lymphocytes and maturation within specific lineages.
BONE MARROW
Pluripotent cells -found in the medullary canals of long bones and in the small
- capable of asymmetric division and self- renewal. cavities of cancellous bones.
Hemopoietic stem cells - can be isolated by using fluorescence- Red bone marrow – an active hemopoiesis
labeled antibodies to mark specific cell surfaces antigens and
passing the cell population through a Fluorescence-activated
cell-sorting (FACS).
*Stem cells are studied using experimental techniques that
permit analysis of hemopoiesis in vivo and in vitro.
In vivo technique - injecting the bone marrow of normal donor
mice into irradiated mice whose hematopoietic cells have been
destroyed.
In vitro technique - uses semisolid tissue culture media
containing substances to identify and study cytokines promoting
hemopoietic cell growth and differentiation.
-contains a reticular connective tissue stroma (Gr. stroma, bed),
Hemopoeitic Stem cells - single type of pluripotent in the bone hemopoietic cords or islands of cells, and sinusoidal
marrow that can give rise to all the blood cell types. capillaries. The stroma is a meshwork of specialized fibroblastic
cells called stromal cells (also called reticular or adventitial
cells) and a delicate web of reticular fibers supporting the
hemopoietic cells and macrophages.

histology
Yellow bone marrow – consists mostly of adipocytes *Erythropoiesis requires approximately a week and involves
three to five cell division between the progenitor cell stage and
the release of functional cells into the circulation.
Erythropoietin
- a growth factor produced by cells in the kidneys, stimulates
production of mRNA for the protein components of hemoglobin
and is essential for the erythrocyte production.
Proerythroblasts
- first stage of erythrocyte maturation
- distinct erythroid progenitor cell
- a large cell with loose, lacy chromatin, nucleoli, and basophilic
cytoplasm.
Basophilic Erythroblasts - slightly smaller with cytoplasmic
basophilia and a more condensed nucleus.
Polychromatophilic erythroblast
*Newborn all bone marrow is red, but as child grows, most of - cell volume is reduced, polysomes decrease, and some
the marrow changes gradually to the yellow variety. Severe cytoplasmic areas begin to be filled with hemoglobin, producing
bleeding or hypoxia, yellow marrow reverts to red. regions of both basophilia and acidophilia in the cell
*The hematopoietic niche in marrow includes the stroma, Orthochromatophilic Erythroblasts
osteoblasts, and megakaryocytes. Between the hematopoietic - also called as normoblasts
cords run the sinusoids, which have discontinuous endothelium, - cell and nuclear volumes continue to condense and basophilia
through which newly differentiated blood cells and platelets is gradually lost, producing cells with uniformly acidophilic
enter the circulation. cytoplasm.
MATURATION OF ERYTHROCYTES Reticulocytes
-Erythrocyte maturation is an example of terminal cell - late in this stage the nucleus is ejected and then undergoes
differentiation involving hemoglobin synthesis and formation of phagocytosis by macrophages.
a small, enucleated, biconcave corpuscle. - cell still retains a few polyribosomes which, when treated with
-It takes 7-9 days for formation of mature RBC the dye brilliant cresyl blue, form a faintly stained network.
Changes during Erythropoiesis

1. Cell and nuclear volume decrease
2. Nucleoli diminish in size and disappear
3. Chromatin density increases until a nucleus presents a
pyknotic appearance and is finally extruded from the cell.
4. Gradual decrease of polyribosomes
5. Simultaneous increase of hemoglobin
6. Mitochondria and other organelles gradually disappear.

histology
*Erythropoietic islands or cords within marrow contain the red

blood cell lineage: proerythroblasts, erythroblasts with
succeeding developmental stages called basophilic,
polychromatophilic, and orthochromatophilic that reflect the
cytoplasmic transition from RNA-rich to hemoglobin-filled.
*At the last stage of erythropoiesis cell nuclei are extruded,
producing reticulocytes that still contain some polyribosomes
but are released into the circulation.
MATURATION OF GRANULOCYTES
Granulopoieisis - involves cytoplasmic changes dominated by
synthesis of proteins for the azurophilic granules and specific
granules. MATURATION OF AGRANULOCYTES
Monocyte
- progenitor cell is Monoblast, further differentiation of
monoblast leads to Promonocyte, they divide and
Monocyte develops. They enter tissues and mature as
macrophages. From round to kidney shaped to indented
nucleus.
Lymphocyte
- originate mainly from thymus, but progenitor cells
originate from in the bone marrow. Progenitor is
lymphoblast, capable of dividing 2-3 times to form
lymphocytes.
Prolymphocytes
- clumped chromatin and abundant cytoplasm.
Lymphocyte
Myeloblast - from bone marrow, some are from thymus where they
- most immature recognizable cell in the myeloid mature to T lymphocytes. Lymphocytes remained in the
series. bone marrow mature to B lymphocytes.
Promyelocyte
- basophilic cytoplasm, azurophilic granules and Platelets - originate by fragmentation from megakaryocytes,
myeloperoxidase; first to be distinguished differentiate from megakaryoblast.
Megakaryocytes - contains mitochondria, RER and golgi
Myelocyte
apparatus. Best seen in bone marrow, also occur in interstitial
- increase in specific granules. Last stage of cell division. tissue of spleen and lungs.
o Neutrophilic myelocyte
o Eosinophilic myelocyte Proplatelets
o Basophilic myelocyte - branching process that exposes megakaryocytes to
Metamyelocyte/juvenile blood circulation and pinches of to produce platelets.
- specific granules occupy most of the cytoplasm. Demarcation membranes - invagination of
Predominant WBC in adult bone marrow plasma membrane in a megakaryocyte.
o Neutrophilic metamyelocyte
o Eosinophilic metamyelocyte
o Basophilic metamyelocyte
Band cell/ stab cell
- intermediate stage where nucleus is elongated but not
yet polymorphic.

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CHAPTER 14: THE IMMUNE SYSTEM & LYMPHOID ORGANS

The immune system provides defense or immunity against
infectious agents.
Lymphocytes are formed initially in primary lymphoid organs

(the thymus and bone marrow).
Most lymphocyte activation and proliferation occur in

secondary lymphoid organs (the lymph nodes, the spleen,
tonsils, Peyer patches, and appendix)
The immune cells located diffusely in the digestive, respiratory,

or urogenital mucosae comprise what is collectively known as
mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT).
Lymph nodule, small, localized collection of lymphoid tissue,

usually located in the loose connective tissue beneath wet
epithelial (covering or lining) membranes.
INNATE IMMUNITY
The system of defenses termed innate immunity involves
immediate, nonspecific actions, including physical barriers
such as the skin and mucous membranes of the gastrointestinal,
respiratory, and urogenital tracts.
Cytokines coordinate cell activities in the innate and adaptive
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) on leukocytes allow the recognition
immune responses; diverse group of peptides and
and binding of surface components of such invaders.
glycoproteins, usually with low molecular masses (between 8
Natural killer (NK) cells destroy various unhealthy host cells. and 80 kDa) and a paracrine mode of action.
*Antimicrobial chemicals that form a major part of innate Chemotaxis is the directed migration of a cell in response to a
immunity: chemical stimulus, such as a growth factor.
o Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and organic acids in specific
Chemokines are signaling proteins secreted by cells of the
regions lower the pH locally to either kill entering
immune system that stimulate the movement of other cells.
microorganisms directly or inhibit their growth.
o Defensins, short cationic polypeptides produced by Interleukins are a group of cytokines that are able to modulate
neutrophils and various epithelial cells that kill bacteria by cellular behavior and play key roles in cell signaling.
disrupting the cell walls.
ANTIGENS AND ANTIBODIES
o Lysozyme, an enzyme made by neutrophils and cells of
A molecule that is recognized by cells of the adaptive immune
epithelial barriers, which hydrolyzes bacterial cell wall
system is called an antigen.
components, killing those cells.
o Complement, a system of proteins in blood plasma, Immune cells recognize and react to small molecular domains
mucus, and macrophages that react with bacterial surface of the antigen known as antigenic determinants or epitopes.
components to aid removal of bacteria.
o Interferons, paracrine factors from leukocytes and virus- The immune response to antigens may be cellular (in which
infected cells that signal NK cells to kill such cells and lymphocytes are primarily in charge of eliminating the antigen),
adjacent cells to resist viral infection. humoral (in which antibodies are primarily responsible for the
response), or both.
ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
Adaptive immunity, acquired gradually by exposure to An antibody is a glycoprotein of the immunoglobulin family that
microorganisms, is more specific, slower to respond and involve interacts specifically with an antigenic determinant.
production of memory lymphocytes. Antibodies are secreted by plasma cells that arise by terminal
The adaptive immune response involves B and T lymphocytes. differentiation of clonally proliferating B lymphocytes whose
receptors recognize and bind specific epitopes.

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Actions of Antibodies: *All T lymphocytes have cell surface protein receptors (TCRs)
o Complement activation promotes phagocytosis. with variable regions that recognize specific antigens. Cell
o Opsonization greatly increases the efficiency of activation requires costimulation by the TCR and either CD4 or
phagocytosis by these leukocytes at the sites of infection. CD8, which characterize helper and cytotoxic T cells,
o Primitive lymphocytes called NK cells, which are then respectively.
activated to kill the infected cell by releasing perforin and
various granzymes. B-cell receptors (BCRs) are immunoglobulin molecules
projecting from the plasmalemma
Antigen presentation is the expression of antigen molecules on
the surface of a macrophage or other antigen-presenting cell in T Lymphocytes:
association with MHC class II molecules when the antigen is o Helper T cells (CD4+) - part of the
being presented to a CD4 + helper T cell or in association with adaptive immune system, which has the ability to learn
MHC class I molecules when presentation is to CD8 + cytotoxic about, adjust against and remember different types of
T cells. infection.
o CTLs (CD8+) - are differentiated effector T lymphocytes that
Cells of Adaptive Immunity:
specifically kill target cells bearing an appropriate antigenic
o Antigen-Presenting Cells are an active endocytotic system
complex (peptide–MHC) recognized by their T cell receptor.
and expression of MHC class II molecules for presenting
o Regulatory T cells (CD4+CD25+) - T cells which have a role
peptides of exogenous antigens. Besides dendritic cells and
in regulating or suppressing other cells in the immune
all monocyte-derived cells, “professional” APCs also
system.
include thymic epithelial cells.
o Gamma delta T cells - have extraordinary properties
o Lymphocytes both regulate and carry out adaptive
including the capacity for tumor cell killing.
immunity.
B Lymphocytes:
* In classical secondary lymphoid organs (SLOs) such as lymph
o The B cell antigen receptors (BCRs) play an important role
nodes, tonsils, and Peyer’s patches, it is well established that
in the clonal selection of B cells and their differentiation into
fibroblastic reticular cells (FRCs) play an integral role in the
antibody-secreting plasma cells.
generation of immune responses.
o Follicular dendritic cells (FDCs) are found in the lymph
*CD Markers. CD is an abbreviation for “cluster of
node germinal follicles and have several different functions,
differentiation”. CD molecules are cell surface markers which
including activation of B cells and maintenance of
are very useful for the identification and characterization
immunologic memory.
of leukocytes and the different subpopulations of leukocytes.

histology
Primary lymphoid nodule Thymic Medulla

- are clusters of lymphoid -fewer lymphocytes than the cortex
cells located as solitary -lymphocytes are more mature and don’t stain as dark
nodules in the lamina -abundant in TEC’s that forms Hassal’s corpuscles
propria of tubular organs -dendritic cells are also present but not easily identified when
and also as aggregates in stained with H&E
tonsils and Peyer’s
patches.
Secondary lymphoid
nodules
- consist of germinal
centers surrounded by a
perimeter, or mantle, of
tightly packed B
lymphocytes. The
euchromatic nuclei and
abundant cytoplasm of
the large, immature lymphoblasts located in the germinal
center contribute to the pale appearance of this region. This
nodule is located in the lamina propria of the small intestine.
THYMUS
-a flat encapsulated lymphoid organ
-located in the anterior superior mediastinum
-originates from the embryos third pharyngeal pouches
-most active during childhood
-largest around puberty
-after puberty it will begin to decrease in size (less lymphatic
tissue, more adipocytes)
-important in the maturation of t cells (negative selection or
central tolerance; help prevent autoimmunity)
Thymic Cortex
-T lymphoblasts (Thymocytes)- basophilic and supported by
network of finely branched epithelial reticular cells called thymic
epithelial cells (TEC’s)
TEC’s - pale cytoplasm, large oval nuclei & cytoplasmic

processes. Involvement in the formation of the blood thymus Hassal’s corpuscles
barrier. -unique to the thymus
-increase in size and number as individual get older
Blood thymus barrier - consist of TEC’s, pericytes and
endothelial cells. Selective barrier that separate the cortex from
the blood. The TEC’s help form BTB by joining together and
surround microvasculature.

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LYMPH NODES SPLEEN

-small secondary lymphoid organ -Largest lymphoid organ
-found along lymphatic vessels throughout the body -Receives blood from the splenic artery
-encapsulated, bean-shaped structures -Only lymphoid organ that primarily filters blood
-filters the lymph in order to fight infections -Encapsulated organ
*Spleen’s functional
tissue (Parenchyma)
-red pulp, a combination
of pink and purple stain
using H&E
-white pulp, small
nodules of lymphatic
Germinal center is where B cells differentiate to plasma cells. tissue and stain dark
Medullary Sinuses drain into the efferent lymphatic vessels purple because of
basophilic nuclei
White pulp
- only 20% of the spleen
- is secondary lymphoid
tissue associated with
small central arterioles that
are also enclosed by PALS
of T cells.
Outer cortex of lymph Red pulp

node- follicle of B cells - which filters blood,
Inner Cortex of lymph removes defective
node- more erythrocytes, and recycles
hemoglobin iron, consists
eosinophilic(pink),
of splenic cords with
homogenous, consist
macrophages and blood
mostly of T cells and high cells of all kinds and
endothelial venules splenic sinusoid.
High endothelial venules - used to distinguish the region of The splenic sinusoids are lined by unusual endothelial cells
inner cortex from medulla. They are typically tall and high called stave cells, which are elongated and aligned parallel to
endothelial cells and allow lymphocytes in the venules to move the blood flow, with open slits between the cells.
out of the blood & into the surrounding lymphoid tissue.
Blood flow in red pulp is either a closed circulation, moving
MEDULLA - lighter compare to the inner cortex because it is not from capillaries into the venous sinusoids, or an open
densely packed with cells. This is because of the medullary circulation, with capillaries opening directly into the splenic
sinuses which form spaces where lymph collects before exiting cords.
the lymph node.
Medullary cords forms the shape of the medullary sinuses and Blood filtration in the open circulation involves interaction with
contain macrophages, b cells and plasma cells. splenic cord macrophages, which remove old, swollen RBCs
unable to slip between stave cells to reenter the venous blood
flow.

histology
CHAPTER 15: DIGESTIVE TRACT - muscularis mucosae (thin layer of smooth muscle) –
which separates mucosa from submucosa and
allowing local movements of the mucosa.
2. submucosa
- denser connective tissue with larger blood and lymph
vessels
- submucosal (Meissner) plexus of autonomic nerves.
- It may also contain glands and significant lymphoid
tissue.
3. thick muscularis (muscularis externa) - composed of
smooth muscle cells organized as two or more sublayers
that has a connective tissue in between that contains blood
vessels, lymph vessels, and myenteric (Auerbach) nerve
plexus:
- internal sublayer (closer to the lumen) – circular fiber
orientation
- external sublayer – longitudinal fiber orientation
*Submucosal (Meissner) plexus and myenteric (Auerbach)
nerve plexus comprises the enteric nervous system of the
GI tract
*Contractions of the muscularis, which mix and propel the
luminal contents forward, are generated and coordinated by
Function: the myenteric plexus.
-to obtain molecules necessary for the maintenance, growth, 4. Serosa – a thin layer of loose connective tissue, rich in blood
and energy needs of the body from ingested food. vessels, lymphatics, and adipose tissue, with a simple
-protects the internal milieu of the body’s connective tissue and squamous covering epithelium or mesothelium.
vasculature from the contents that passed through the tract. *In the abdominal cavity, the serosa is continuous with
*Structures within the tract allows the following: mesenteries, thin membranes covered by mesothelium on
o Ingestion, or introduction of food and liquid into the oral both sides that support the intestines.
cavity Adventitia - a connective tissue layer that merges with the
o Mastication, or chewing, which divides solid food into surrounding tissues and lacks mesothelium.
digestible pieces IgA – produced by the macrophages and lymphocytes in the
o Motility, muscular movements of materials through the lamina propria located below of the epithelium lining. This IgA
tract complex resists proteolysis by digestive enzymes and provides
o Secretion of lubricating and protective mucus, digestive important protection against specific viral and bacteria
enzymes, acidic and alkaline fluids, and bile
o Hormone release for local control of motility and secretion
o Chemical digestion or enzymatic degradation of large
macromolecules in food to smaller molecules and their
subunits
o Absorption of the small molecules and water into the blood
and lymph
o Elimination of indigestible, unabsorbed components of
food
GENERAL STRUCTURES
The GI tract is a hollow tube with a lumen of variable diameter
and a wall made up of four main layers:
1. mucosa (mucous membrane)
- epithelial lining
- lamina propria of loose connective tissue (rich in blood
vessels, lymphatics, lymphocytes, smooth muscle
cells, and often containing small glands);

histology
Oral cavity - lined with stratified squamous epithelium, which

may be keratinized, partially keratinized, or nonkeratinized
depending on the location.
*Layers:
1. Masticory mucosa – develops keratinized cell layers that
resists damage from the abrasion. The lamina propria in
these regions rests directly on the periosteum of underlying
bone.
2. Lining mucosa – where nonkeratinized squamous
epithelium can be found over the soft palate, cheeks, floor
of the mouth, and pharynx (throat), and the posterior region
of the oral cavity leading to the esophagus. It overlies a thick
submucosa containing many minor salivary glands, which
secrete continuously to keep the mucosal surface wet, and
diffuse lymphoid tissue.
3. Lips (labia) – its well-developed core of striated muscle
makes it highly mobile for ingestion, speech, and other
forms of communication.
*3 differently covered surfaces:
- internal mucous surface - has lining mucosa with a thick,
nonkeratinized epithelium and many minor labial salivary
glands. Lingual papillae - elevations of the mucous membrane that
- vermilion zone of each lip (red) - is covered by very thin assume various forms and functions.
keratinized stratified squamous epithelium and is *4 types:
transitional between the oral mucosa and skin. This region 1. Filiform papillae - are very
lacks salivary or sweat glands and is kept moist with saliva numerous, have an elongated
from the tongue. The underlying connective tissue is very conical shape, and are heavily
rich in both sensory innervation and capillaries, which keratinized, which gives their
impart the pink color to this region surface a gray or whitish
- outer surface - has thin skin, consisting of epidermal and appearance. They provide a
dermal layers, sweat glands, and many hair follicles with rough surface that facilitates
sebaceous glands. movement of food during
chewing.
Tongue
- mass of striated muscle covered by mucosa, which 2. Fungiform papillae - are much
manipulates ingested material during mastication and less numerous, lightly
swallowing keratinized, and interspersed
- the muscle fibers are oriented in all directions, allowing a high among the filiform papillae.
level of mobility. They are mushroom-shaped
- connective tissue between the small fascicles of muscle is with well-vascularized and
penetrated by the lamina propria, which makes the mucous innervated cores of lamina
membrane strongly adherent to the muscular core. propria
Sulcus terminalis - v-shaped groove that separates the papillary

layer (on the anterior two-thirds) and massed lingual tonsils (on
3. Foliate papillae - consist of
the posterior third)
several parallel ridges on each
side of the tongue, anterior to
the sulcus terminalis, but are
rudimentary in humans,
especially older individuals.

histology
4. Vallate papillae (circumvallate)

- the largest papillae, with
diameters of 1-3 mm. Eight to
twelve vallate papillae are
normally aligned just in front of
the terminal sulcus
Taste buds - ovoid structures within

the stratified epithelium on the
tongue’s surface, which sample the general chemical
composition of ingested material
*Approximately 250 taste buds are present on the lateral surface
of each vallate papilla, with many others present on fungiform
and foliate papillae.
Cells in the tingue:
- Gustatory (taste) cells - turn over with a 7- to 10-day life
span. They make up about the 50% of the 50-100 cells
located in the tongue Primary teeth (deciduous or milk teeth) – there are 20 which
- Supportive cells can be shed and replaced by permanent teeth
- Immature cells Crown – part of the tooth that is exposed located abve the
- Stems cells – they are slowly dividing that give rise to other gingiva
cell types Neck – connects to the gum
Roots – one or more that fit firmly into the bony sockets of the
Taste pore – found at the apical ends of the gustatory cells, jaw
microvilli project toward a 2-μm-wide opening in the structure. Dental alveoli - bony sockets in the jaws
*Molecules (tastants) dissolved in saliva contact the microvilli Enamel - hardest component of the human body, consisting of
through the pore and interact with cell surface taste receptors. 96% calcium hydroxyapatite and only 2%-3% organic material
Taste buds detect atleast 5 broad categories: including very few proteins and no collagen.
- sodium ions (salty) Cementum – bone-like tissue that can be found in the roots that
- hydrogen ions from acids (sour)s meets enamel halfway in the neck to cover a tooth.
- sugars and related compounds (sweet) Dentin - calcified tissue harder than bone, consisting of 70%
- alkaloids and certain toxins (bitter) hydroxyapatite. The organic matrix contains type I collagen and
- amino acids such as glutamate and aspartate (umami; Jap. proteoglycans secreted from the apical ends of odontoblasts
Umami = savory) Dental pulp - highly vascular and well-innervated and consists
largely of loose, mesenchymal connective tissue with much
Teeth ground substance, thin collagen fibers, fibroblasts, and
*Adult human there are normally 32 permanent teeth, arranged mesenchymal stem cells
in two bilaterally symmetric arches in the maxillary and Root canal – pulp cavities
mandibular bones that narrow in each root
*Each quadrant consists of: that extends to the apical
- eight teeth foramen at the tip of each
- two incisors root for blood vessels,
- one canine lymphatics, and nerves of
- two premolars the pulp cavity.
- three permanent molars Periodontal ligaments -
fibrous connective tissue
bundles of collagen fibers
inserted into both the
cementum and the
alveolar bone.

histology
Esophagus - muscular tube, about 25-cm long in adults, which *Major regions:
transports swallowed material from the pharynx to the stomach o cardia - is a narrow transitional zone, 1.5-3 cm wide,
*Layers: between the esophagus and the stomach
- esophageal mucosa has nonkeratinized stratified o pylorus - is the funnel-shaped region that opens into the
squamous epithelium small intestine. Both these regions are primarily involved
- submucosa contains small mucus-secreting glands, the with mucus production and are similar histogically
esophageal glands, which lubricate o The much larger fundus and body regions are identical in
- Near the stomach the mucosa also contains groups of microscopic structure and are the sites of gastric glands
glands, the esophageal cardiac glands, which secrete releasing acidic gastric juice.
additional mucus.
Rugae - large, longitudinally directed folds in the mucosa and
submucosa of the empty stomach which flatten when the
stomach fills with food. The wall in all regions of the stomach is
made up of all four major layers
*Four major layers:
1. Mucosa - Changing abruptly at the esophagogastric
junction, the mucosal surface of the stomach is a simple
columnar epithelium that invaginates deeply into the lamina
propria. The invaginations form millions of gastric pits, each
with an opening to the stomach lumen
2. Submucosa - is composed of connective tissue with large
blood and lymph vessels and many lymphoid cells,
macrophages, and mast cells.
3. Muscularis has three poorly defined layers of smooth
muscle: an outer longitudinal layer, a middle circular layer,
and an innermost oblique layer. Rhythmic contractions of
the muscularis thoroughly mix ingested food and chyme
with mucus, HCl, and digestive enzymes from the gastric
Swallowing - begins with mucosa.
voluntary muscle action 4. Serosa – covers the stomach
but finishes with
involuntary peristalsis Small intestine - site where the digestive processes are
completed and where the nutrients (products of digestion) are
Stomach - a greatly absorbed by cells of the epithelial lining. The small intestine is
dilated segment of the relatively long (5 m)
digestive tract *3 segments which have same characteristics and layers:
*Functions: - Duodenum
- To continue the - Jejunum
digestion of - Ileum
carbohydrates 1. Mucosa:
initiated by the Plicae circulares - a series of permanent circular or semilunar
amylase of saliva, folds that makes up mucosa and submucosa; best developed at
- To add an acidic fluid to the ingested food and mixing its the jejunum.
contents into a viscous mass called chyme by the churning Villi - densely covering the entire mucosa of the small intestine
activity of the muscularis are short (0.5-1.5 mm) mucosal outgrowths that are projected
- To begin digestion of triglycerides by a secreted lipase to the lumen.
- To promote the initial digestion of proteins with the enzyme - are covered by a simple columnar epithelium of absorptive
pepsin cells called enterocytes, with many interspersed goblet cells.
Intestinal glands or crypts (or crypts of Lieberkühn) – are the
openings of short tubular glands located between the villi.

histology
2. Submucosa: *Function:
- has larger blood and lymph vessels and the diffuse, - converting food into feces Bacterial fermentation converts
interconnected neurons of the submucosal (Meissner) nerve the chyme into feces and releases vitamins including
plexus vitamins K, B1, B2, B6, B12, and biotin.
Duodenal (or Brunner) glands – located at The proximal part of - absorbing essential vitamins produced by gut bacteria
the duodenum has in the submucosa and mucosa large clusters - reclaiming water from feces. The absorption of water by
of branched tubular mucous glands the large intestine not only helps to condense and solidify
*Mucus from these glands is distinctly alkaline (pH 8.1-9.3), feces, but also allows the body to retain water to be used
which neutralizes chyme entering the duodenum from the in other metabolic processes.
pylorus, protecting the mucous membrane, and bringing the *Layers:
intestinal contents to the optimum pH for pancreatic enzyme Mucosa - innermost layer that lacks villi found in the small
action intestine. Many mucous glands secrete mucus into the hollow
3. Muscularis: lumen of the large intestine to lubricate its surface and protect
- well developed in the small intestine, composed of an internal it from rough food particles.
circular layer, an external longitudinal layer, and between them Submucosa – surrounds the mucosa is a layer of blood vessels,
the neurons of the myenteric (Auerbach) nerve plexus which nerves and connective tissue which supports the other layers of
produce peristalsis the large intestine.
Muscularis layer - surrounds the submucosa and contains
Large intestine - can be found in the abdominal cavity. About many layers of visceral muscle cells that contract and move the
4.9 feet (1.5 m) long. large intestine. Continuous contraction of smooth muscle bands
*Parts: in the muscularis produces lumpy, pouch-like structures known
1. Cecum - inferior region of the large intestine forms a short as haustra in the large intestine
dead-end segment Serosa - forms the outermost layer. It is a thin layer of simple
2. Vermiform appendix – end part of the cecum squamous epithelial tissue that secretes watery serous fluid to
3. ascending colon - a hollow tube that climbs along the right lubricate the surface of the large intestine, protecting it from
side of the abdomen friction between abdominal organs and the surrounding muscles
4. Hepatic flexure - inferior to the diaphragm, the ascending and bones of the lower torso.
colon turns about 90 degrees toward the middle
5. Transverse colon – located at the superior medial part of Anal canal
the large intestine *Layers:
6. Splenic flexure - 90 degrees angle where the transverse Internal anal sphincter - is a thin, white muscle wrapped around
colon turns at the left side of the abdomen the anal canal. The internal anal sphincter is an involuntary
7. descending colon – runs down from splenic flexure at the smooth muscle, like the muscles of your intestines. You cannot
left side of the abdomen mentally control it
8. Sigmoid flexure – a bend slightly medially to connect
External anal sphincter - is a thick, red voluntary muscle. It is
descending colon to the sigmoid colon
the one you squeeze when you feel the urge to go to the
9. Sigmoid colon – s-shaped in the large intestine
10. Rectum - final segment of the large intestine bathroom but are not near one. Since it is voluntary muscle, like
11. Anus - where the large intestine ends the muscles in your arms and legs, you can control it
Levator ani muscle - supporting and raising the pelvic visceral
----Lopez & Lauresta---- structures. It also helps in proper sexual functioning, defecation,
Other components: urination, and allowing various structures to pass through it
• Teniae coli - represent three narrowed, thickened, equally Anal columns of Morgagni -longitudinal folds just distal to
spaced bands of the outer longitudinal layer of the dentate line, analogous to lower rectums rectal columns of
muscularis externa. They are primarily visible in the cecum Morgagni. 6-10 longitudinal or vertical mucosal folds in the
and colon and they are absent in the rectum, anal canal, and upper part of the anal canal
vermiform appendix. Dentate (pectinate) line - separates the anal canal into an upper
• Haustra coli that are visible sacculations between the teniae and lower parts. The dentate line is formed by the anal columns,
coli on the external surface of the cecum and colon. which consists of a series of anal sinuses (which drain anal
• Omental appendices that are small fatty projections of the glands at approximately the midpoint of the anal canal. It is a
serosa, observed on the outer surface of the colon. "watershed area" and that the exact transition of epithelium and
neurovascular supply is varied.

histology
CHAPTER 16: ORGANS ASSOCIATED WITH THE DIGESTIVE TRACT *Salivary secretory units are drained by simple cuboidal
intercalated ducts that merge as simple columnar striated ducts,
SALIVARY GLANDS which merge as larger interlobular or excretory ducts.
Salivary glands have secretory units of either protein-secreting *Three epithelial cell types comprise the salivary secretory units:
serous cells, usually organized in round or oval acini, or of Serous cells are polarized protein-secreting cells, usually
mucin-secreting mucous cells in elongated tubules. pyramidal in shape, with round nuclei, well-stained RER, and
*Three of large salivary glands: apical secretory granules; serous cells form a somewhat
Parotid glands have only spherical unit called an acinus, which secrete enzymes and
serous and watery acini proteins
Mucous cells contain apical granules with hydrophilic mucins
that provide lubricating properties in saliva but cause poor cell
staining in routine preparations
Myoepithelial cells move secretory products into and through
the ducts.
*Cells of striated ducts have mitochondria-lined, basolateral
membrane folds specialized for electrolyte reabsorption from
the secretion; excretory ducts are unusual in having stratified
cuboidal or columnar cells.
PANCREAS
-a mixed exocrine-endocrine gland that produces both digestive
Sublingual glands are enzymes and hormones.
mixed but have primarily
mucous tubules, some with
serous demilunes;
Pancreatic islets of endocrine cells are embedded in exocrine

Submandibular glands are serous acinar tissue, which comprises most of the pancreas and
also mixed but have mainly in which the cells secrete hydrolytic digestive enzymes for
serous acini. delivery to the duodenum.
*Each pancreatic acinar cell is pyramidal, with secretory
(zymogen) granules in the narrow apical end and Golgi
complexes, much rough ER, and a large nucleus at the basal
end.
*Intercalated ducts draining pancreatic acini, including their
initial centroacinar cells that insert into the acinar lumen, secrete
bicarbonate ions (HCO3−) to neutralize chyme entering the
duodenum from the stomach.
*Two-polypeptide hormones produced by enteroendorine cells
of small intestine:
--cholesystokinin (CCK) – stimulates enzyme secretion by the
*The secretion of each gland is either serous, seromucous, or acinar cells
mucous depending on its content of the glycoprotein mucin. --secretin – promotes water and HCO3− secretion by the duct
cells

histology
LIVER *Two important cells found with the sinusoids of hepatic loblues:
Liver hepatocytes are large epithelial cells with large central - The sinusoidal endothelium includes many specialized stellate
nuclei (polyploid and often binucleated), much smooth and macrophages or Kupffer cells, which recognize and remove
rough ER, and many small Golgi complexes. effete erythrocytes, releasing iron and bilirubin for uptake by
*Main digestive function of the liver is the production of bile, a hepatocytes.
complex substance required for emulsification, hydrolysis, and - Also present in the perisinusoidal spaces are hepatic stellate
uptake of fats in the duodenum. cells (or Ito cells) containing many small lipid droplets for
*Hepatocytes have many functions: storage of vitamin A and other fat-soluble vitamins.
- endocrine (plasma protein synthesis and secretion),
- exocrine (bile secretion), *Between adherent hepatocytes in the hepatic plates are
- gluconeogenesis (conversion of amino acids into glucose) grooves called bile canaliculi, sealed by tight junctions, into
- glucose storage (glycogen granules), which hepatocytes secrete water and bile components,
- storage of vitamin A and iron, including bilirubin and bile acids
- detoxification (using SER and peroxisomes).
*In each hepatic lobule, all bile canaliculi converge on the bile
*In the liver, hepatocytes are organized into irregular plates to canals (canal of Hering), which join the bile ductules in the
form polygonal hepatic lobules in which the hepatocyte plates portal areas and eventually all merge to form the left and right
radiate toward a small central vein. hepatic ducts.
*Each hepatic lobule BILE TRACT AND GALLBLADDER

is surrounded by -a hollow, pear-shaped organ attached to the lower surface of
sparse connective the liver, capable of storing 30-50 mL of bile that is concentrated
tissue that is more during storage.
abundant in the portal -consists of a mucosa composed of simple columnar epithelium
areas at the corners. and lamina propria, a thin muscularis with bundles of muscle
fibers oriented in several directions, and an external adventitia
or serosa
Cholangiocytes are simple
cuboidal or columnar cells
where all bile-conducting
ducts line after the bile
canaliculi.
*Portal triad: *The common hepatic duct
--a portal venule leads to the cystic duct that
branch from the carries bile to the
portal vein, gallbladder for temporary
--a hepatic arteriole bile storage and
branch of the hepatic concentration.
artery, and *The mucosa of the
--a bile ductule gallbladder has many folds
branch of the biliary with a large surface area, a
tree. well-vascularized lamina
propria, and a lining of columnar cholangiocytes specialized for
*In the lobules the portal venule and hepatic arteriole both water uptake from bile.
branch into irregular sinusoids between the hepatic plates where *Contraction of the gallbladder muscularis sends bile to the
the nutrient-rich and O2-rich blood mixes, flows past duodenum via the common bile duct and is induced by
hepatocytes, and drains to the central vein. cholecystokinin (CCK) from enteroendocrine cells in the
*The endothelium of the hepatic sinusoids is discontinuous and duodenum when food is present.
fenestrated; between it and the hepatocytes is the
perisinusoidal space (space of Disse), where exchange occurs
between the hepatocytes and blood plasma.

histology
CHAPTER 17: THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM *The mucosa of the nasal cavities and nasopharynx also
The function of the respiratory system is to provide oxygen to contains a rich vasculature and many seromucous glands, which
the blood, with a secondary function of sound production in the help warm, humidify, and clean inspired air.
larynx. LARYNX, TRACHEA, AND BRIONCHIAL TREE
*The respiratory system consists of: Larynx – passage of air
air conducting region (the upper respiratory tract in the head, between pharynx and
as well as the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and most bronchioles); trachea, and protects
a respiratory region with alveoli, bronchioles, and alveolar ducts lower airways, facilitates
where the gas exchange occurs. respiration, and
NASAL CAVITY manipulates pith and
*The left and right nasal cavities have two components: volume.
--vestibule *Within the lumen of the
--nasal cavity larynx, bilateral
*The left and right nasal cavities of the upper respiratory tract projecting vocal folds
have vestibules where air enters and three projections called (or vocal cords) can be placed under variable tension by the
conchae from their medial walls, which create turbulence in underlying vocalis muscles and caused to vibrate by expelled
inspired air. air, producing sounds.
*Moist vibrissae in the vestibular openings, the nares or
nostrils, filter some material from inspired air. The trachea is completely lined
*Deeper areas of the vestibules and the floor, lateral walls, and by respiratory epithelium and is
most of the conchae of the nasal cavities themselves are lined supported by C-shaped rings of
by respiratory epithelium: pseudostratified ciliated columnar hyaline cartilage, with smooth
epithelium. trachealis muscles in the
posterior opening of the rings.
Respiratory epithelium includes:
-goblet cells secreting mucus,
-ciliated columnar cells sweeping
the mucus along the surface, -
chemosensory brush cells,
-scattered endocrine cells, and
-basal stem cells.
Left and right primary bronchi

enter the two lungs and
bifurcate repeatedly as
secondary, tertiary, and
The roof and part of the superior smaller segmental bronchi
concha in each nasal cavity are with the lung tissue as the
covered by olfactory epithelium, bronchial tree.
which is pseudostratified epithelium *Bronchi and their branches are lined by respiratory mucosa,
containing: with prominent spiraling bands of smooth muscle and
-bipolar olfactory neurons, increasingly smaller pieces of hyaline cartilage.
-support cells, and *Branches of the bronchial tree with diameters of 1 mm or less
-stem cells. are generally called bronchioles, which are lined by simple
columnar or cuboidal ciliated cells, with circular smooth muscle
but no cartilage.
*Terminal bronchioles are the last branches to lack alveoli and
are lined by simple cuboidal epithelium consisting mainly of club
cells, which have innate immune and surfactant secretory
functions.

histology
LUNG VASCULATURE REVIEW:

 enterocytes – cells of simple columnar epithelium of absorptive cells that
Terminal bronchioles subdivide into two or three respiratory
line the villi of small intestine
bronchioles, lined by simple cuboidal epithelium and  mucosa-submucosa-muscularis-adventitia – layers of the esophagus
interrupted by scattered squamous evaginations called alveoli,  simple columnar epithelium with goblet cells – mucosa lining of the
the sites of gas exchange. stomach
 filiform papillae – lined with keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
 the muscularis of the stomach has inner oblique, middle circular, and
outer longitudinal layer
 myoepithelial cells – small flattened cells in the salivary gland that contract
to help move secretory products into the ducts
 the precursor enzyme pepsinogen to form pepsin is activated by the acid
environment of the stomach
 presence of Peyer’s patches distinguishes the ileum from the other
portions of the small intestine
 muscularis mucosae – are smooth muscle fibers found in the mucosal
layers of the digestive organs
 Paneth cells – cells of the stomach mucosae that produces hypochloric
acid and intrinsic factor
 Subligual gland – the smallest of the salivary glands comprising mostly of
tubuloacinar glands and few serous cells
 nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium – lining og the hard palate
and gingiva of the oral cavity
 cholecystokinin & secretin – hormones produced by the enteroendocrine
cells of the small intestine and which regulates the exocrine pancreas
 serosa is a unique from adventitia because it has a single outer covering
called mesothelium
A respiratory bronchiole leads to an alveolar duct, which is lined  cecum, appendix, colon, rectum – parts of the large intestine
by a continuous series of alveoli and which ends in a cluster of  vocalis muscle – allows the vocal fold to be moved for phonation
alveoli called the alveolar sac.  alveoli – site of gas exchange; distinguishes between terminal and
respiratory bronchioles
 nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium – vocal folds covering
All alveoli are surrounded by sparse connective tissue in  cilia – protects the respiratory tract and is absent in the digestive tract
interalveolar septa that consist primarily of elastic and reticular  club cells – cuboidal cells in the terminal bronchioles that has an exocrine
fibers and a dense capillary network. function producing substances such as surfactant
 terminal bronchioles have no hyaline cartilage
 ciliated columnar cells, goblet cells, brush cells, basal cells – cell of the
*The wall of each alveolus consists of alveolar cells, or respiratory epithelium
pneumocytes, of two types:  type I pneumocyte – cells of the alveoli that makes up 95% of the alveolar
extremely thin type I alveolar cells and lining and constitutes the blood-air barrier
 pulmonary surfactant – complex film of phospholipids that lowers surface
cuboidal type II alveolar cells with surfactant secreting and tension in the alveoli
innate immune properties.  alveolar ducts – organ of the respiratory portion of the respiratory system
 respiratory bronchioles – non part of the conducting portion of the
--Type II alveolar cells are characterized ultrastructurally by respiratory system
 dust cells – cells that phagocytose erythrocytes lost from damaged
unique cytoplasmic lamellar bodies, large granules with closely capillaries and debris in the alveoli
stacked layers of membrane involved in surfactant synthesis.  superior areas of the nasal cavities do not have the respiratory
--The blood-air barrier allowing gas exchange at each alveolus epithelium lining
consists of the thin type I alveolar cell, the thin capillary  pleural cavity – a narrow cavity between the parietal and visceral layers
endothelial cells, and the fused basal laminae of these two cells.
*The surfactant material secreted by exocrine club cells and type

II alveolar cells is an oily mixture of cholesterol, phospholipids
and surfactant proteins, which forms a film and lowers surface
tension in alveoli.
Each lung is covered by visceral pleura, a layer of thin

connective tissue and mesothelium, and is continuous with
parietal pleura, a similar tissue layer that lines the pleural cavity

Histology Notes

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histology

LIGHT MICROSCOPY *Fluorescent compounds with affinity for specific cell

Optical components: DAPI and Hoechst stain - specifically bind

AMUAN, BERJAMIN, ERMITANIO, LARIOSA, RESURRECCION – BSMLS2B 2

Transmission Electron Microscope AUTORADIOGRAPHY

AMUAN, BERJAMIN, ERMITANIO, LARIOSA, RESURRECCION – BSMLS2B 3

Hybridoma cells – isolated and activated lymphocytes which is

AMUAN, BERJAMIN, ERMITANIO, LARIOSA, RESURRECCION – BSMLS2B 4

Monoclonal antibody - each In situ hybridization (ISH) -

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CHAPTER 2: THE CYTOPLASM

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o In endocrine signaling, the signal molecules (here called Endoplasmic Reticulum

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CHAPTER 3: THE NUCLEUS Nucleolus - very basophilic or electron-dense area of chromatin

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*Functions of Basal Membrane: Hemidesmosomes - anchoring junctions composed of

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*Ciliary motion occurs through successive changes in the -- Pseudostratified epithelia

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Mucous Glands - exocrine glands producing mucus CHAPTER 5: CONNECTIVE TISSUE

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-- metachromasia, which means that they can change the color

Elastic fibers, or sheets called TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

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CHAPTER 6: ADIPOSE TISSUE Storage and Mobilization of Lipids:

Also called as “unilocular” becausethese are often empty in

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BROWN ADIPOSE TISSUE CHAPTER 7: CARTILAGE

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CARTILAGE FORMATION, GROWTH, AND REPAIR CHAPTER 8: BONE

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o Osteoclasts - giant PERIOSTEUM AND ENDOSTEUM

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*An osteon (or Haversian system) refers to the complex of STEPS:

METABOLIC ROLE OF BONE CHAPTER 9: NERVOUS TISSUE AND NERVOUS SYSTEM

DEVELOPMENT OF NERVE TISSUE

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Ependymal cells are

Satellite cells are located

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Anterior horns - contain cell bodies of very large motor neurons

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*The innermost pia mater Blood vessels penetrate CNS tissue

Between adjacent Schwann cells on an axon the myelin sheath

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*Containing a myosin-binding protein myomesin that holds the

Sarcomere - smallest structural and functional contractile unit

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o myomesin - holds the thick filaments in place

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*Fibers of smooth muscle (also called visceral muscle) are

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*Regeneration of muscle tissue: Adipose tissue

Simple cuboidal epithelium

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