2.

3 Carbohydrates and Lipids

Topic 2: Molecular Biology


2.3 Essential Idea:
Compounds of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen are used to supply
and store energy.
Understandings:
● Explain the structure and function of cellulose
and starch in plants, and glycogen in humans.
● Explain how monosaccharide monomers are
linked together by condensation reactions to
form disaccharides and polysaccharide
polymers.
● Outline that fatty acids can be saturated,
monounsaturated or polyunsaturated.
● Outline that unsaturated fatty acids can be cis
or trans isomers.
● Explain how triglycerides are formed by
condensation from three fatty acids and one
glycerol molecule.
Discuss the scientific evidence for health risks
●
of trans fats and saturated fatty acids.
● Explain why lipids are more suitable for
long-term energy storage in humans than
carbohydrates.
● Evaluate the evidence and methods used to
obtain the evidence for health claims made
about lipids.
● Determine the body mass index by calculation
or use of a nomogram.
 ● Explain the structure and
function of cellulose and
starch in plants, and

Lesson 1 ●
glycogen in humans.
Explain how
Monosaccharides and monosaccharide monomers
Carbohydrates are linked together by
Kognity 2.3.0, 2.3.1, 2.3.2 condensation reactions to
Cambridge Pg. xx-xx form disaccharides and
polysaccharide polymers.
Organic Compounds

● Compounds made of carbon and

other elements (oxygen,
hydrogen)
● Must contain bonds between
carbon and hydrogen (therefore
carbon dioxide is NOT organic)
● Carbohydrates and lipids are
both organic compounds
What are Carbohydrates?

● Organic molecules composed of carbon,

hydrogen, and oxygen
● Carbon + Hydrates
● General formula: Cx(H2O)y

Functions:

● Provide energy in the form of sugars

(glucose, fructose) - most important energy
source in the body
● Build structures (cellulose in plant cell walls)
Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Polysaccharides

● Monosaccharides: single sugar monomers;

used to build larger complex carbohydrates;
polar & water soluble

● Disaccharides: two sugar monomers joined by

a glycosidic bond via condensation reaction;
polar & water soluble

● Polysaccharides: macromolecules made of

many sugar monomers joined via
condensation reactions; not soluble in water
(too big)
Monosaccharides

● Simplest types of carbohydrates

● 3-7 Carbon atoms joined to a

hydroxyl group (-OH)

● Ex. ribose, glucose, fructose and

galactose.
About Glucose…

● Two forms: D-glucose and L-glucose

→ isomers (same chemical formula,
different arrangement of atoms)

● Two forms of the D-glucose:

α-D-glucose and β-D-glucose →
Differ in the placement of the -OH
group on carbon 1.
Disaccharides

Formed by creating glycosidic bonds

between monosaccharides through
condensation reactions

Examples:

● Glucose + fructose = sucrose

● Glucose + glucose = maltose
● Glucose + galactose = lactose
Examples of Polysaccharides

Large macromolecules that use glucose as their

monomer, but in different arrangements and
orientations
Extremely adundant on Earth - Trees are mostly
made of cellulose (plant cell walls)
Glycogen is a storage substance in animals and
fungi
Plants store starch in their roots and stems.
Carbohydrates also make up the chitin exoskeleton
of insects and crustaceans
What type of molecule is formed by the chemical
reaction shown in the diagram?

A. Dipeptide
B. Disaccharide
C. Diglyceride
D. Polysaccharide
What type of molecule is formed by the chemical
reaction shown in the diagram?

A. Dipeptide
B. Disaccharide
C. Diglyceride
D. Polysaccharide
Starch: Amylose & Amylopectin

● Plants use starch to store energy

● Mixture of two polysaccharides:
amylose and amylopectin
● In starch molecules, all glucose
monomers are oriented in the same
direction
Cellulose

● Cellulose: Beta glucose

monomers flip 180 degrees
every other glucose to
form straight unbranched
chain
● Hydrogen bonds between
chains provide stability
● Plants use cellulose as a
structural component, can
also be used as a biofuel
Glycogen

● Animals use glycogen to store energy

● Very similar in structure to amylopectin (branched chain of alpha
glucose monomers)
The diagram shows two polysaccharides, formed
from condensation of many glucose molecules.

What are the names of X and Y?

The diagram shows two polysaccharides, formed
from condensation of many glucose molecules.

What are the names of X and Y?

Summary of Polysaccharides
Exam-Style Question

a. Label the area where cellulose is

found in the micrograph of a plant
cell. [1]

b. Cellulose is the most abundant

organic polymer on Earth. Describe
the structure of cellulose. [3]

c. Starch is another polysaccharide in

plants. Distinguish between the
structure of amylose and the
structure of amylopectin. [1]
Mark Scheme
Structure of Cellulose: [3]
a. unbranched/straight chain of glucose molecules OR
unbranched/straight-chain polysaccharide ✔

b. formed of beta glucose;

c. formed by condensation reactions/glycosidic bonds OR

1, 4 linkage ✔

d. hydrogen bonds form between cellulose chains

e. form microfibrils ✔

Award marks to an accurate annotated diagram

Do not allow carbohydrate

Structure of Starch: [1]

amylose unbranched/helical while amylopectin branched /
vice versa
Form of Carbohydrate Examples Sources

Monosaccharides Glucose, ribose, fructose Fructose is a sugar found in fruits and honey.
They are polar and and galactose Galactose is a sugar in milk.
soluble in water.

Disaccharides Maltose, lactose, sucrose Maltose (glucose + glucose) is found in grains.

They are polar and Sucrose (glucose + fructose) is found in sugar cane
soluble in water. and sugar beets
Lactose (glucose + galactose) is found in mammalian
milk.

Polysaccharides Glycogen, cellulose, Cellulose is the structural component of plant cell

Not all are polar and starch walls.
soluble in water. Starch forms energy stores in plants (e.g potatoes and
cassava).
Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrate. It is
found in animals in the liver and muscles.
Practice:
Kognity: 2.3 Carbs and Lipids Lesson 1
Review Questions

Read: 2.3.3, 2.3.4, 2.3.5 on Kognity

Please complete for next class


Lesson 2
Fatty Acids and Lipids
Kognity 2.3.3, 2.3.4, 2.3.5, 2.3.6
Cambridge Pg. xx-xx
● Outline that fatty acids can be
saturated, monounsaturated or
polyunsaturated.
● Outline that unsaturated fatty acids
can be cis or trans isomers.
● Explain how triglycerides are formed
by condensation from three fatty
●
acids and one glycerol molecule.
Discuss the scientific evidence for
health risks of trans fats and
saturated fatty acids.
● Explain why lipids are more suitable
for long-term energy storage in
humans than carbohydrates.
● Evaluate the evidence and methods
used to obtain the evidence for
health claims made about lipids.
● Determine the body mass index by
calculation or use of a nomogram.
I am sick :( (Sorry)

Please complete the following tasks during this class

time:
● Read Kognity Sections 2.3.3, 2.3.4, 2.3.5, and 2.3.6 if
you have not already done so (or read again and
take notes as you would in class)
● Watch the Crash Course Video linked on the next
slide
● Complete the Lesson 2 review questions on
Kognity and reading assignment for next class
If you have specific questions about the content,
please email me and I will go over any confusing spots
when I am back next class. Thank you, folks!
Crash Course - Biological Molecules

The section on lipids

specifically is from around
7:00 to 10:00. However, the
beginning is an excellent
review of carbohydrates, and
the protein overview is useful
for what is coming up later in
the unit.
Lipids

● Group of organic molecules that are

hydrophobic and water insoluble
● Soluble in organic solvents (ex. acetone)
● Made of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen
● Include fats, oils, and waxes
● Types of lipids: fatty acids, triglycerides,
phospholipids, steroids
Fatty Acids

● Carboxylic acids: -COOH (carboxyl) group

attached to long hydrocarbon chain
● Two main forms: saturated or
unsaturated
● Saturated: no double bonds, all carbons
in the chain have 4 single bonds
● Unsaturated: double bonds in the chain
● Monounsaturated: one double bond;
Polyunsaturated: many double bonds
Cis and Trans Fatty Acids

● Unsaturated fatty acids have two isomers:

cis or trans
● Cis fat: hydrogens on the same side of the
double bond; commonly found in nature,
liquid at room temp
● Trans fat: hydrogens on different sides of
the double bond; artificially made from
polyunsaturated fats, solid at room temp
Triglycerides

● One glycerol + 3 fatty acids

joined via condensation
reactions
● Two kinds: fats and oils
● Oils: liquid at room temp (Ex.
sunflower oil, sesame oil)
● Fats: solid at room temp (Ex.
butter, lard)
Special Lipids: Phospholipids

● Phospholipids: one fatty acid in a

triglyceride replaced by phosphate
group (PO4)
● Major component of cell membranes
(remember the phospholipid bilayer?)
Special Lipids: Steroids

● Hydrophobic and water insoluble

● Structurally different from other
kinds of lipids
● Four fused carbon rings
● Examples: cholesterol and sexual
hormones (estrogen, testosterone,
etc.)
Exam-Style Question

Distinguish between the structures of the

different fatty acids found in food [4 marks]
Mark Scheme [4 marks]

a. fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated

b. unsaturated can be monounsaturated or polyunsaturated

c. saturated fats have no double bonds/have maximum number of hydrogen atoms OR

unsaturated fatty acids have «at least one» double C=C bond OR polyunsaturated fatty acids
have more than one double bond / OWTTE

d. cis-form has hydrogen atoms on same side of carbon double bond OR cis-form has bend at
carbon double bond

e. trans-form has hydrogens on opposite sides of carbon double bond OR trans-form makes a
straight carbon chain

f. length of hydrocarbon chain can vary OR position/number of carbon double bonds can vary
Lipids for Energy Storage

● Lipids vs. Carbs: lipids have higher

energy content per gram and are
thermal insulators

● Carbs: 17 kL/g vs Fats: 37 kJ/g → twice

the energy per gram

● Ex. Whales build up fat stores (blubber)

during summer, fat insulates them
through winter, survive off of fat stores
after giving birth in spring
Lipids as Long-Term Storage

● Glycogen (carbohydrate energy stores in animals) associated with 2 g

water per gram of glycogen
● Lipids stored w/ no additional water → smaller contribution to body
mass → lighter overall body mass possible, enhances mobility while
still retaining a lot of energy
○ Ex. “Fat bears”

● Can also form waterproof layer in plants and animals

“Good” vs “Bad” Fats

● “Good” fatty acids: unsaturated cis

fatty acids
○ Beneficial for the body. Ex. Omega-3
fatty acids (fish oils and flax seeds)
protect against certain types of heart
disease.
● “Bad” fatty acids: unsaturated
trans fats
○ Dangerous for the cardiovascular
system. Promote ‘bad cholesterol’.
● Saturated fats considered less
healthy than unsaturated fats
Lipids and Health

● Considerable scientific evidence linking the consumption of trans fats and

saturated fats to incidence of coronary heart disease (CHD)
● Hypothesis: trans fats and saturated fats contribute to the formation of
atherosclerotic plaques in arteries, leading to heart attack
● Evidence: patients who died from CHD show high concentrations of trans
fats present in fatty deposits in diseased arteries

● Correlation exists, but no causal relationship has yet been found

● Some populations have high saturated fats in diet but very low CHD Ex.
Maasai people of Kenya
● All data should be thoroughly considered and, where possible, evidence be
collected through further research before making generalized health claims
Evaluating Health Claims
● Is there a correlation between the lipid and the incidence of the disease under
investigation?
● Has a statistical analysis been carried out to determine the significance of the data
collected?
● Is the data collected widely spread? The more widely spread the data, the lower
their significance and reliability. Standard deviation and error bars can be used to
determine the extent to which the data is widely spread.
● Was the sample used for the investigation big enough? Small samples do not
provide reliable data.
● Was the factor measured as the health indicator valid? For instance, how fast a
person can run is not a valid way to measure health.
● Were representatives of the whole human population considered? Or only a specific
age group, gender, ethnicity, lifestyle, etc.?
● Were all important variables effectively controlled?
● Were realistic dietary levels of lipids considered?
Body Mass Index

● Measure of body fat based on height

and weight
● Can be an indicator of high body
fatness, not a diagnosis of fatness or
health
● Commonly used as assessment tool
for risk of health issues
● Originally intended as a
measurement at the population level,
not individual measurement of
health
Exam-Style Question

Explain the advantages of having both lipid

and carbohydrate as energy stores in the
human body. [2 marks]
Mark Scheme [2 marks]

a. lipid is long-term energy storage OR carbohydrate is short-term energy

storage/readily available ✔

b. lipids are insoluble, so easier to store OR carbohydrates/sugars are

soluble, so easy to transport by blood ✔

c. lipids store more energy «per gram» OR lipids occupy less space «per
energy/kJ» ✔
Practice:
Kognity: 2.3 Carbs and Lipids Lesson 2
Review Questions

Read: Sections 2.4.0, 2.4.1, 2.4.2, 2.4.3

Please complete for next class