1.

SELECTION OF SITE FOR AIRPORT

Factors affecting site selection:

1. Regional plan
2. Use of airport
3. Proximity to other airports
4. Ground accessibility
5. Topography
6. Obstructions
7. Visibility
8. Wind
9. Land use and its value
10. Availability of utilities
11. Aircraft noise
12. Environmental factors
13. Soil characteristics
14. Economy of construction

1. Regional plan:
Regional plan should fit well into the regional plan Form an integral part of the national
network of airport.

2. Use of airport:
Selection of site depends upon the use of an airport such as Civilian or military operations,
during emergency, civilian airports are taken over by the defense, should be such that it
provides natural protection to the area from air raids, especially for the ones located in
combat zones. IAF lands C 130J-30, Super Hercules aircraft at Daulat Beg Oldie in Ladakh
AIRPORT SITE SELECTION -130j-super-super-hercules.

3. Proximity to other airports:

Proximity to other airport should be at a considerable distance from existing airports Landing
in one airport does not interfere with movement of aircraft at other airport Required separation
between airports mainly depends upon Volume of air traffic Type of aircrafts Circling radius
of largest aircrafts Air traffic control

AIRPORT SITE SELECTION Proximity to other airport Locations of existing airports and
their associated airspaces should be studied Plus their future plans Combined aircraft
movements should not be restricted

AIRPORT SITE SELECTION Proximity to other airport Case of Juhu airport and Mumbai
Airport -juhu-airport-to-be-taken-up-on-priority-ajit/1089692/ -story/Juhu-aerodrome-cant-
be-secondary-airport-say-aviation-experts/articleshow/19030561.cms
4. Ground Accessibility :

Fast and efficient access facilities for passengers and freight, sites offering convenient road
network is better than those with inefficient and inadequate transport system, best when
adjacent to main highway, quick access Availability of public transportation facilities
qualifies its suitability, passenger is more concerned with his door to door time rather than
actual time in air travel, topography, slope of terrain, location and variation of natural features
affect and requirement for clearing and filling, grading.

2. AIRPORT OBSTRUCTION
This is one of the diagram which tries to show how the airport obstructions can be talked about
and this is the runway strip being shown at this location, a dark black line, and this is the normal
flight path of any aircraft. So the aircraft will be going like this, this way. Now we are looking at
this strip and then this is the clear way for the strip in this direction and this is the distance up to
60 meters we go and then from these 60 meters here we are talking about a slope and this slope is
different from different conditions, it is fifties to one for instrument runway it is forties to one for
non instrument runway in the case of large airports and it is twenties to one for small airports. So
this is the slope at which this obstruction clearance line will keep on moving and there should be
always a distance of 15 meters between the obstruction clearance line and the normal minimum
light path. So that specification for the safe movement of aircraft
This is the runway, this is the end of the runway and here there is somewhere the airport reference
point with respect to which the elevations are measured. If we go 4.5 kilometers away from the
end of the runway strip then this is what is being shown here and this is the natural ground level.
So we take a height of 30 meters and then this is what is defined that this 30 meter should be there,
so this slope comes out to be 1 is to 50. Then for every 1.5 kilometers, 7.5 meters will keep on
adding so the 7.5 meters are getting adding for every 1.5 kilometers and when we reach distance
of 10.5 kilometers from this point for 15 kilometers from the end of the runway strip then this
height will become a minimum value of 75 meters and the maximum value at this level can be 150
meters. This is how it defines and it will transform into a gradient of 1 in 40. So that’s becomes
this is the controlling surface and this is the flight path which should be clear of this particular
clearance line. So this is the clearance line and above this clearance line there can be a flight path
by which the aircraft can come and may land from a takeoff. So, that is the same thing which we
have discussed in the previous some of the slides. We look at the another thing in the case of
obstructions that is related to the runway clear zone, as we have seen in the imaginary surfaces
also there is a clearance zone which is provide at the end of the runway strips and it starts at 60
meters from the end within approach area. So this is how it is located it is up to 60 meters end and
it starts and goes within the approach area and the length is determined by the approach surface
attaining a height of 30 meter. So it is dependent on the rate at which the approach surface is going
up and if as soon as it attains a height of 30 meters by whatever is the distance in the horizontal
direction is that will be the length of that clear zone.
3. IMAGINARY SURFACES:
4. RUNWAY ORIENTATION
The orientation of the runway is an important consideration in airport planning and design. The
goal of this exercise is to define the runway orientation that maximizes the possible use of the
runway throughout the year accounting for a wide variety of wind conditions. FAA and ICAO
regulations establish rules about runway orientation and their expected coverage • Ideally, all
aircraft operations on a runway should be conducted against the wind. Unfortunately, wind
conditions vary from hour to hour thus requiring a careful examination of prevailing wind
conditions at the airport site.

5. WIND ROSE DIAGRAM:

Wind Rose Diagram: The wind data direction duration and intensity are graphically represented
by a diagram called wind rose. The wind data should usually be collected for a period of at least 5
years and preferably of 10 years so as to obtain an average data with sufficient accuracy. Wind
rose diagrams can be plotted in two types. As far as possible these observations should be taken at
or near the site selected. It helps in analysing the wind data and obtaining the most suitable
direction of runway.

Types of wind rose diagrams:

(1) Wind rose diagram, Type-I (2) Wind rose diagram, Type-II.

(1) Wind rose diagram Type-I: The wind rose diagram showing direction and duration of wind.
This type of wind rose is illustrated in fig. the radial lines indicate the wind direction and each
circle represents the duration of wind. The values are plotted along the north direction in fig
similarly other values are also plotted along the respective directions. All plotted points are then
joined by straight lines. The best direction of runway is usually along the direction of the longest
lone on wind rose diagram. If deviation of wind direction up to 22.5º + 11.25ºfrom their direction
of runway is thus along NS direction of landing and take off is permissible the percentage of time
in a year during which runway can safely be used for landing and take off will be obtained by
summing the percentages of time along NNW, N, NNE, SSE, S and SSW directions. This comes
to 57.6 percent. The total percentage of the time therefore comes to 57.0 + 13.5 = 70.5. This type
of wind rose does not account for the effect of cross wind component.
(2) Wind rose diagram Type-II: The wind rose diagram showing direction, duration and intensity
of wind. This type of wind rose is illustrated in fig. the wind data as in the previous type is used
for this case. Each circle represents the wind intensity to some scale. The values entered in each
segment represent the percentage of time in a year during which the wind having a particular
intensity blows from the respective direction. The procedure for determining the orientation of
runway from this type of wind rose is described below.
Draw three equi spaced parallel lines on a transparent paper strip in such a way that the distance
between the two near by parallel lines is equal to the permissible cross wind component. This
distance is measured with the same scale with which the wind rose diagram is drawn the
permissible cross wind component is 25kph. Place the transparent paper strip over the wind rose
diagram in such a way that the central line passes through the centre of the diagram. With the
centre of wind rose rotate the tracing paper and place it in such a position that the sum of all the
values indicating the duration of wind within the two outer parallel lines is the maximum. The
runway should be thus oriented along the direction indicated by the central line. The wind coverage
can be calculated by summing up all the percentages.

WIND ROSE DIAGRAMS

Wind rose diagram Type-I Wind rose diagram Type-II

The following is the average wind data for 10 years. Determine the maximum wind coverage, calm
period and the best orientation of runway.
Wind Percent Time with Wind Velocity (km/hr)
Direction
(6.4 - 25) (25 - 50) (50 - 75) Total

N 1.30 1.30 0.10

NNE 5.50 5.00 0.10
NE 8.00 7.60 0.20
ENE 3.10 2.20 0.10
E 0.60 0.50 0.00
ESE 1.70 0.80 0.10
SE 3.90 2.00 0.20
SSE 1.50 0.50 0.10
S 1.60 1.20 0.00
SSW 5.00 4.10 0.10
SW 5.20 4.50 0.10
WSW 7.60 6.50 0.20
W 2.60 1.60 0.10
WNW 2.50 0.60 0.00
NW 2.50 1.50 0.10
NNW 1.50 1.50 0.00
Grand total of Col. 5 = Say (x)

Method Of Drawing Wind Rose Diagram (Type-I):

(1) Make total of Columns 2, 3, and 4.
(2) Assume suitable scale according to the maximum value of column o col. (5)
(3) Divide the maximum value at least 5 equal parts and draw draw concentric circles taking radius
as each part as shown in figure.
(4) Now mark each value of column (5) corresponding to col. (1) on radial radial directions.
(5) Join all points with straight and then you will get a figure just like leafs of rose flower known
as wind rose.
(6) The direction of leafs will give you direction of runway which is known as the best orientation
of runway.
(7) The value of grand total in Percent (x%) is known as the maximum wind coverage.
(8) Subtract grand total, x % (maximum wind coverage) from 100 that is (100-x ) % = y %.
(9) The value y % is known as calm period which shows that the intensity of wind less than 6.4
km/hr at thhe site of airport.
6. DESIGN OF RUNWAY:

Orientation of Runway:

• Runway is usually oriented in the direction of prevailing winds.

• The head wind i.e. the direction of wind opposite to the direction of landing and take off,
provides greater lift on the wings of the aircraft when it is taking off.
• Cross wind component = V sinθ where θ = Angle of wind direction to runway centerline
• Normal component of the wind is called wind component.
• The maximum permissible cross wind component depends upon the size of aircraft and the
wing configuration.
7. BASIC RUNWAY LENGTH:

Basic Runway Length:

It is the length of runway under the following assumed conditions at the airport

1. Airport altitude is at sea level(mean sea level)

2. Temperature at the airport is standard (15°C) at M.S.L.
3. Runway is levelled in the longitudinal direction (i.e. gradient = 0 %)
4. No wind is blowing on runway.
5. Aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity.
6. There is no wind blowing on the runway.
7. The Aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity

8. CORRECTION OF RUNWAY LENGTH:

Corrections for Basic runway length:

The following are the three corrections for basic runway length

1. Corrections for Elevation

2. Corrections for Temperature
3. Corrections for Gradient
1. Correction of Elevation: As the elevation increases air density reduces and the lift on the
aircraft wings also reduces that requires greater ground speed before it rises into the air. To
achieve greater speed, longer runway length is required.

ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organisation) recommended that the basic runway
length is increased at the rate of 7% per 300 m rise in elevation above the mean sea
level.

2. Correction for Temperature:

(a) Airport reference temperature

Where,
Ta = monthly mean of average daily temperature

Tm = monthly mean of the max daily temperature for the same month of the year

ICAO recommended that the basic runway length should further be increase at the rate of 1 % for
every 1o C rise of airport reference temperature above the standard atmospheric temperature.

Note:

1. At MSL (At Zero elevation), the standard temperature at airport = 15o C.

2. If the airport is not at MSL and has some elevation then the standard temperature at the site of
airport is determined by using the following relation.

Standard temperatures = 15 – 0.0065 × Given elevation at airport site

Check: It should be checked that after applying the corrections for elevation and temperature the
basic runway length should not be increased more than 35 %. If it is increased > 35 %, then basic
runway length is increased by 35 % (Total correction for elevation plus temp. ⇒ 35% of basic
runway length) and then the correction for gradient is applied.
3. Correction for Gradient: The steeper gradient results in greater consumption of energy and
as such longer length of runway is required to attain the desired ground speed therefore it is
recommended that the basic runway length should be further increased at the rate of 20% for
every 1% of effective gradient. The Effective gradient is defined as the maximum difference
in elevation between the highest and lowest points of runway divided by the total length of
runway.

Note:

1. Corrections for Take-off runway length: All three corrections of elevation, temperature and
gradient are applied to basic runway length.
2. Corrections for Landing runway length: First two corrections of elevation and temperature are
not applied but only one correction for gradient is applied to basic runway length.
3. After applying the respective corrections for Take-off and Landing, the maximum runway
length is considered for runway design.
4. The final value of runway length can be round off up to 10 meters.

Problem 1: The length of runway under standard conditions is 1620 m. the airport site has an
elevation of 270 m. its reference temperature is 32.9o C. If the runway is to be constructed with an
effective gradient of 0.2 percent, determine the corrected runway length.
Solution:
1. Correction for Elevation:
As per ICAO, the basic runway length is increased @ 7% of basic runway length for 300 m
elevation.
For 300 m elevation, increased runway length = 7% of 1620
For 270 given elevations, increased runway length = [(7% of 1620 /300)] × 270 = 102 m
Corrected length of runway = 1620 + 102 = 1722 m
2. Correction for Temperature:
As the given site of the Airport is not at MSL (ie not at zero elevation), therefore, the standard
atmospheric temperature for the given elevation will be find out by the following relation
Standard Temperature for the given elevation = (15 – 0.065 × Airport elevation) oC
= 15 – 0.0065 × 270 = 13.25oC.
Now, rise of Airport reference temperature above the standard atmospheric temperature
= 32.9o C - 13.25oC = 19.65oC.
As per ICAO, the runway length further increases @ 1 % of increased runway length for every
1oC rise of temperature = [1 % of 1722] × rise of temperature = [1 % of 1722] × 19.65 = 338.4 m

Corrected runway length = 1722 + 338.4 = 2060.4 m

Check: AS per ICAO, after applying the corrections for elevation and temperature, the basic
runway length should not be increased more than 35 %, if it is so, then the basic runway length is
increased by 35 % and after that the correction for gradient is applied.

Increased runway length = [(2060.4 – 1620)/1620] × 100 = 27.2 % < 35 % O.K.

4. Correction for gradient:

As per ICAO, it is recommended that the basic runway length should be further increased at the
rate of 20 % for every 1 % of effective gradient.

For 1 % effective gradient, increase in runway length = [20 % increased runway length]

For given 0.2 % effective gradient, increase in runway length = [20 % 2060.4] × 0.2 = 82.42 m

Now, corrected runway length = 2060.4 m + 82.42 m = 2142.8 m

AS per ICAO, the final value of runway length can be round off up to 10 meters.

The corrected runway length of the airport = 2150 m Ans.

Runway Configuration:

9. GEOMETRIC DESIGN:
AIRPORT CLASSIFICATION:

• Runway Width: ICAD recommends the percent with varying from 45 m to 18 m for different
type of airport.
• Safety Area: Consists of the runway, which is paved area plus the shoulder on either side of
runway plus the area that is cleared, graded and drained.
For non – instrumental runway, the width of safety area should be at least 150 m for A, B, C
and 78 m for D and E type and for instrumental runway, it should be minimum 300 m
• The length of safety area is equal to the length of runway plus 120 m
• Transverse gradient:

Essential for quick drainage of surface

• For A, B, C type of Airports ⇑ 1.5%

For D and E type of Airports ⇑ 2%
Transverse gradient ⇔ 0.5%
• Longitudinalgradient:
Max.limit
A, B, C type of Airports = 1.5%
D and E type of Airports = 2.0%
• For effective gradient:

Max.limit
A, B and C type of airports = 1.0%
D and E type of airports = 2.0%

• Rate of Change of Gradient: Should be limited to a maximum of 0.1% per 30 m length of

vertical curve for A and B type, 0.2% for C type and 0.4% D and E type of airport.
Vertical curves are generally not necessary if the change in slope is not more than 0.4%
• Sight Distance: For A, B, C type of airport, any two points 3 m above the surface of runway
should be mutually visible from a distance equal to half the runway length.
For D and E type of runway within a distance of at least one half the length of runway.
10. AIRCRAFT PARKING SYSTEM:
11. WIND AND LOGITUDINAL DIRECTION INDICATOR:

WIND DIRECTION INDICATOR

Landing Direction Indicator