Runway Design

Prepared by:-
Dr. Vaibhav Sharma
 Introduction
The number and orientation of the runways play an important role in the
overall arrangement of various components of an airport. The number of
runways will depend on the volume of air traffic while its orientation
will depend on the direction of the wind and sometimes on the extent
area available for the airport development.
In general, the arrangement of the runways and the connecting taxiways
should comply with the following conditions:
• To avoid delay in the landing, taxiing and takeoff operations and to
cause the least interference in these operations.
• To grant the shortest taxi distance possible from the terminal area to
the ends of runways.
• To make provision for adequate taxiways so that the landing aircraft
can leave the runways as quickly as possible and follow routes as short
as possible to the terminal area.
• To provide adequate separation in the air traffic pattern.
 Runway Orientation
• Preliminary information required: It is necessary to collect the
following data before deciding the orientation of the runway:
– Maps of the area in the vicinity of the airport showing contours at suitable
intervals.
– Records of direction, force and duration of the wind in the vicinity and fog
characteristics of the area for as long a period as possible.
• Head wind: The runway is usually oriented in the direction of the
prevailing winds. The dead wind indicates the wind from the opposite
direction of the head or nose of the aircraft while it is landing or
taking off. The orientation of runway along the head wind grants the
following two advantages:
– During landing, it provides a breaking effect and the aircraft comes to a stop in a
short length of the runway.
– During take-off, it provides greater lift on the wings of the aircraft.
Thus, landing and take-off operations take place in a shorter length of the
runway and this reduction in length of runway may be around 10% or so.
 Runway Orientation
• Cross wind component: It is not possible to
get the direction of opposite wind parallel to
the centre-line of the runway length
everyday or throughout the year. For some
period of the year at least, the wind may
blow making some angle “θ” with the
direction of centre-line of the runway.
If V km/h is the velocity of the inclined
opposing wind, its component “V.sin θ”
which is normal to the centre-line of the
runway is called the cross wind component.
The orientation of the runway should
therefore be such that this component is
kept to a minimum.
For light and medium weight aircrafts, this
component should not exceed 25 km/h.
 Runway Orientation
• Wind coverage: The percentage of
time in a year during which the cross
wind component remains within the
limit of 25 km/h is called the wind
coverage of the runway. The
orientation of the runway should be
such that the minimum wind coverage
of about 95% is obtained.
• Wind rose: For the airport, the average
wind data of 5 to 10 years period is
collected and represented graphically
in the form of a chart known as wind
rose. The study of wind rose helps in
determining the most suitable
orientation of the runway.
It is assumed that the duration of wind for
any one direction covers an angle of 22.5o.
 Runway Orientation
• Wind rose continued
The plotting of the wind rose diagram can be done in the following ways:
Type I: Showing direction and duration of wind.
Type II: Showing direction, duration and intensity of wind.
Runway Orientation- Type I Wind rose
Runway Orientation- Type II Wind rose
 Runway Orientation- Type II Wind rose
From the wind data as shown in table in the previous slide, it is
observed that the percentage of time during which the wind velocity
is less than 6 km/h and can be worked out as 12%. This period is
called as the calm period and it does not influence the operations of
landing and take off because of low wind velocity. Thus, the wind
velocities below 6 km/h have no effect on the fixing of orientation of
a runway.
 Basic Runway Length
The length of runway based on the following assumed conditions is
known as the basic runway length:
• No wind is blowing on the runway.
• The aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity.
• The airport is situated at sea-level.
• There is no wind blowing on the runway to the destination.
• The runway is leveled in the longitudinal direction or in the other
words it has zero effective gradient.
• The standard temperature is maintained along the way.
 Basic Runway Length
The manner in which an aircraft actually performs the landing and take
off will decide to a large extent the length of runway.

Following three cases will be considered:

• Normal landing

• Normal take off

• Stopping in emergency
 Basic Runway Length
• Normal landing: As shown in figure below, the aircraft should come
to a stop within 60% of the landing distance assuming that the pilot
makes an approach at the proper speed and crosses the threshold
of the runway at height of 15m.
The beginning of the runway portion to be used as landing is known as
the threshold. The runway of full strength pavement is provided for
the entire landing distance.
 Basic Runway Length
• Normal take off: The take off distance (TOD) must be, for a specific
weight aircraft, 115% of the actual distance the aircraft uses to
reach a height of 10.5 m, as shown below. The distance to reach the
height of 10.5 m should be equal to 115% of the lift-off distance
(LOD).
 Basic Runway Length
• Normal take off continued: The normal take off requires a clearway
which is defined as an area beyond the runway not less than 150 m
wide, centrally located about the extended centre-line of the
runway and under the control of the airport authorities. It is
expressed in terms of clearway plane extending from the end of the
runway with an upward slope not exceeding 1.25%.
Clearway ≤ 0.5(TOD - 115%LOD)
 Basic Runway Length
• Stopping in emergency: For the engine failure case, the TOD is the
actual distance required to reach a height of 10.5 m with no
percentage applied. In case of engine failure, sufficient distance
should be available to stop the airplane rather than continue the
take-off. This distance is called as accelerate-stop distance.
 Basic Runway Length
• Stopping in emergency continued: It is required to provide a
clearway or stopway or both in this case. The stopway is defined as
a rectangular area at the end of runway and in the direction of take
off. It is a paved area in which an aircraft can be stopped after and
interrupted take-off due to engine failure. Its width is at-least equal
to the width of the runway and thickness of the pavement less than
that of the runway, but yet sufficient to take the load of the aircraft
without failure.
 Corrections to Basic Runway Length
To get the actual length of the runway, the following three corrections
are to be applied to the calculated basic runway length:
• Correction for elevation

• Correction for gradient

• Correction for temperature

 Corrections to Basic Runway Length
Correction for elevation:
• As per the recommendation of ICAO, the basic runway length
should be increased at the rate of 7% per 300 m rise in elevation of
airport above mean sea level.
• This correction is required because the air density reduces as the
elevation increases which in turn reduces the lift on the wings of
the aircraft.
• Thus, the aircraft will require more ground speed to rise to the air
and for achieving more speed, the longer length of runway will be
required.
 Corrections to Basic Runway Length
Correction for gradient:
• As the gradient becomes steep, more consumption of energy takes
place and longer length of runway will be required to attain the
desired ground speed. The ICAO does not give any specific
recommendation for the increase in length due to the effective
gradient.
• The maximum difference in elevation between the highest and the
lowest points of runway divided by the total length of runway is
known as the effective gradient.
• According to FAA, the runway length after being corrected for
elevation and temperature should further be increased at the rate
of 20% for every 1% of the effective gradient.
 Corrections to Basic Runway Length

•  
Correction for temperature:
• The rise in airport reference temperature has same effect as that of the increase in its
elevation above mean sea-level. After the basic length is corrected for the elevation of
airport, it is further increased at the rate of 1% for every 1o rise in airport reference
temperature above the standard atmospheric temperature at that elevation.
• The airport reference temperature is worked out by the following expression:

Where,
T1 = Monthly mean of the average daily temperature for the hottest month of
the year.
T2 = Monthly mean of the maximum daily temperature for the same month.
The standard temperature at the airport site can be determined by reducing the standard
mean sea-level temperature of 15oC at the rate of 6.5oC per thousand metre rise in
elevation.
The ICAO recommends that if the total correction for elevation plus temperature exceeds
35% of the basic runway length, the specific studies at the site by model tests should be
carried out before finally adopting the runway length.
 Balanced field concept
• The take off distance and the accelerate-stop distance depend on the
speed the aircraft has achieved when an engine fails. The speed at which
engine failure is assumed to occur is selected by the aircraft
manufacturer and such a speed is referred to as the critical engine-failure
speed.
• If an engine fails prior to this selected speed, the pilot decelerates the
aircraft and makes use of the stopway. On the other hand, if the engine
fails at a speed greater than this speed, the pilot has no choice except to
continue the take off and may later on take a turn in the turning zone and
land again for a normal take off.
• For piston engine aircrafts, the full strength pavement is provided for the
entire take-off distance and the accelerate-stop distance. The designated
engine failure speed for such type of aircrafts is so chosen that the above
two distances are equal.
• The basic runway length thus obtained is considered to be based on the
balanced field concept and it is called the balanced runway length.
 Balanced field concept
• Case I: Engine failure speed = V:

Runway length = L2
Stopway length = L5-L2
Clearway length = L5-L2
 Balanced field concept
• Case II: Engine failure speed = V1 < V:

Runway length = L3
Stopway length = 0
Clearway length = L6-L3
The runway length required
is more than the length
based on the balanced field
concept. But as such, no stop
way is required. This design
may prove to be economical
as compared to “case I”
because the stopway is a
paved area and its omission
will result in a considerable
saving in cost
 Balanced field concept
• Case III: Engine failure speed = V2 > V:

Runway length = L1
Stopway length = L7-L1
Clearway length = L4-L1
The runway length in this
case is minimum. The length
of stopway is even more
than the clearway. This
alternative may be
advantageous to the
operator at the airports
where there are obstacles
near the end of the runways.
 Geometric design of runways
The runway is an important airport element and the points to be
considered in the geometric design of a runway are as follows:
• Length
• Longitudinal and effective gradient
• Rate of change of longitudinal gradient
• Safety area
• Sight distance
• Transverse distance
• Width
 Geometric design of runways
• Length
The basic runway length will depend on the category in which the
airport falls as per ICAO classification. The actual runway length is
obtained by making adjustments for elevation, gradient and
temperature with the basic runway length.
 Geometric design of runways
• Longitudinal and effective gradient
The longitudinal gradient of runway increases the required runway
length and also affects the aircraft performance in a number of ways.
The recommendations given by ICAO for the maximum longitudinal
gradient and maximum effective gradient are shown in table below:
 Geometric design of runways
• Rate of change of longitudinal gradient
The sudden or abrupt change of the longitudinal gradient is undesirable
because it may restrict the height distance and may cause premature lift-off
of the aircraft during the take off operation.
For jet and supersonic aircrafts having high lift-off speeds, the premature
lift-off may also affect the performance of aircraft and can also develop the
structural defects in the aircraft.
The changes in gradients should be made smooth by the vertical curves and
as per ICAO, the rate of change of gradient is limited to a maximum per 30
m length of the vertical curves as follows:
For A and B types……………………………………….0.10%
For C type…………………………………………………..0.20%
For D and E types……………………………………….0.40%
 Geometric design of runways
• Rate of change of longitudinal gradient continued
The vertical curves are not generally required, if the change in slope is
not more than 0.40%. The distance between two successive points of
grade intersections should not be less than the absolute numerical
value of the change in slope multiplied by:
300m for A and B types
150m for C type
50m for C and E types
 Geometric design of runways
• Rate of change of longitudinal gradient continued
Figure below shows the runway longitudinal grade and grade change.
L1 and L2 indicate the lengths of vertical curve at first grade change
and second grade change respectively.

Table shows FAA recommendations for the longitudinal grade changes

in the runways
 Geometric design of runways
• Safety area:
The safety area is an area which is cleared, drained and graded. It includes the
structural pavement, shoulders on either side of runway and the additional width. The
shoulders are generally unpaved as they are to be used only in case of an emergency.
They are at the most to be turfed or prepared of stabilized soil.

As per the ICAO recommendations, the minimum width of safety area should be as
follows:
For instrumental runway: 300 m
For non-instrumental runway: 150 m for A, B and C types of airports
75 m for D and E types of airports
 Geometric design of runways
• Sight distance:
There is generally no sight distance restrictions as the longitudinal
gradients for the runway are quite gentle. But there are chances for
the collision of aircraft at the points where two runways or a runway
and taxiway intersect each other, if adequate sight distance is not
provided.
The ICAO recommendations are as follows:
– For A, B and C types of airports, any two point 3m above the surface of runway
should be mutually visible from a distance equal to half the runway length.
– For D and E types of airports, there should be unobstructed line of sight from
any point 3 m above runway to all other points 2 m above runway within a
distance of at least one-half the runway length.
 Geometric design of runways
• Transverse gradient:
The transverse gradient is provided for the quick disposal of the
surface water (in order to prevent the hazardous situation on the
pavement).
 Geometric design of runways
• Width:
The runway width varies from 45 m to 18 m depending upon the type
of airport. The midway of runway is governed by the following two
main considerations:
– Air-traffic: It is observed that the distribution of the air-traffic is such that the
central portion of about 12 m on either side of the central-line of the runway
is subjected to the maximum loading and it then goes on decreasing towards
edges. Thus, the central 24 m width of runway pavement takes more
concentrated air-traffic load.
– Outermost edge of aircraft: The outermost part of machine of the largest
aircraft likely to use the airport should not extend beyond the pavement. The
shoulders are made of loose soil or stabilizing the soil or by turfing them. If
this precaution is not taken, the loose material from the shoulders is likely to
get entry into machine and damage the same. The distance between the outer
engine of a large jet transport and the longitudinal axis of the aircraft is about
13.5 m.