PHY121 Applied Physics for Engineers SP22

COMSATS University Islamabad

Sahiwal Campus

PHY121 Applied Physics for Engineers

Experiment 01: To familiarize with multi-meter and breadboard

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & COMPUTER ENGINEERING

Prepared By: Checked By: Approved By:

Engr. M. Hamid Saeed Ma’am Sabeen Ameen OBE committee

----------------------------------- ----------------------------------- -----------------------------------

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PHY121 Applied Physics for Engineers SP22

Lab Experiment 01:

To familiarize with multi-meter and breadboard
Objectives:
1. To be familiar with basic tools of Electrical Engineering
▪ Bread or circuit Board
▪ Resistors of different values
Components and Instruments:
1. Components:
 Resistors
 LED
2. Instruments:
 Digital multi-meter
 Bread Board

Pre-Lab
Breadboard
A breadboard is used to make up temporary circuits for testing or to try out an idea. No soldering is
required so it is easy to change connections and replace components. Parts will not be damaged so
they will be available to re-use afterwards. It is the solder less breadboard: a platform for constructing
temporary circuits by plugging components and wires into a grid of interconnected points.
Digital Multimeter

An instrument designed to measure electric current, voltage, and usually resistance, typically
over several ranges of value. It is used for measurement of circuit variables (like voltage and
current), circuit continuity, resistance, diode terminal identification etc. some multi-meters
also have an option of measurement of temperature.

In-Lab Exercise
Breadboard

A breadboard appears to be nothing but a plastic frame with hundreds of small holes in it as shown in
Figure 1.1. Underneath each hole, though, is a spring clip which connects to other spring clips
beneath other holes.

Figure 1.1 Breadboard

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PHY121 Applied Physics for Engineers SP22

Connections on Breadboard

Breadboard has many tiny sockets or holes arranged in a grid. The leads or terminals of most of the
components like resistors, diodes, transistors, etc. can be pushed straight into the holes. A breadboard
has 4 rows of holes at the top and 4 rows at the bottom and there are several columns of holes in the
middle. There are two groups of vertical columns in the middle part, as you see in the figure 1.2 it has
been separated by a blue rectangular block. None of the rows and columns are linked to one another.
The holes in rows are linked horizontally and column holes are linked vertically

Figure 1.2 Breadboard connections

Converting a circuit diagram to a breadboard layout is not straight forward because the arrangement
of components on breadboard looks quite different from the circuit diagram. When putting parts on
breadboard you must concentrate on their connections, not their positions on the circuit diagram.
In other words, the surface of bread is covered in pinholes into which you can insert wires or electric
components leads. Beneath the plastic surface, the holes relate to a network of metal table

Figure 1.3 Diagram to Breadboard conversion

In Figure 1.4 the internal view of the breadboard is shown in which clearly seen that there are some
vertical and horizontal lines are present in which some are connected linearly, and some are
horizontally.

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PHY121 Applied Physics for Engineers SP22

Figure 1.4 Internal view of Breadboard

Exercise Task
Implement the circuit shown in figure 1.5 on Breadboard

Figure 1.5 Circuit Diagram of LED

Multimeter
These are mainly two types of Multimeter
 digital (with LCD display of readings)
 analogue (with moving needle on a graduated scale)
There are two probes, one colored red and the other colored black. The black probe is plugged into a
socket marked “COM”. There are three sockets for the red probe to be plugged into. One is marked
“V, Ω, diode, temp” indicating the position where this probe should be while measuring/ identifying
voltage, resistance, diode, temperature etc. The second socket is marked “mA” indicating the position
of the red probe for measuring current in the milli-Ampere range. The third socket is marked “A”
indicating the position of the red probe for measuring current in Ampere range. There is a selector
available on the meter, which must be moved to appropriate variable and range while measuring any
variable / element
Working
A multi meter is a tool designed to troubleshoot electrical and electronic circuits and is used for
checking voltages to confirm proper operating levels. Standard multi meters measure current,
resistance, and voltage. More expensive models can measure capacitance and inductance as well. In
addition, an oscilloscope may have multi meter functions.

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PHY121 Applied Physics for Engineers SP22

Figure 1.6 Digital Multimeter

To measure Resistance
The ohmmeter function measures electrical resistance — the opposition to an electric current — and
uses units known as ohms. For measuring resistance, first we have to set the Multi-meter settings to
the resistance measuring settings i.e. using the resistance measuring probe and fix the knob at
‘resistance measurement’. An electrical circuit will have a resistance of zero or near zero ohms if it is
short- circuited. When a circuit is open it has infinite resistance and no current flow.
To measure current
An ammeter measures current. Ammeter is connected in series with the circuit to measure the current.
For measuring current, first we have to set the Multi-meter settings to the current measuring settings
i.e. using the current measuring probe and fix the knob at ‘current measurement’
Exercise Task
1. Implement circuit shown in figure 1.7 on breadboard using any value of resistor and power
supply, Measure current and fill the table

Resistance

R1

R2

R3

Figure 1.7 Current divider

To measure voltage
The voltmeter function of multi meter measures the electrical potential between two points in volts
and is especially useful for checking whether a battery is nearly dead. For measuring the voltage,
Voltmeter is connected in parallel with the circuit element. For measuring voltage, first we have to set
the Multi-meter settings to the voltage measuring settings i.e. using the voltage measuring probe and
fix the knob at ‘voltage measurement’

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PHY121 Applied Physics for Engineers SP22

Exercise Task
1. Implement circuit shown in figure 1.8 on breadboard using any value of resistor and power
supply, Measure the voltages and fill the table

Applied Voltage = _________

Resistance Voltage
R1
R2
R3
R4

Figure 1.8 voltage divider

2. Implement circuit shown figure 1.9 on breadboard using any value of resistor and power
supply, Measure the voltages and currents and fill the table

Applied Voltage = _________

Current Voltage
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7

Figure 1.9 Current & voltage divider

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PHY121 Applied Physics for Engineers SP22

Lab Experiment 02:

Resistance of the resistors by color coding technique, Resistor in series
Objectives:
1. To be familiar with resistance calculation through color codes
2. To understand the concept of series circuits
Components and Instruments:
1. Components:
 Resistors
2. Instruments:
 Digital multi-meter
 Bread Board
Pre-Lab
Resistor
Circuit component which oppose flow of electric current is called Resistor.
Resistance
Opposition offered in flow of electric current is called Resistance. Color coding of a Resistor is
shown in Figure 2.1

Figure 2.1
The calculation from color codes is done according to the following rules:

Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance (%)

Black 0 100 (1)
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Grey 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 0.1 10-1 5
Silver 0.01 10-2 10
None 20

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PHY121 Applied Physics for Engineers SP22

Table 2.1

The digit column gives the first two digits in the 4-band code and first 3 digits in the 5-band code.
Gold and silver appear in the 3rd digit place in the 5-band code. The multiplier column gives the
values, which must be multiplied to the digit value attained above. The colors gold and silver give the
tolerances in the 4 band codes. The colors brown, red, green, blue, and violet are used as tolerance
codes on 5-band resistors only. All 5-band resistors use a colored tolerance band. The blank (20%)
Band is only used with the "4-band" code (3 colored bands + a blank "band").

Resistors in series

In this experiment we will study the properties of resistors which are connected in series
figure 2.2 shows two resistors connected in series and its equivalent circuit with the two
resistors replaced by an equivalent single resistor

Figure 2.2 Resistors connected in series and its equivalent

Remember from lecture that, when resistors are connected in series, each one ‘sees’ the same
current, in lecture we show that the equivalent resistance of resistors in series is:
RT =R1 + R2

Of course, this equation can be extended to any number of resistors in series, so that for N
number of resistors the equivalent resistance is given by:
RT =R1 + R2 + R3 … ..+ R N

So, in series circuit total resistance is simply sum of all the resistance. In series combination
same current flows in each resistor. The potential difference across is equal to the sum of the
potential differences across the various resistors.

In-Lab Exercise
Lab Task 1
1. Calculate the resistance of the resistors available by using color codes.
2. Switch the selector of multi-meter to resistance measurement.
3. Select the minimum range and measure resistance by connecting both probes of meter to the
ends of resistor. Be sure, not to touch both ends of the resistor while the probes of meter are
connected to the resistor. This will make a resistive path through your body in parallel with
the resistor, thus affecting the correct reading.
4. If the reading of the multi-meter is pegged, i.e. displays “1” on the left-hand side of LCD
display, this means the resistance is greater than the selected range.
5. Switch to the next available range and measure the resistance again.
6. Repeat step 5 till a reading is available on the display.

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7. Check whether the calculated and measured values are comparable.

8. Repeat the procedure for different resistors available.

Figure 2.2
Precaution
 Multi meter should be in Ω position while testing the resistance of resistor.
 Do not broke the Resistors terminals.
 Carefully handle the multi meter.
 At start and at end of practical all materials should be check.
 Resistance checked by multi meter carefully in the respective range.

Observations
Sr. Calculated Resistance Ω Measured Resistance Ω Difference % Error
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5

Table 2.2
Lab Task 2
• Take 6 random resistors from resistance box.
• Find their values by using color coding scheme and multi meter.
• Wire them up in series circuit on bread board one by one by using the concept of series.
• Calculate and measure the equivalent resistor.
• Fill the table given bellow

Obs. R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 RT VT V R4 IT
Measured

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PHY121 Applied Physics for Engineers SP22

Calculated
Table 2.3

Lab Experiment 03:

Objectives:
To study and verify OHM’s Law

Components and Instruments:

• Volt meter
• Ampere meter
• Resistor
• Bread board

Statement:
Ohm's law states that in an electrical circuit, the current passing through circuit elements is
directly proportional to the potential difference applied across it.

V=IR.
Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:

 Take the apparatus and connect it.

 Adjust the voltage of the supply to be 0.
 Increase the voltage from 0 to | volt and read voltage drop across resistor.
 Adjust the voltage of the supply at different points and note down the readings in the table.
 Find current by using formula l=V/R
 Draw the graph of voltage and current,
 It will be straight line showing the direct relation between applied voltage and current.

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PHY121 Applied Physics for Engineers SP22

Sr no. Voltage (V) Resistance Ω Current (A) I=V/R

1
2
3
4
5
6

Graph:

Student’s Graph:

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PHY121 Applied Physics for Engineers SP22

Lab Experiment 04:

Objectives:
To study and verify the Kirchhoff Voltage law

Components and Instruments:

• Digital multi meter

• DC supply
• Resistors
• Project board

Statement:
Kirchhoff's voltage law states that the sum of all the voltages in a loop is equal to zero.

∑V = 0

Vs+V1+V2+V3=0

Circuit Diagram:

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PHY121 Applied Physics for Engineers SP22

Procedure:
 Measure the value of the resistors through digital multimeter.
 Connect three resistors in series on the project board
 Connect the circuit
 Adjust the voltage of the supply to be zero volts
 Increase the voltage.
 Adjust the voltage supply at different points and note down the readings in the table.
 Find the voltage across each resistor with help of Multimeter.

Applied Resistance (kΩ) Voltage (Volt)

Current
Sr no. voltages Total (Volt)
(Ampere) R1 R2 R3 V1 V2 V3
(volt)
1
2
3
4

Precautions:
 The terminal of the resistance should be properly connected.
 All connection should be tight. Check their zero reading.
 Before connecting the instruments.

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 PHY121 Applied Physics for Engineers SP22

Lab Experiment 13:

Current and Voltage Divider

Objectives:
1. To be familiar with current and voltage rule and potential divider.
2. To understand the working of potential divider.

Components and Instruments:

1. Resistor
2. Wire
3. Battery
4. Potential Divider

Statement:
A circuit which divides the voltage into small parts is known as a voltage divider.

Circuit Diagram:

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 PHY121 Applied Physics for Engineers SP22

Procedure:

In this case, resistor R1 of 5 ohms and resistor R2 with 10 ohms resistance are
connected. The voltages Vout1 and Vout2 are divided across the resistors R1 and R2.
They can be calculated by a simple voltage dividing equation.

Where Rx is the resistor across which we need to find the voltage and Rtotal is the
total resistance (R1+R2) in the circuit. It can be simply calculated by adding all of
them as they are connected in series. Thus in the given circuit, the values of the
voltage across each resistor are

Therefore, voltage across R1 is 4V and voltage across R2 is 8V. Thus, here voltage
is divided in the circuit across the resistors. Hence, this is called voltage divider
circuit.

Statement:

A current divider is a circuit which divides the current into small parts. Parallel
circuits are current divider.

Circuit Diagram:

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PHY121 Applied Physics for Engineers SP22

Procedure:

‘I1‘ and ‘I2‘ are the current divided across resistors R1 and R2. They can be
calculated by a simple current dividing equation.

‘In‘ is the required current that flows through the resistor Rn. Req is the
equivalent resistance of the parallel resistors.
Equivalent resistance (Req) is given by

So, the current flowing through resistor R1 and R2 would be

Here the resistors are of same value and so current will be divided in exactly
half through each resistor. Thus, this is known as the current divider circuit.

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PHY121 Applied Physics for Engineers SP22

Lab Experiment 06:

Objectives:
To verify the Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)

Components and Instruments:

• Multimeter
• Resistors
• Bred Board
• Power supply
• Connecting wires

Statement:
The Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states "The algebraic sum of currents entering any
junction(node) is equal to the algebraic sum of current leaving that junction.”

KCL

I1 - I 2 - I 3 = 0
I1 = I 2 + I 3

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:

 First of all, 1 issued all the required materials tram the lab attendant.
 checked all material one by one.
 Wiring und proper net assignment has been made.
 Make the circuit on bread board according 10 the diagram.

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PHY121 Applied Physics for Engineers SP22

 Connect DC source to the circuit,

 Measure voltages across each resistor.
 Measure the total current of circuit,
 Measure each resistor current.
 Verify that I1 = I2 + I3.

Sr no. Vs (V) I (mA) I1 (mA) I2 (mA) I1 + I2 (mA)

1
2
3
4

Precaution:
 Multimeter should be in V DC Position while testing the de voltage.
 Do not broke the Resistors terminals,
 Carefully handle the multimeter,
 At start and at end of practical all materials should be check,
 Resistance checked by multimeter carefully.
 Carefully use the power supply.
 Carefully and accordingly circuit.

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PHY121 Applied Physics for Engineers SP22

Lab Experiment 07:

Drawing magnetic field lines of a bar Magnet
Objectives:
3. To examine the magnetic field associated with a bar magnet and construct the
magnetic field lines

Components and Instruments:

3. Instruments:
 Magnetic bar
 Magnetic compass
 Chart Paper
Pre-Lab

Introduction
In this lab, you will use compasses to investigate the magnetic field of a bar magnet. The
magnetic field is our way of describing the condition of space around a bar magnet. If a
magnetic field exists at a certain point in space, any point charge q moving through that point
in space will experience a magnetic force which is perpendicular both to the direction of the
magnetic field and to the direction of q . The direction of the magnetic field at any point in
space can be measured by placing a small compass at that point; the N pole of the compass
will point in the direction of the magnetic field. Pictorial representations of magnetic fields
are usually produced by drawing magnetic field lines. The field line passing through any
point in space must be parallel to the magnetic field at that point. Small arrowheads are
usually drawn on the field lines to indicate the field direction. Since the field can only point
in one direction at one point in space, field lines can never cross. Magnetic field lines always
make complete loops, and field lines are closest together where the magnetic field strength is
largest. Magnetic field strength is measured in units of ( N /C)/(m/s). This combination of
units is called a tesla (T ) to honor Nikola Tesla, a 20th century physicist famous for his work
on electromagnetic induction. The Earth's magnetic field at the location of Tempe points
roughly towards geographic North with a strength of about 20-50 μT . Inside a modern steel-
frame building, the ambient field can vary significantly from the Earth's field at that location.

Figure 1: Magnetic field lines

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In-Lab Exercise
1. Place the bar magnet in middle of paper. Trace the outline of magnet, that way
you can put it back in the exact same spot if it get bumped.
2. Place the compass at one pole and make a dot next to it showing the direction the
compass arrow points.
3. Move the compass so that the base of the arrow is at the dot you have just made.
Now make a new mark where the tip of arrow is pointing this time.
4. Keep doing this until you reach the other end of magnet.
5. Connect the dots. You have just drawn one magnetic field lines.
6. Go back and begin again. Starting at a different spot than you did the first time.
Repeat the above steps.
7. Repeat the process until you have drawn as many lines as you can for both ends of
magnet. You will now have an accurate representation of magnetic field lines.
8. Different magnet will give you different field lines. Try repeating these steps with
magnets of different shapes and sizes.

Graph

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PHY121 Applied Physics for Engineers SP22

Lab Experiment 8:
Self and Mutual induction in coil
Objectives:
4. To explore the effect of the interaction between a magnetic field and a coil of wire.
5. To explore the effect of an inductor in a circuit with a resistor and voltage source
when a constant (DC) signal is applied.

Components and Instruments:

4. Instruments:
 Main Coil
 Search coil
 Function Generator
 Oscilloscope
Pre-Lab
Introduction
Self-induction in coil or conductor is actually an induced back emf, which is generated when
the magnetic field caused by the current flow cuts the coil or conductor.

Figure 10.1: Self-induction in a coil

If the flux lines from the expanding and contracting magnetic field of one coil were to cut the
windings of another nearby coil, a voltage would also be induced in that coil. The amount of
emf induced in this way depends on the relative positions of the two coils. This inducing of
an emf in a coil or conductor by magnetic conductor is called the primary, or primary
winding, and the one in which the emf is induced is called the secondary. Similarly, the
current that flows through the primary is the primary current, and if the secondary is
connected to a load so that current flows, this current is called secondary current.

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Figure 10.2: Mutual Induction

In-Lab Exercise
You have already observed that a current through a coil of wire creates a magnetic field
inside and around the coil. You have also observed that a changing magnetic field created by
a moving magnet inside a coil can induce a voltage across the coil. In this activity you will
observe the circumstances under which interactions between two coils result in an induced
voltage. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 10.3 (below), in which the coil on the left is
connected to only the voltage probe, and the coil on the right is connected to a battery and a
contact switch.
Figure 10.3 . Mutual Induction with a DC source

Prediction 1-4: Under which of the conditions listed below will you observe a non-zero voltage
across the coil that is connected to the voltage probe?
Case I: When the switch is closed awhile, and both coils are held motionless. Circle: yes / no
Case II: When the switch is closed awhile, and there is relative motion between the coils.
Circle: yes / no
Case III: When the switch is left open awhile. Circle: yes / no
Case IV: At the moment when the switch goes from open to closed or from closed to open, with
both coils motionless. Circle: yes no
Test your predictions
1. Connect the circuit in Figure10.3 (above). Connect the large coil to a switch and 6 V battery,
and the small detector coil to a voltage probe.
2. Describe your observations of the coil voltage below. Note: when the switch has been closed
and then you open it, you may see a very high frequency, complicated voltage oscillation that
we will learn more about in a later lab. For now, concentrate on the lower frequency response.
Case I: Switch closed and coils motionless.
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
Case II: Switch closed, relative motion between coils.
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
Case III: Switch open.
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
Case IV: Switch changes position. (Coils must be close together.)
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________

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PHY121 Applied Physics for Engineers SP22

We now want to see what will happen if we replace the battery and switch in Figure 10.3 with an AC
voltage source.
Remove the battery and switch from the large coil, and instead connect the coil to the output of the
PASCO interface (see Figure 10.4). A voltage probe (VPA) should still be connected to the small coil.

Figure 10.4 . Mutual Induction with an AC source

With the small coil about a foot away, begin graphing and slowly move the small coil toward the large
coil. When you're finished, leave the small coil approximately in the position of maximum signal, to
be ready for the next activity.

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Post Lab
Question 1 Make a general statement about the behavior of coils (inductors) based on your
observations. Include in your statement the condition(s) under which a voltage is induced in a coil that
is in the vicinity of another coil.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

Question 2 Explain your observations. Comment on the phase relationship between the voltage
driving the large coil, and the signal detected by the small coil. (Hint: When is the magnetic field of
the large coil changing most rapidly?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

Question 3 What do think will happen if we leave the coils motionless, and change the frequency of
the AC voltage driving the large coil? [Assume that the frequencies are such that the amplitude of the
current through the large coil remains constant.]
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

Question 4 Describe your observations. Did the detected voltage change with driving frequency?
How did its amplitude change? Explain why.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

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Lab Experiment 09:

Faradays law of electromagnetic induction
Objectives:
6. To become familiar with the concepts of changing magnetic flux and induced current
associated with Faraday’s Law of Induction
7. To see how and why the direction of the magnetic force on a conductor carrying an
induced current is consistent with Lenz’s Law. Lenz’s Law says that the system
always responds so as to try to keep things the same.

Components and Instruments:

5. Instruments:
 Magnetic bar
 Coil
 Ampere Meter
Pre-Lab

Introduction
A basic law of electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit
to produce an electromotive force (EMF)—a phenomenon called electromagnetic induction.
Following mathematical equations shows relation between current, number of turns of coil, total
resistance of circuit and magnetic flux produced in coil due to motion of magnetic bar per unit time. 𝑖
=−𝑁𝑅
𝑑Ψ = −𝑁 𝑑Ψ .𝑚.𝑓 = −𝑁 𝑑Ψ 𝑑𝑡

Above equations clearly shows electromagnetic force is directly proportional to number of turns in
coil and magnetic flux in coil.

In-Lab Exercise
Connect the 300 turn coil to the galvanometer as shown below. Be sure that the coil B
terminal
is connected to the galvanometer red terminal. Set the rheostat to full resistance.

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Take the bar magnet and rapidly push the North end into the square opening in the coil.
Observe
and record the polarity (+ or –) of the galvanometer deflection. Observe and record the
polarity
of the deflection as the bar magnet is rapidly withdrawn. Also observe and record whether
there
is a dependence of the magnitude of the deflection on the speed with which the magnet is
moved.
Reverse the bar magnet (i.e. insert South pole first) and repeat the above observations of
deflection polarity.
Repeat all the above observations with the 600 turn coil. Also observe and record whether
there
is a dependence of the magnitude of the deflection on the number of turns in the coil (for this
you
will have to try to move the magnet at the same speed as you did with the 300 turn coil).
Record your observations in a manner similar to the following:

Polarity of Galvanometer Deflection

Coil
North In North Out South In South Out

300 Turns

600 Turns

Dependence on speed of magnet motion:

Dependence on # of coil turns:
To aid in analyzing the response of the galvanometer, note that the polarity of the
galvanometer
deflection indicates the polarity of the terminal connected to the red galvanometer post. Also,
remember that current flows from positive to negative and that the coil is the source of emf in
the
circuit (so current flows out of the positive coil terminal, through the circuit, and back into
the
negative coil terminal).
The coils are wound as shown below – when viewed from above the winding is
counterclockwise from terminal A to terminal B.

9. Place the bar magnet in middle of paper. Trace the outline of magnet, that way you can
put it back in the exact same spot if it get bumped.
10. Place the compass at one pole and make a dot next to it showing the direction the
compass arrow points.
11. Move the compass so that the base of the arrow is at the dot you have just made. Now
make a new mark where the tip of arrow is pointing this time.

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12. Keep doing this until you reach the other end of magnet.

13. Connect the dots. You have just drawn one magnetic field lines.
14. Go back and begin again. Starting at a different spot than you did the first time. Repeat
the above steps.
15. Repeat the process until you have drawn as many lines as you can for both ends of
magnet. You will now have an accurate representation of magnetic field lines.
16. Different magnet will give you different field lines. Try repeating these steps with
magnets of different shapes and sizes.

Graph

Post Lab
1. Write an assignment on the magnetic field of a long straight current and its application
 Introduction
 Working principle
 Mathematical expressions
 Applications
Note: Assignment must be well formatted and well explained

Experiment no.10

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Verifying the photoelectric current or voltage by altering the intensity of

the incident light.

Objectives:

The primary purpose of this

project is to evaluate the impact
of distance of source of light on
the
magnitude of current.
The primary purpose of this
project is to evaluate the impact
of distance of source of light on
the
magnitude of current.
1. The primary purpose of this project is to evaluate the impact of distance of source of
light on the magnitude of current or voltage.
2. To be familiar with the relationship between two variables
3. To be familiar with the photoelectric effect
Apparatus:

Rheostat,
Electric Lamps, Sensitive
Galvanometer/Microammeter,
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Battery, Scale, Key and

Connecting
1. LDR
2. Battery
3. Voltmeter
4. Ammeter
5. Or a multimeter can be used in place of both voltmeter and ammeter
6. Connecting wires
7. A scale to measure distance
Pre-lab:
Rheostat:
A rheostat is a variable resistor which is used to control current. They are able to vary the resistance in
a circuit without interruption.
LDR:
A Light Dependent Resistor (also known as a photoresistor or LDR) is a device whose
resistivity is a function of the incident electromagnetic radiation. Hence, they are light-
sensitive devices. They are also called as photoconductors, photoconductive cells or simply
photocells.
Symbol of a Photoresistor (or LDR)

Diagram:

In lab-exercise:
Procedure:
 I drew a circuit diagram (Figure 1) to get an idea about the scheme of connections. I
arranged the circuit in the exact manner as provided in Figure 1. Before conducting
the experiment, I ensured whether all apparatus was working properly or not.

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 After arranging all the equipment, put the diagram in front of me and I started making
neat and tight connections by following the diagram. The negative terminal of the
battery was connected to cathode.
 The anode of the photocell was connected to the positive terminal of the battery
through a rheostat.
 After arranging the apparatus, we put the light source at some distance from the
photocell. The distance was measured by using a scale. The lamp light source
positioned in such a way that it was facing cathode of the photocell. When I switched
on the lamp, the light fell on cathode and it emitted electrons. Since cathode was
negatively charged therefore, it repelled the electrons and emitted them towards
anode, the positive terminal of the photocell. The movement of electrons from
cathode to anode produced photoelectric current in the circuit.

 We will measure the current and the voltage by using multimeter.

To measure current:
An ammeter measures current. Ammeter is connected in series with the circuit to measure the
current. For measuring current, first we have to set the Multimeter settings to the current
measuring settings i.e., using the current measuring probe and fix the knob at ‘current
measurement’
To measure voltage:
The voltmeter function of multi meter measures the electrical potential between two points in
volts and is especially useful for checking whether a battery is nearly dead. For measuring the
voltage, Voltmeter is connected in parallel with the circuit element. For measuring voltage,
first we have to set the multi-meter settings to the voltage measuring settings i.e., using the
voltage measuring probe and fix the knob at ‘voltage measurement’

 Now we will take the light source near the LDR and we will measure the voltage
again and find that the voltage will decrease upon decreasing the distance of the light
source i.e. the values of voltage will be less after measuring the voltage again.
 And the value of current will increase upon decreasing the distance as the relation
between them will be as follows:
I = constant/d2

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I = 1/d2 Since, constant = 1 (as there was no change in angle and relationship is linear)

 After taking all readings we will plot a graph between 1/ d2 and theta, which is the
deflection in galvanometer. The graph which I plotted was a straight line and it was
showing the direct relationship between photoelectric current and incident light.

Graph:

Precautions:
It was a very simple experiment however, in order to avoid the impact of other factors on the
experiment, we will have to take following precautions:
1. We will take distance readings by placing the light source at larger distance
2. The same light source was used for all readings to keep the frequency constant.
3. Before conducting the experiment, I ensured that no other electric source was attached
to the apparatus and the light of right frequency was selected.
4. Furthermore, all other lights of the laboratory were switched off before performing
the experiment.
5. In order to avoid the inconsistency in data the distance of lamp from cathode was
changed linearly without changing the angle at which light falls on cathode.
6. The photocell was not exposed to stray light because it could have distorted the aim
of keeping the same frequency of light.

Observations:
Readings of current and distance

Sr No. Current Distance

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Conclusions:
So, we can verify photoelectric current by changing the distance of the light source from the
LDR and by comparing the last and the new values.

Lab Experiment 11:

Finding frequency of AC source using Melde’s Electrical Vibrator
Objectives:

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8. To observe and investigate standing waves on a thin string.

9. To determine the frequency of an electrically maintained tuning fork Using a
vibration generator
Components and Instruments:
6. Instruments:
 vibration generator
 string
 white paper ~21cm wide by ~1.5 m long on table (to make the black string
more visible)
 weight hanger with slotted weights
 metric measuring stick, Pulley and clamps, and fine thread (2 meters).
Pre-Lab
Introduction
Melde's experiment is a scientific experiment carried out in 1859 by the German physicist Franz
Melde on the standing waves produced in a tense cable originally set oscillating by a tuning fork (the
tuning fork was discovered by musician John Shorein1711), later improved with connection to
an electric vibrator. Standing waves were first discovered by Franz Melde, who coined the term
"standing wave" around 1860. This experiment, attempted to demonstrate that mechanical waves
undergo interference phenomena. In the experiment, mechanical waves traveled in opposite directions
form immobile points, called nodes. These waves were called standing waves by Melde since the
position of the nodes and loops (points where the cord vibrated) stayed static. Stationary waves result
from the superposition of two wave trains of equal amplitude and frequency travelling at the same
speed but in opposite directions. This is a special case of interference.
Consider a string fixed at one end and tied to a vibrator. The waves produced by the vibrator travel
down the string, are inverted by reflection at the fixed end, and travel back to the vibrator. A standing
wave, also known as a stationary wave, is a wave that remains in a constant position. This
phenomenon can occur because the medium is moving in the opposite direction to the wave, or it can
arise in a stationary medium as a result of interference between two waves traveling in opposite
directions.
Resonance occurs only for waves whose wavelength match or fit into the length of the string. In this
case the incident waves and the waves reflected at the pulley or clamp combine to form the stationary
wave.

Figure 1
The points of the medium which have no displacements called nodes and there are some points which
vibrate with maximum amplitude called antinodes (see figure 1).

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During each period T (𝑇 is the time it takes for a wave to repeat itself), the wave travels a distance of
one wavelength, λ ; therefore the velocity of the wave is given by c=fλ (see figure 2).

Figure 2

Figure 3
A sketch of the Melde’s experiment is shown in Fig. 3 and 4. One end of a string is attached to a
vibrating fork and the other end is passed over a pulley and attached to a hanging mass, m(T =mg)

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Figure 4
The string is effectively fixed at the pulley end and so the waves that are introduced onto the string by
the vibrator are reflected at the pulley. These reflected waves interfere with the waves that are moving
towards the pulley. The speed (v) of a transverse wave in a string depends on the string's mass per
unit length m (linear density) and the tension T . By setting the tension with the pulley system shown
below and by measuring the mass density, one can determine the speed of the transverse wave by:

v=
√T
m
v=fλ
(1)

fλ=
√T
μ
(2)

Squaring both sides of eq. (3) one obtains:

f=
√
1 T
λ m
(3)

The distance between two consecutive nodes is 𝜆/2 and p is the number of loops

f=
√
p T
2l m
(3)

There are two derive mode in Melde's experiment. By making the thread parallel to the length of the
prongs, transverse waves can be produced in the thread. If the thread is perpendicular to the length of
the prongs, longitudinal waves will be set up in the thread.
Transverse drive mode: In this arrangement the vibrations of the prongs of the tuning fork are in the
direction perpendicular to the length of the string. The time, during which the tuning fork completes
one vibration, the string also completes one vibration.

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In-Lab Exercise
Procedure
1. Attach the string to the screw on the vibrating fork and place it over the pulley. Excite
the tuning fork by switching on the power supply.
2. Place a load of 0 gm in the pan attached to the end of the string.
3. Measure the length between two successive nodes, l .
2l
4. Calculate the wavelength in the string using λ= , where p is the number of loops.
p
5. Note down the mass placed in the pan, No of loops and l in a table (see table 1).
6. Repeat the experiment by changing the mass (10 gm, 15 gm, 20 gm) in the pan.
7. Plot a graph between λ and m, then find the slope of the straight line passing through
the origin.
8. Calculate the frequency of the vibrating fork from eq. (3) by using the relation,
f=
2l m √
p T , where −2
m=4 ×10 g /cm .

Observations
Mass of thread 5m in length = M =¿ ¿
M
linear density = m= gms
500
Mass of empty scale pan = w 1=¿ gms
Value of acceleration due to gravity= g=9.81 cm/s

√
No of loops Weight added Total weight Tension p T
Sr# f=
( p) to panw 2 w=w1+ w2 T =w∗9.8 2l m
1

3
Table 1

Mean frequency of vibrating segment = f = ______________ vibrations/s

f
Frequency of AC supply mean = = ______________ Cycles/s
2
Percentage error =_________ %

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Lab Experiment 12:

To study PN junction diode characteristics

Objectives:

• Diode and its terminal identification

• To study PN junction diode characteristics
• How to check diode with help of multimeter

Components and Instruments:

• Simple diode,
• Resistors
• DC power supply
• Bread board,
• Multimeters connecting wire etc.

Theory:

Diode is a two terminal semiconductor device with ability to conduct current only in one direction after a
certain amount of voltage called barrier potential is applied 10 it in a proper way. Diode is one of great
invention which is used in many applications such as rectifier circuits, voltage limiter circuits, voltage
clamper circuits, voltage multiplier circuits etc.

Terminal identification:
Procedure:
In this practical three methods are discussed below to identify diode terminals.

Method 01:
Seal shape of Diode is marked with a color band on one of its two sides and that colored identifies
negative terminal (cathode) of a diode. For some other models, physical shape of a

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diode also represents its terminals as shown in figure 01. Where 1. represents cathode or negative
terminal of a diode and A represents anode or positive terminal of diode.
Method 02: Using multimeter (Ohm meter)
When diode is connected with ohm and (i) if internal resistance of diode is in the range or kilo ohms,
then Ille terminal 01' diode which is connected with the positive ohm is called of omega ohms. then
the terminal which is with positive meter is cathode and other terminal will be called anode.

Characteristics of Diode:
Theoretical Back ground:
Semiconductor diode is formed by doping P-type impurity in one side and N-type or impurity in
another Side Of the semiconductor crystal forming a p-n junction as shown in the following figure.

At the junction initially free charge carriers from both sides recombine forming negatively
charged ions in P side of junction (an atom in P-side accept electron and becomes negatively
charged ion) and positively charged ion on n-side (an atom in n-side accepts hole i.e., donates
electron and becomes positively charged ion) region. This region depletes of any type of free
charge carrier is called as depletion region. Further recombination of free carrier on both sides is
prevented because of the depletion voltage generated due to charge carriers kept at distance by
depletion (acts as a son of insulation) layer as shown dotted in the above figure.
Click on the X axis button and then choose V1(D1). After you choosing the X axis above window will
reappear. In the above example 0V to 2.0V Was selected then you close this window the l(D1)
selection to plot the ID vs. VD.
Working principle
When voltage is not applied across that diode definition region form and show it in the above figure
when voltage is applied Between with two terminals of the diode. (Anode and cathode)two
possibilities arises depending on the polarity of DC supply.
Forward Bias condition
When the positive terminal of the battery it’s connected to the p-type material and negative terminal
to N-type terminal Shown in the circuit diagram the diode is said to be forward bias. It will force

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electrons in N-type and holes in P-type material depletion with the ions near boundary and to flow
crossing junction. This reduces width of depletion region. This further will result increase in majority
carriers flow across the junction if forward bias is further increased in magnitude the
depletion region width will continue to decrease. Resulting in exponential rise in current as
shown in ideal diode characteristic curve.
Reverse Bias condition
If the negative terminal of battery (DC power supply) is connected with P-type terminal of
diode
and +ve terminal of battery connected to N-type then diode is said to be reverse biased. In
this
condition the free charge carriers (i.e., electrons in N-type and holes in P-type) will move
away from junction widening depletion region width. The minority carriers (i.e. -ve electrons
in p-type and +ve holes in n-type) can cross the depletion region resulting in minority cartier
current flow called as reverse saturation current (Is). As no of minority carrier is very small
so the magnitude of Is is few microamperes. Ideally current in reverse bias is zero.
In short. current lows through diode in forward bias and do not flow through diode in reverse
bias. Diode can pass current only in one direction.
Understanding the PN junction:
We know a pn junction has a “barrier potential” Only il we overcome this “barrier potential”
by applying an external voltage to the pn junction. we would be able to make it conducting.
This simply means current will pass through the Pn junction only if we apply an external
voltage higher than the “barrier potential” of PN Junction. In chapter 1, we have seen that net
current inside a pn Junction is zero, In order to understand the behavior of a PN junction we
need to make it conducting by applying an external voltage over a range (say from 0 volts 5
or 10 volts, and then we study how the current passed through the pn junction varies with
increasing voltage.
The pn junction (known as terminals), one of the p-side and other on the n-side. A PN
junction
With two metallic contacts is known as pn junction diode or a semiconductor diode.
Note: I have written an interesting article which tells the story behind invention & discovery
of
PN Junction diode.
1) Forward bias and 2) Reverse bias
The basic difference between a forward bins and reverse bias is in the direction of applying
external voltage. The direction of external voltage applied in reverse bias is opposite to that at
external voltage applied in forward bias.
Forward biasing a pn junction diode

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Forward biasing a pn junction diode is very simple. You just need to take a battery’s whose
values can be varied from (0 to V volts), connect its positive terminal to the p-side of pn
junction diode and then connect the negative terminal of battery to the n-side of the po
junction diode. If you have done up to this, the forward bias circuit of pn junction diode is
complete. Now all we need to do is understand how the pn junction diode behaves when we
increase the voltage levels from 0 to say 10 volts or 100 volts. We have learned that if we
apply an external voltage higher than the barrier potential of pn junction diode, it will start
conducting, which means it will start passing current through it. So how we are going to
study the behavior of pn junction diode under forward biased condition? Let’s get a voltmeter
and ammeter and connect it to the forward biased circuit of pn junction diode. A simple
circuit diagram is shown below which has at pn junction diode, a battery (in picture it is not
shown us variable. keep in mind we are talking about a variable power source), an ammeter
(in milli ampere range) and a voltmeter.

Notes: Assume that the pen junction diode is made of the silicon the difference is in barrier
potential for a diode made from silicon or germanium (for a silicon diode barrier potential is
0.7 Volts whereas for germanium diode barrier potential is low 0.3 Volts)
How to plot the characteristics of PN junction?
What we are going to do is vary the voltage across diode by adjusting the battery. We start
from 0 volts and then slowly move 0.1 volts 0.2 volts and so on till 10 volts. Let's just not the
reading of voltmeter and ammeter each time we adjust the battery in steps of 0.1 volts finally
after taking the readings just plot a graph with voltmeter readings on x-axis and
corresponding ammeter readings on y axis. Join all the dots in graph paper in you will see a
graphical representation as shown below. Now this is what we call “characteristics of a pn
junction diode or the behavior of diode under forward bias”

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How to analysis the characteristics of a pn junction diode?

It's from the “characteristics graph” we have just drawn we are going to make conclusions
from the behavior of PN junction diode the first thing that we shall be interested in is about
barrier potential we talked a lot about “barrier potential” but did we ever mention its value?
From the graph we observe that that I want does not conduct at all in the initial stages from 0
volts to 0.7 volts we are seeing the ammeter reading as zero! This means that diode has not
started conducting current through it from 0.7 volts and up that diode starts conducting and
the current through diode increases linearly with the increasing voltage of battery from this
data what you can infer? The barrier potential of silicon diode is 0.7 volts that diodes start
conducting at 0.7 volts and current through the diode increases linearly with increase in
voltage so that's the forward bias characteristics of a PN junction diode it conducts current
linearly with increase in voltage applied across the 2 terminals (provided the applied
voltage crosses barrier potential)

What happens inside the PN junction diode when we apply forward bias?
We have seen the characteristics of PN junction diode through its graph What really
happens inside the diode during the forward bias? We know and diode has a depletion
region with a fixed barrier potential the depletion region has a pre-defined width say W. The
width will very for a silicon diode and germanium diode the width highly depends on the type
of semiconductor used to make PN junction the level of doping etc when we apply voltage to
the terminals of diode the width of depletion region slowly starts decreasing the reason for
this is in forward bias we apply voltage in a direction opposite to that of barrier potential we
know the p-side of diode is connected to positive terminal and n-side of diode is connected to
negative terminal of battery so the electrons in n-side gets push towards the junction by force
of repulsion and the holes in p side get pushed towards the junction. As the applied voltage
increases from 0 volts to 0.7 volts the depletion region with reduces from W to zero this
means depletion region vanishes is at 0.7 volts of applied voltage this results in increased
diffusion of electrons from n side to p-side of region and the increased diffusion of holes
from p side to n side region in other words “minority carrier” injection happens on both p
side in a normal diode without bias electrons are a minority on p side and n side holes are a
minority on n side of the diode

How current flow takes place in PN junction diode?

This is another interesting factor to explain as the voltage increases the electrons from n side
gets pushed towards the p side junction similarly holes from p-side gets push towards the n
side junction now there a rises a concentration gradient between the number of electrons at
the p side junction region and the number of electrons at the region towards the p side
terminal a similar concentration gradient develops between the number of holes at the n side
junction region and the number of holes at region near the n side terminal this results in
movement of charge carries electrons and holes from region of higher concentration to region
of lower concentration. This moment of charge carriers inside PN junction gives rise to
current through the circuit.

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Reverse biasing a pn junction diode

Why should we reverse bias a pn diode? The reason is we want to learn its characteristics and
the different circumstances by reverse biasing we mean applying an external voltage which is
opposite in direction to forward bias so here we connect positive terminal of battery to n side
of the diode and negative terminal of the battery to p-side of the diode this completes the
reverse bias circuit for a pn junction diode now to study it's characteristics change in current
with applied voltage we need to repeat all those steps again connect voltmeter ammeter vary
the battery voltage not the readings etc finally we will get a graph as shown

Analyzing the reverse bias characteristics

Here the interesting thing to not is that diode does not conduct with change in applied voltage
the current remains constant at a negligibly small value in the range of micro amps for a long
range of change in applied voltage when the voltage is raised above a particular point say 80
volts the current suddenly shoots increases suddenly this is called a reverse current and this
particular value of applied voltage where reverse current through diode increases suddenly is
known as “breakdown voltage”.

Procedure

 Connect that diode in the circuit as shown below

 Find the current through it as Id
 Find the voltage across the diode as Vd
 Now increase the source voltage and again find the Id and Vd
 Continue to increase source voltage and finding Id and Vd

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Draw the graph between Id and Vd

Observation and Calculation:

Sr no. Vs Vd Id

1
2
3
4

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