Fundamentals of ESD

Fundamentals of Electrostatic Discharge
Part One—An Introduction to ESD

© 2020, EOS/ESD Association, Inc., Rome, NY
HISTORY & BACKGROUND

Greek scientist, Thales of Miletus mentioned the earliest report of electricity. He found
that after amber was rubbed, dust and leaves were attracted to it. The word "triboelectric",
covered later, comes from the Greek words, tribo – meaning "to rub" and elektros –
meaning "amber" (fossilized resin from prehistoric trees). When flowing electricity
properties were discovered in the 1700s, static electricity became the term for the old
form of electricity, which distinguished it from the new forms of electricity.
Many people have experienced static electricity and "shocks", or electrostatic discharge
(ESD) when touching a metal doorknob after walking across a carpeted floor or after
sliding across a car seat. However, static electricity and ESD have created serious
industrial problems for centuries. As early as the 1400s, European and Caribbean military
forts were using static control procedures and grounding devices trying to prevent
inadvertent ESD ignition of gunpowder stores. By the 1860s, paper mills throughout the
U.S. employed basic grounding, flame ionization techniques, and steam drums to
dissipate static electricity from the paper web as it traveled through the drying process.
Every imaginable business and industrial process has issues with an electrostatic charge
and discharge at one time or another. Munitions and explosives, petrochemical,
pharmaceutical, agriculture, printing and graphic arts, textiles, painting, and plastics are
just some of the industries where control of static electricity has significant importance.
The age of electronics brought with it new problems associated with static electricity and
ESD. And, as electronic devices become faster and the circuitry gets smaller, sensitivity
to ESD in general increases. This trend may be accelerating. The EOS/ESD Association,
Inc.'s Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Technology Roadmap is revised every few years and
states, "with devices becoming more sensitive, it is imperative that companies begin to
scrutinize the ESD capabilities of their handling processes". Today, ESD impacts
productivity and product reliability in virtually every aspect of the global electronics
environment.
Despite a great deal of effort during the past decades, ESD still affects production yields,
manufacturing cost, product quality, product reliability, and profitability. The cost of
damaged devices ranges from only a few cents for a simple diode to thousands of dollars
for complex integrated circuits. When associated costs of repair and rework, shipping,
labor, and overhead are included, the opportunities exist for significant improvements.
Nearly all of the thousands of companies involved in electronics manufacturing today pay
attention to the basic industry-accepted elements of static control. EOS/ESD Association,
Inc. industry standards are available today to guide manufacturers in establishing the
fundamental static charge mitigation and control techniques (see Part Six – ESD
Standards). It is unlikely that any company which ignores static control will be able to
manufacture and deliver undamaged electronic parts successfully.
STATIC ELECTRICITY: CREATING CHARGE

Definitions for ESD terminology can be found in ESD ADV1.0 - Glossary, which is
available as a complimentary download at www.esda.org. Electrostatic charge is defined
as "electric charge at rest". Static electricity is an imbalance of electrical charges within
or on the surface of a material. This imbalance of electrons produces an electric field that
can be measured and that can influence other objects. Electrostatic discharge (ESD) is
defined as "the rapid, spontaneous transfer of electrostatic charge induced by a high
electrostatic field. Note: Usually, the charge flows through a spark between two
conductive bodies at different electrostatic potentials as they approach one another".
ESD can change the electrical characteristics of a semiconductor device, degrading or

destroying it. ESD may also upset the normal operation of an electronic system, causing
equipment malfunction or failure. Charged surfaces can attract and hold contaminants,
making removal of the particles difficult. When attracted to the surface of a silicon wafer
or a device's electrical circuitry, air-borne particulates can cause random wafer defects
and reduce product yields.
Controlling electrostatic discharge begins with understanding how electrostatic charge

occurs in the first place. Electrostatic charge is most commonly created by the contact
and separation of two materials. The materials may be similar or dissimilar, although
dissimilar materials tend to liberate higher levels of static charge. For example, a person
walking across the floor generates static electricity as shoe soles contact and then
separate from the floor surface. An electronic device sliding into or out of a bag, magazine,
or tube generates an electrostatic charge as the device's housing and metal leads make
multiple contacts and separations with the surface of the container. While the magnitude
of electrostatic charge may be different in these examples, static electricity is indeed
formed in each case.
Creating electrostatic charge by contact and separation of materials is known as

triboelectric charging. It involves the transfer of electrons between materials. The atoms
of a material with no static charge have an equal number of positive (+) protons in the
nucleus and negative (-) electrons orbiting the nucleus. In Figure 1, Material "A" consists
of atoms with equal numbers of protons and electrons. Material B also consists of atoms
with equal (though perhaps different) numbers of protons and electrons. Both materials
are electrically neutral.
[2]
Figure 1: The Triboelectric Charge. Materials Make Intimate Contact
When the two materials are placed in contact and then separated, negatively charged
electrons are transferred from the surface of one material to the surface of the other
material. Which material loses electrons and which gains electrons will depend on the
nature of the two materials. The material that loses electrons becomes positively charged,
while the material that gains electrons is negatively charged. (Shown in Figure 2.)
[3]
Figure 2: The Triboelectric Charge - Separation
Static electricity is measured in coulombs. The charge (q) on an object is determined by

the product of the capacitance of the object (C) and the voltage potential on the object
(V):
q = CV
However, commonly we speak of the electrostatic potential on an object, which is
expressed as voltage.
The process of material contact, electron transfer, and separation is a much more
complex mechanism than described here. The amount of charge created by triboelectric
generation is affected by the area of contact, the speed of separation, relative humidity,
the chemistry of the materials, surface work function, and other factors. Once the charge
is created on a material, it becomes an electrostatic charged material or object (if the
charge remains on the material or object). This charge may be transferred from the
material, creating an electrostatic discharge or ESD event. Additional factors, such as the
resistance of the actual discharge circuit and the contact resistance at the interface
between contacting surfaces, also affect the actual charge that is released. Typical
charge generation scenarios and the resulting voltage levels are shown in Table 1. Also,
the contribution of humidity to reducing charge accumulation is shown. However, it should
be noted that static charge generation still occurs even at high relative humidity.
[4]
Table 1. Examples of Typical Static Generation Voltage Levels
Means of Generation 10-25% RH 65-90% RH
Walking across carpet 35,000V 1,500V
Walking across vinyl tile 12,000V 250V
Worker at bench 6,000V 100V
Polybag picked up from the bench 20,000V 1,200V
Chair with urethane foam 18,000V 1,500V
An electrostatic charge may also be created on the material in other ways, such as by
induction, ion bombardment, or contact with another charged object. However,
triboelectric charging is the most common.
HOW MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS AFFECT STATIC CHARGE

Triboelectric Series
When two materials contact and separate, the polarity and magnitude of the charge are
indicated by the materials' positions in a triboelectric series. The triboelectric series tables
show how charges are generated on various materials. When two materials contact and
separate, the one nearer the top of the series takes on a positive charge, the other a
negative charge. Materials further apart on the table typically generate a higher charge
than ones closer together. These tables, however, should only be used as a general guide
because there are many variables involved that cannot be controlled well enough to
ensure repeatability. A typical triboelectric series is shown in Table 2.
[5]
Table 2. Typical Triboelectric Series
+ Rabbit fur
Positive Glass
Mica
Human Hair
Nylon
Wool
Fur
Lead
Silk
Aluminum
Paper
Cotton
Steel
Wood
Amber
Negative Sealing Wax
- Nickel, copper
Brass, silver
Gold, platinum
Sulfur
Acetate rayon
Polyester
Celluloid
Silicon
Teflon
Virtually all materials, including water and dirt particles in the air, can be triboelectrically
charged. How much charge is generated, where that charge goes, and how quickly, are
functions of the material's physical, chemical, and electrical characteristics.
Insulative Materials
A material that prevents or limits the flow of electrons across its surface or through its
volume, due to having an extremely high electrical resistance, is called an insulative
material. ESD ADV1.0 defines insulative materials are defined as "materials with a
surface resistance or a volume resistance equal to or greater than 1.0 × 10 11 ohms". A
considerable amount of charge can be generated on the surface of an insulator. Since an
insulative material does not readily allow the flow of electrons, both positive and negative
charges can reside on an insulative surface at the same time, although at different
locations. The excess electrons at the negatively charged spot might be sufficient to
[6]
satisfy the absence of electrons at the positively charged spot. However, electrons cannot
easily flow across the insulative material's surface, and both charges may remain in place
for a very long time.
Conductive Materials
A material that allows electrons to flow easily across its surface or through its volume is
called a conductive material. ESD ADV1.0 defines conductive materials as "a material
that has a surface resistance of less than 1.0 × 10 4 ohms or volume resistance of less
than 1.0 × 104 ohms". When a conductive material becomes charged, the charge (the
deficiency or excess of electrons) will be uniformly distributed across the surface of the
material. If the charged conductive material makes contact with another conductive
material, the electrons will be shared between the materials quite easily. If the second
conductor is attached to AC equipment ground or any other grounding point, the electrons
will flow to ground, and the excess charge on the conductor will be neutralized.
Electrostatic charge can be created triboelectrically on conductors the same way it is

created on insulators. As long as the conductor is isolated from other conductors or
ground, the static charge will remain on the conductor. If the conductor is grounded, the
charge will easily go to ground. Or, if the charged conductor contacts another conductor
of different electrical potential, the charge will flow between the two conductors.
Dissipative Materials
Dissipative materials have an electrical resistance between insulative and conductive
materials. ESD ADV1.0 defines dissipative materials as "a material that has a surface
resistance greater than or equal to 1.0 × 104 ohms but less than 1.0 × 1011 ohms or a
volume resistance greater than or equal to 1.0 × 10 4 ohms but less than 1.0 × 1011 ohms.
There can be electron flow across or through the dissipative material, but it is controlled
by the surface resistance or volume resistance of the material.
As with the other two types of materials, a charge can be generated triboelectrically on
static dissipative material. However, like the conductive material, the static dissipative
material will allow the transfer of charge to ground or other conductive objects. The
transfer of charge from a static dissipative material will generally take longer than from a
conductive material of equivalent size. Charge transfers from static dissipative materials
are significantly faster than from insulators and slower than from conductive material.
[7]
Figure 3: Resistance Classifications (from ANSI/ESD S541)
Electrostatic Fields
Charged materials also have an electrostatic field and lines of force associated with them.
Conductive objects brought into the vicinity of this electric field will be polarized by a
process known as induction. (See Figure 4.) A negative electric field will repel electrons
on the surface of the conducting item that is exposed to the field. A positive electric field
will attract electrons near the surface, thus leaving other areas positively charged. No
change in the actual charge on the item will occur in polarization. However, if the item is
conductive or dissipative, and is connected to ground while polarized, the charge will flow
from or to ground due to the charge imbalance. If the ground contact is disconnected and
then the electrostatic field is removed, the charge will remain on the item. If a
nonconductive object is brought into the electric field, the electrical dipoles will tend to
align with the field creating apparent surface charges. A nonconductor (insulative
material) cannot be charged by induction.
[8]
Figure 4: Induction
ESD DAMAGE—HOW DEVICES FAIL

Per ESD ADV1.0, electrostatic damage is defined as "change to an item caused by an
electrostatic discharge that makes it fail to meet one or more specified parameters". It can
occur at any point, from manufacture to field service. Typically, damage results from
handling the devices in uncontrolled surroundings or when poor ESD control practices
are used. Generally, the damage is classified as either a catastrophic failure or a latent
defect.
Catastrophic Failure
When an electronic device is exposed to an ESD event, it may no longer function. The
ESD event may have caused a metal melt, junction breakdown, or oxide failure. The
device's circuitry is permanently damaged, causing the device to stop functioning totally
or at least partially. Such failures usually can be detected when the device is tested before
shipment. If a damaging level ESD event occurs after testing, the part may go into
production, and the damage will go undetected until the device fails in final testing.
Latent Failure
Per ESD ADV1.0, latent failure is "a malfunction that occurs following a period of normal
operation. Note: The failure may be attributable to an earlier electrostatic discharge event.
The concept of latent failure is controversial and not fully accepted by all in the technical
[9]
community". A device that is exposed to an ESD event may be partially degraded, yet
continue to perform its intended function. Therefore a latent defect is difficult to identify.
Still, the operating life of the device may be reduced. A product or system incorporating
devices with latent defects may experience premature failure after the user places them
in service. Such failures are usually costly to repair and, in some applications, may create
personnel hazards.
With the proper equipment, it is relatively easy to confirm that a device has experienced
a catastrophic failure as basic performance tests will substantiate device damage.
However, latent defects are challenging to prove or detect using current technology,
especially after the device is assembled into a finished product.
BASIC ESD EVENTS—WHAT CAUSES ELECTRONIC DEVICES TO FAIL?

ESD damage is usually caused by one of three events: direct ESD to the device, ESD
from the device, or field-induced discharges. Whether or not damage occurs to an ESD
susceptible item (ESDS) by an ESD event is determined by the device's ability to dissipate
the energy of the discharge or withstand the voltage levels involved. The level at which a
device fails is known as the device's ESD sensitivity or ESD susceptibility.
Discharge to the Device

An ESD event can occur when any charged conductor (including the human body)
discharges to an item. A cause of electrostatic damage could be the direct transfer of
electrostatic charge from the human body or a charged material to the ESDS. When a
person walks across a floor, an electrostatic charge accumulates on their body. Simple
contact (or proximity) of a finger to the leads of an ESDS or assembly, which is typically
at a different electrical potential, can allow the body to discharge and possibly cause ESD
damage to the ESDS. The model used to simulate this event is the human body model
(HBM). A similar discharge can occur from a charged conductive object, such as a
metallic tool or fixture. From the nature of the discharge, the model used to describe this
event is known as the machine model (MM).
Discharge from the Device

The transfer of charge from an ESDS to a conductor is also an ESD event. Static charge
may accumulate on the ESDS itself through handling or contact and separation with
packaging materials, worksurfaces, or machine surfaces. This frequently occurs when a
device moves across a surface or vibrates in a package. The model used to simulate the
transfer of charge from an ESDS is referred to as the charged device model (CDM). The
capacitances, energies, and current waveforms involved are different from those of a
discharge to the ESDS, likely resulting in different failure modes.
The trend towards automated assembly would seem to solve the problems of HBM ESD
events. However, it has been shown that components may be more sensitive to damage
when assembled by automated equipment. For example, a device may become charged
[10]
by sliding down the feeder. When it contacts the insertion head or any other conductive
surface, a rapid discharge occurs from the device to the metal object.
Field-Induced Discharges
Another electrostatic charging process that can directly or indirectly damage devices is
termed field induction. As noted earlier, whenever any object becomes electrostatically
charged, there is an electrostatic field associated with that charge. If an ESDS is placed
in the electrostatic field and grounded while located within the electrostatic field, a transfer
of charge from the device occurs as a CDM event. If the item is removed from the region
of the electrostatic field and grounded again, a second CDM event will occur as the charge
(of opposite polarity from the first event) is transferred from the device.
HOW MUCH ESD CONTROL PROTECTION IS NEEDED?

Damage to an ESDS by an ESD event is determined by the device's ability to dissipate
the energy of the discharge or withstand the voltage levels involved in the discharge. As
explained previously, these factors determine the ESD sensitivity of the device. Test
procedures based on the models of ESD events help define the sensitivity of components
to ESD. Although it is known that there is very rarely a direct correlation between the
discharges in the test procedures and real-world ESD events, defining the ESD sensitivity
of electronic components gives some guidance in determining the degree of ESD control
protection required. These procedures and more are covered in Part Five of this series.
Per ESD ADV1.0, the ESD withstand voltage is "the highest voltage level that does not
cause device failure; the device passes all tested lower voltages". Many electronic
components are susceptible to ESD damage at relatively low voltage levels. Many are
susceptible at less than 100 volts, and many disk drive components withstand voltages
even below 10 volts. Current trends in product design and development pack more
circuitry onto these miniature devices, further increasing the sensitivity to ESD and
making the potential problem even more acute. Table 3 indicates the ESD sensitivity of
various types of components.
[11]
Table 3. ESD Sensitivity of Representative Electronic Devices or Parts with
Sensitivity Associated with HBM and CDM*
Device or Part Type
Microwave devices (Schottky barrier diodes, point contact diodes and other detector
diodes >1 GHz)
Discrete MOSFET devices
Surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices
Junction field-effect transistors (JFETs)
Charged coupled devices (CCDs)
Precision voltage regulator diodes (line of load voltage regulation, <0.5%)
Operational amplifiers (OP AMPs)
Thin-film resistors
Integrated circuits
GMR and new technology Disk Drive Recording Heads
Laser Diodes
Hybrids
Very high-speed integrated circuits (VHSIC)
Silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs) with Io <0.175 amp at 10 °C ambient
*Specific Sensitivity Levels are available from supplier data sheets
SUMMARY
Part 1 of the ESD Fundamentals has discussed electrostatic charge and discharge, the
mechanisms of creating a charge, materials, types of ESD damage, ESD events, and
ESD sensitivity. We can summarize this discussion as follows:
1. Virtually all materials, including conductors, can be triboelectrically charged.
2. The amount of charge is affected by material type, speed of contact and separation,
humidity, and several other factors.
3. Charged objects have electrostatic fields.
4. ESD can damage devices, so a parameter fails immediately, or ESD damage may be
a latent defect that may escape immediate detection but may cause the device to fail
prematurely.
5. ESD can occur throughout the manufacturing, test, shipping, handling, or operational
processes, and during field service operations.
6. ESD damage can occur as the result of a discharge to the device, from the device,
or from charge transfers resulting from electrostatic fields. Devices vary significantly
in their susceptibility to ESD.
[12]
Protecting products from the effects of ESD damage begins by understanding these
fundamental concepts of electrostatic charges and discharges. An effective ESD control
program requires an effective training program where all personnel involved understand
the key concepts. See Part Two for the basic concepts of ESD control.
REFERENCES
ESD ADV 1.0, Glossary, EOS/ESD Association, Inc., Rome, NY.
ESD TR20.20, ESD Handbook, EOS/ESD Association, Inc., NY.
ESD ADV11.2, Triboelectric Charge Accumulation Testing, EOS/ESD Association, Inc.,
Rome, NY.
ANSI/ESD S20.20—Standard for the Development of Electrostatic Discharge Control
Program, EOS/ESD Association, Inc., Rome, NY.
[13]
Part Two – Principles of ESD Control – ESD Control Program
Development
© 2020, ESD Association, Rome, NY
In Part One of this series, Introduction to ESD, we discussed the basics of electrostatic
charge and discharge, the mechanisms of creating charge, materials, types of ESD
damage, ESD events, and ESD sensitivity. We concluded our discussion with the
following summary:
1. Virtually all materials, including conductors, can be triboelectrically charged.

2. The amount of charge is affected by material type, speed of contact and
separation, humidity, and several other factors.
3. Charged objects have electrostatic fields.
4. Electrostatic discharge can damage devices so a parameter fails immediately,
or ESD damage may be a latent defect that may escape immediate detection,
but may cause the device to fail prematurely.
5. Electrostatic discharge can occur throughout the manufacturing, test, shipping,
handling, or operational processes, and during field service operations.
6. ESD damage can occur as the result of a discharge to the device, from the
device, or from induction to the item resulting from electrostatic fields. Devices
vary significantly in their sensitivity or susceptibility to ESD.
Protecting products from the effects of ESD damage begins by understanding these key
concepts of electrostatic charges and discharges. An effective ESD control program
requires an effective training program where all personnel involved understand the key
concepts. Armed with this information, you can then begin to develop an effective ESD
control program. In Part Two we will focus on some basic principles of ESD control and
ESD control program development.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF STATIC CONTROL
Controlling electrostatic discharge (ESD) in the electronics manufacturing environment is
a formidable challenge. However, the task of designing and implementing ESD control
programs becomes less complex if we focus on just six basic principles of static control.
In doing so, we also need to keep in mind the ESD corollary to Murphy’s law, “no matter
what we do, static charge will try to find a way to discharge.”
1. Design In Protection
The first principle is to design products and assemblies to be as resistant as reasonable
from the effects of ESD. This involves such steps as using less static sensitive devices or
providing appropriate input protection on devices, boards, assemblies, and equipment.
For engineers and designers, the paradox is that advancing product technology requires
smaller and more complex geometries that often are more susceptible to ESD. The
Industry Council on ESD Target Levels and the ESD Association’s “Electrostatic
Discharge (ESD) Technology Roadmap”, revised April 2010, suggest that designers will
have less ability to provide the protection levels that were available in the past.
Consequently, the ESD target levels are reduced to 1000 volts for Human Body Model
robustness and 250 volts for Charged Device Model robustness, with tendency to reduce
these values further. Those target values are considered to be realistic and safe levels
for manufacturing and handling of today’s products using basic ESD control methods as
described in international industry standards as e.g. ANSI/ESD S20.20 or IEC 61340-5-
1. When devices with lower ESD target levels must be used and handled, application-
specific controls beyond the principles described here may be required. Users should
refer to the most recent update by the Industry Council.
2. Define the Level of Control Needed in Your Environment.

What is the most sensitive or ESD susceptible (ESDS) item you are using and what is the
withstand voltage classification of the products that you are manufacturing and shipping?
In order to get an idea of what is required, it is best to know the Human-Body Model
(HBM) and Charged-Device Model (CDM) sensitivity levels for all devices that will be
handled in your facility. ANSI/ESD S20.20 and IEC 61350-5-1 define control program
requirements for items that are sensitive to 100 volts HBM and 200 volts CDM. With
proper documentation and objective evidence, both standards allow the requirements to
be tailored as appropriate for specific situations.
3. Identify and Define the Electrostatic Protected Areas (EPA).

Per Glossary ESD ADV1.0 an ESD protected area is “A defined location with the
necessary materials, tools and equipment capable of controlling static electricity to a level
that minimizes damage to ESD susceptible items”. These are the areas in which you will
be handling ESDS items and the areas in which you will need to implement the basic ESD
control procedures including bonding or electrically connecting all conductive and
dissipative materials, including personnel, to a known common ground.
[2]
4. Reduce Electrostatic Charge Generation
If projections of ESD sensitivity are correct, ESD protection measures in product design
will be increasingly less effective in minimizing ESD losses. The fourth principle of control
is to reduce electrostatic charge generation and accumulation in the first place. It’s fairly
basic: no charge – no discharge. We begin by eliminating as many static charge
generating processes or materials, specifically high-charging insulators such as common
plastics, as possible from the EPA work environment. We keep conductive/dissipative
materials at the same electrostatic potential using equipotential bonding or attaching to
equipment ground. Electrostatic discharge does not occur between materials kept at the
same potential. In the EPA, ESD control items such as worksurface mats, flooring,
smocks, etc. which are to be attached to ground to reduce charge generation and
accumulation should be used in place of more common factory products. Personnel are
grounded via wrist straps or a flooring/footwear system. While the basic principle of
“controlling static electricity to a level that minimizes damage” should be followed,
complete removal of charge generation is not achievable.
5. Dissipate and Neutralize

Because we simply can’t eliminate all generation of electrostatic charge in the EPA, our
fifth principle is to safely dissipate or neutralize those electrostatic charges that do occur.
Proper grounding and the use of conductive or dissipative materials play major roles. For
example, personnel starting work may have a charge on their body; they can have that
charge removed by attachment to a wrist strap or when they step on ESD flooring while
wearing ESD control footwear. The charge goes to ground rather than being discharged
into a sensitive part. To prevent damaging a charged device, the magnitude of the
discharge current can be controlled with static dissipative materials.
For some objects, such as common plastics and other insulators, being non-conductors,
grounding cannot remove an electrostatic charge because there is not a pathway
conductive enough to reduce the charge in a reasonable time. If the object cannot be
eliminated from the EPA, ionization can be used to neutralize charges on these insulators.
The ionization process generates negative and positive ions. The like charged ions are
repelled from a charged object while the opposite charged ions are attracted to the
surface of a charged object, therefore neutralizing the object (see Figure 1). A balanced
Ionizer, with limits set forth in Table 3 of ANSI/ESD S20.20, will effectively produce both
negative and positive ions which will result in a net charge of zero.
[3]
Figure 1: Principle of neutralization of a charged object by an ionizer that generates negative
and positive ions. The like charged ions are repelled from a charged object while the opposite
charged ions are attracted to the surface of a charged object, neutralizing the object
6. Protect Products
Our final ESD control principle is to prevent discharges that do occur from reaching
susceptible parts and assemblies. There are a variety of ESD control packaging and
material handling products to use both inside and outside the EPA. One way is to protect
ESDS items with proper grounding or shunting that will “dissipate” any discharge away
from the product. A second method is to package, store, or transport ESDS items in
packaging that is low charging and conductive/dissipative so it can dissipate charges
when grounded. In addition to these properties, packaging used to move ESDS items
outside the EPA should have the control property of “discharge shielding”. These
materials should effectively shield the product from charges and discharges, as well as
reduce the generation of charge caused by any movement of product within the container.
[4]
ELEMENTS OF AN EFFECTIVE ESD CONTROL PROGRAM
While these six principles may seem rather basic, they can guide us in the selection of
appropriate materials and procedures to use in effectively controlling ESD. In most
circumstances, effective programs will involve all of these principles. No single procedure
or product will do the whole job; rather effective static control requires a full ESD control
program.
How do we develop and maintain a program that puts these basic principles into practice?
How do we start? What is the process? What do we do first? Ask a dozen experts and
you may get a dozen different answers. But, if you dig a little deeper, you will find that
most of the answers center on similar key elements. You will also find that starting and
maintaining an ESD control program is similar to many other business activities and
projects. Although each company is unique in terms of its ESD control needs, there are
at least 6 critical elements to successfully developing, implementing, and maintaining an
effective ESD control program (see Figure 2).
ESD
Coordinator,
ESD Team
Process/
Compliance
Facility
Verification
Assessment
ESD
Control
Program
ESD Control
Training Program
Plan Plan
Manage-
ment
Support
Figure 2: Six critical elements of a successful ESD control program
1. Establish an ESD Coordinator and ESD Teams

A team approach particularly applies to ESD because the problems and the solutions
cross various functions, departments, divisions and suppliers in most companies. ESD
[5]
team composition includes line employees as well as department heads or other
management personnel. The ESD team may also cut across functions such as incoming
inspection, quality, training, automation, packaging, and test. ESD teams or committees
help assure a variety of viewpoints, the availability of the needed expertise, and
commitment to success. An active ESD team helps unify the ongoing effort.
Heading this ESD team effort is an ESD program coordinator (“ESD coordinator”). Ideally,
this responsibility should be a full-time job. However, we seldom operate in an ideal
environment and you may have to settle for the function to be a major responsibility of an
individual. The ESD coordinator is responsible for developing, budgeting, and
administering the program. The ESD coordinator also serves as the company’s internal
ESD consultant to all ESD control programs areas.
2. Assess Your Organization, Facility, Processes and Losses

Your next step is to gain a thorough understanding of your environment and its impact on
ESD. Armed with your product quality loss and ESD sensitivity data, you can evaluate
your facility, looking for areas and procedures that may possibly cause ESD problems.
Be on the lookout for things such as static generating materials, personnel handling
procedures for ESDS items, and contacts of ESDS items to conductors.
Document your processes or work instructions. Observe the movement of people and
materials through the areas. Note those areas that would appear to have the greatest
potential for ESD problems. Remember, that ESD can occur in the warehouse just as it
can in the assembly areas. Then conduct a thorough facility survey or audit. Measure
personnel, equipment, and materials to identify proper resistance ranges and the
presence of electrostatic fields in your environment.
Before seeking solutions to your problems, you will need to determine the extent of your
product quality losses to ESD. These losses may be reflected in receiving reports, Quality
Assurance and Quality Control records, customer returns, in-plant yields, failure analysis
reports, and other data that you may already have or that you need to gather. This
information not only identifies the magnitude of the problem, but also helps to pinpoint
and prioritize areas that need attention. Where available, the potential for future problems
as a result of technology roadmaps and internal product evolution should be considered.
Document your actual and potential ESD losses in terms of defective components,
rework, customer returns, and failures during final test and inspection. Use data from
outside sources or the results of your pilot program for additional support. Develop
estimates of the savings to be realized from implementing an ESD control program.
You will also want to identify those items (components, assemblies, and finished
products) that are the most sensitive to ESD noting the classification or withstand voltage.
Note that two functionally identical items from two different suppliers may not have similar
[6]
ESD ratings.
3. Establish and Document Your ESD Control Program Plan

After completing your assessment, you can begin to develop and document your ESD
control program plan. The plan should cover the scope of the program and include the
tasks, activities and procedures necessary to protect the ESDS items at or above the
ESD sensitivity level chosen for the plan. Prepare and distribute written procedures and
specifications so that all departments have a clear understanding of what is to be done.
Fully documented procedures will help you meet the administrative and technical
elements of ANSI/ESD S20.20 or IEC 61340-5-1 and help you with ISO 9000 certification
as well.
4. Build Justification to Get the Top Management Support

To be successful, an ESD program requires the support of your top management, at the
highest level possible. What level of commitment is required? To obtain commitment, you
will need to build justification for the plan. You will need to emphasize quality and
reliability, the costs of ESD damage, the impact of ESD on customer service and product
performance. It may be useful to conduct a pilot program if the experience of other
companies is not sufficient and you have an expectation that you can show meaningful
results in the pilot.
Prepare a short corporate policy statement on ESD control. Have top management co-
sign it with the ESD coordinator. Periodically, reaffirm the policy statement and
management’s commitment to it. Published articles such as The “Real” Cost of ESD
Damage by Terry Welsher should be provided to top management.
5. Develop and Implement a Training Plan

Train and retrain your personnel in ESD control and your company’s ESD control program
and procedures. Training should include testing or other methods to verify
comprehension. Proper training for line personnel is especially important. They are often
the ones who have to live with the procedures on a day-to-day basis. A sustained
commitment and mindset among all employees that ESD prevention is a valuable, on-
going effort by everyone is one of the primary goals of training. Please be aware that it
might be necessary to tailor the ESD training to the education of the trainees.
ANSI/ESD S20.20 requires a written training plan, however, your company has the
flexibility to determine how best to design the plan.
6. Develop and Implement a Compliance Verification Plan

Developing and implementing the program itself is obvious. What might not be so obvious
is the need to continually review, audit, analyze, obtain feedback and improve. Auditing
is essential to ensure that the ESD control program is successful. You will be asked to
[7]
continually identify the return on investment of the program and to justify the savings
realized. Technological changes will dictate improvements and modifications. Feedback
to employees and top management is essential. Management commitment will need
reinforcement.
Include both reporting and feedback to management, the ESD team, and other
employees as part of your plan. Management will want to know that their investment in
time and money is yielding a return in terms of quality, reliability and profits. ESD team
members need a pat on the back for a job well done. Other employees will want to know
that the procedures you have asked them to follow are indeed worthwhile. It is helpful to
integrate the process improvement process into the overall quality system and use the
existing quality tools such as root cause analysis and corrective action reports. As you
find areas that need work, be sure to make the necessary adjustments to keep the
program on track.
Conduct periodic evaluations of your program and audits of your facility. You will find out
if your program is successful and is giving you the expected return. You will spot
weaknesses in the program and shore them up. You will discover whether the procedures
are being followed.
ANSI/ESD S20.20 and IEC 61340-5-1 require a written compliance verification plan,
however, your company has the flexibility to determine how best to design the plan. Test
procedures are described in ESD TR53 which is available as complimentary download
from www.ESDA.org. The objective is to identify if significant changes in ESD equipment
and materials performance have occurred over time. Each user will need to develop their
own set of test frequencies based on the critical nature of those ESDS items handled and
the risk of failure for the ESD protective equipment and materials.
CONCLUSION
Six principles of ESD control and six key elements to ESD control program development
and implementation are your guideposts for effective ESD control programs.
[8]
The six basic principles of static control are:
1. Design in protection
2. Define the level of control needed in your environment
3. Identify and define the electrostatic protected areas (EPA)
4. Reduce electrostatic charge generation
5. Dissipate and neutralize
6. Protect products
Six key elements to to ESD control program development and implementation are:
1. Establish an ESD Coordinator and ESD teams

2. Assess your organization, facility, processes and losses
3. Establish and document your ESD control program plan
4. Build justification to get the top management support
5. Develop and implement a training plan
6. Develop and implement a compliance verification plan
In Part Three, we’ll take a close look at specific procedures and materials that become part of your
ESD control program.
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

ANSI/ESD S20.20– Standard for the Development of Electrostatic Discharge Control
Program, ESD Association, Rome, NY.
Dangelmayer, Theodore, ESD Program Management: A Realistic Approach to
Continuous, Measurable Improvement in Static Control, 1999, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Boston, MA
ESD TR20.20, ESD Control Handbook, ESD Association, Rome, NY.
ESD TR53, Compliance Verification of ESD Protective Equipment and Materials, ESD
Association, Rome, NY.
Industry Council on ESD Target Levels, White Paper I: “A Case for Lowering Component
Level HBM/MM ESD Specifications and Requirements”, Revision 2.0, October 2010.
Industry Council on ESD Target Levels, White Paper II: “A Case for Lowering Component
Level CDM ESD Specifications and Requirements”, Revision 2.0, April 2010.
ESDA Technology Roadmap, March 2013
IEC 61340-5-1 “Electrostatics – Part 5.1: Protection of electronic devices from
electrostatic phenomena – General requirements”, IEC, Geneva, Switzerland.
Terry Welsher, The “Real” Cost of ESD Damage, InCompliance, May 01, 2010.
[9]
Part Three—Basic ESD Control Procedures and Materials
In Part Two, Principles of ESD Control – ESD Control Program Development, we

introduced six principles of static control and six key elements of ESD program
development and implementation. In Part Three, we will cover basic static control
procedures and materials that will become part of your ESD control program. First, we
review the principles.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF STATIC CONTROL

We suggested focusing on just six basic principles in the development and
implementation of effective ESD control programs:
1. Design in protection by designing products and assemblies to be as robust

as reasonable from the effects of ESD.
2. Define the level of control needed in your environment.
3. Identify and define the electrostatic protected areas (EPAs), the areas in
which you will be handling ESD susceptible (ESDS) items.
4. Reduce Electrostatic charge generation by reducing and eliminating static
generating processes, keeping processes and materials at the same
electrostatic potential, and by providing appropriate ground paths to reduce
charge generation and accumulation.
5. Dissipate and neutralize by grounding, ionization, and the use of conductive
and dissipative static control materials.
6. Protect products from ESD with proper grounding or shunting and the use
of static control packaging and material handling products.
At the facility level, our ESD control efforts concentrate on the last five principles. Here
in Part Three, we will concentrate on the primary materials and procedures that reduce
electrostatic charge generation, remove charges to ground, and neutralize charges to
protect ESDS items.
[1]
IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEM AREAS AND THE LEVEL OF CONTROL
One of the first questions we need to answer is, "How sensitive to ESD are the parts
and/or assemblies we are manufacturing or handling?" This information will guide you in
determining the various procedures and materials required to control ESD in your
environment.
How do you determine the sensitivity of your parts and assemblies or where can you get
information about their ESD classification or withstand voltage? A first source would be
the manufacturer or supplier of the component itself or by using the part data sheet
associated with that component. It is critical that you obtain both Human Body Model
(HBM) and Charged Device Model (CDM) ratings. You may also find that you need to
have your specific device tested for ESD sensitivity using ANSI/ESDA/JEDEC JS-001
(HBM) and ANSI/ESDA/JEDEC JS-002 (CDM). However, be aware that the correlation
between voltages used for device qualification and static voltages measured in the field
is weak.
The second question you need to answer is "Which areas of our facility need ESD
protection?" This will allow you to define your specific electrostatic protected areas
(EPAs), the areas in which you will be handling sensitive parts and the areas in which
you will need to implement the ESD control principles. Often you will find that there are
more areas that require protection than you originally thought, usually wherever
exposed ESDS items are handled. Typical areas requiring ESD protection are shown in
Table 1.
[2]
Table 1
Typical Facility Areas Requiring ESD Protection
Receiving
Inspection
Stores and Warehouses
Assembly
Test and Inspection
Research and Development
Packaging
Field Service Repair
Rework and Repair Center
Offices and Laboratories
Cleanrooms
GROUNDING
Grounding is especially important for effective ESD control. It should be clearly defined,
and regularly evaluated.
The equipment grounding conductor provides a path to bring ESD protective materials
and personnel to the same electrical potential. All conductors and dissipative materials
in the environment, including personnel, must be bonded or electrically connected to a
known ground, or create an equipotential balance between all items and personnel.
ESD protection can be maintained at a charge or potential above a "zero" voltage
ground reference as long as all items in the system are at the same potential. It is
important to note that insulators, by definition non-conductors, cannot lose their
electrostatic charge by connection to ground.
[3]
ESD Association Standard ANSI/ESD S6.1-Grounding recommends a two-step
procedure for grounding ESD control items in the EPA.
The first step is to ground all components of the workstation and the personnel
(worksurfaces, equipment, etc.) to the same electrical ground point, called the "common
point ground." This common point ground is defined as a "system or method for
connecting two or more grounding conductors to the same electrical potential."
Figure 1: Common Point This ESD common point ground should be properly
Ground Symbol identified. ESD Association standard ANSI/ESD S8.1 –
Symbols, recommends the use of the symbol in Figure 1 to
identify the common point ground.
The second step is to connect the common point ground to

the equipment grounding conductor (AC ground) or the third
wire (typically green) electrical ground connection. This is
the preferred ground connection because all electrical
equipment at the workstation is already connected to this
ground. Connecting the ESD control materials or equipment
to the equipment ground brings all components of the
workstation to the same electrical potential. If a soldering
iron used to repair an ESDS item were connected to the
electrical ground and the surface containing the ESDS item were connected to an
auxiliary ground, a difference in electrical potential could exist between the iron and the
ESDS item. This difference in potential could cause damage to the item.
Any auxiliary ground (water pipe, building frame, ground stake) present and used at the
workstation must be bonded to the equipment grounding conductor to minimize
differences in potential between the two grounds. Detailed information on ESD
grounding can be found in ESD Association standard ANSI/ESD S6.1, Grounding, and
the ESD Handbook ESD TR20.20, and/or CLC/TR 61340-5-2 User guide.
CONTROLLING STATIC CHARGE ON PERSONNEL AND MOVING EQUIPMENT

People can be one of the prime generators of static electricity. The simple act of walking
around or the motions required in repairing a circuit board, can generate several
thousand volts of electrostatic charge on the human body. If not properly controlled, this
static charge can easily discharge into an ESDS item – a typical HBM discharge. Also, a
person can transfer charge to a circuit board or other item making it vulnerable to CDM
events in a subsequent process.
Even in highly automated assembly and test processes, people still handle ESDS items,
this includes but is not limited to:in the warehouse, in repair, in the lab, in transport. For
this reason, ESD control programs place considerable emphasis on controlling
electrostatic charge on personnel. Similarly, the movement of mobile equipment (such
[4]
as carts or trolleys) and other wheeled equipment through the facility also can generate
substantial static charges that can transfer to the products being transported on this
equipment.
WRIST STRAPS
Typically, wrist straps are the primary means of grounding personnel and can also offer
equipotential bonding in field service repairs. When properly worn and connected to
ground, or the equipotential bonding point, a wrist strap keeps the person wearing it at
ground potential or the same potential as the object when ground connection cannot be
achieved. Because the person and other grounded objects in the work area are at the
same potential, there can be no hazardous discharge between them. In addition, static
charges are removed from the person to ground and do not accumulate. When
personnel are seated and handling exposed ESDS items, they are to be grounded using
a wrist strap.
Wrist straps have two major components, the wristband that goes around the person's
wrist and the ground cord that connects the wristband to the common point ground.
Most wrist straps have a current limiting resistor molded into the ground cord on the end
that connects to the wristband. Per Ohm's Law, current is equal to voltage divided by
resistance; therefore, adding resistance to the "circuit" of the operator to ground will limit
the amount of current flowing through the wrist strap cord. This resistor is most
commonly one megohm, rated at least 1/4 watt with a working voltage rating of 250
volts. For personnel safety, if the operator will be exposed to electrical circuits of 250
volts or higher, wrist straps must not be used.
Wrist straps have several failure mechanisms and therefore should be tested on a
regular basis. Either daily testing at specific test stations or using a continuous monitor
at the workbench is recommended.
[5]
FLOORING, FLOOR MATS, FLOOR FINISHES
A second method of grounding personnel is a Flooring/Footwear System achieved by
using ESD control flooring systems in conjunction with ESD control footwear. This
combination of conductive or dissipative floor materials and footwear provides a safe
ground path for the dissipation of electrostatic charge, thus reducing the charge
accumulation on personnel. In addition to dissipating charge, some floor materials (and
floor finishes) also reduce triboelectric charging. The use of a Flooring/Footwear System
is especially appropriate in those areas where increased personnel mobility is
necessary. In addition, floor materials can minimize charge accumulation on chairs,
mobile equipment (such as carts and trolleys), lift trucks and other objects that move
across the floor. However, those items require dissipative or conductive casters or
wheels to make electrical contact with the floor, and components to be electrically
connected. When used as the personnel grounding system, the resistance to ground
including the person, footwear and floor must be less than 1.0 x 10 9 (ANSI/ESD
STM97.1) and the accumulation body voltage in a standard walking voltage test
(ANSI/ESD STM97.2) must be less than 100 volts. Please note that both limits must be
met.
ESD CONTROL FOOTWEAR, CASTERS

Used in combination with ESD control flooring systems, ESD control footwear, casters
and wheels provide the necessary electrical contact between the person or object and
the flooring system. When working with exposed ESDS items, insulative footwear,
casters, or wheels must be avoided as these items prevent static charges from flowing
from the body or mobile equipment to ground through the ESD control items.
CLOTHING
Clothing is a consideration in most EPAs, especially in cleanrooms and very dry
environments. Clothing materials, particularly those made of synthetic fabrics, can
generate electrostatic charges that may discharge into ESDS items or they may create
electrostatic fields that may induce charges. Because clothing usually is electrically
insulated or isolated from the body, charges on clothing fabrics are not necessarily
dissipated to the skin and then to ground. Static control garments may suppress or
otherwise affect an electric field from clothing worn underneath the garment. Per
ANSI/ESD S20.20 and the Garment standard ANSI/ESD STM2.1, there are three
categories of ESD garment:
 ESD Category 1 garment; a static control garment without being attached to

ground. However, without grounding, a charge may accumulate on conductive or
dissipative elements of a garment, if present, resulting in a charged source.
 ESD Category 2 garment; a groundable static control garment, when
connected to ground, provides a higher level of suppression of the affects of an
electric field from clothing worn underneath the garment.
 ESD Category 3 garment; a groundable static control garment system also
bonds the skin of the person to an identified ground path. The total system
[6]
resistance including the person, garment and grounding cord shall be less
than 35 megohms.
WORKSTATIONS AND WORK SURFACES

An ESD protective workstation refers to the work area of a single individual that is
constructed and equipped with materials and equipment to limit damage to ESDS items.
It may be a stand-alone station in a stockroom, warehouse, or assembly area, or in a
field location such as a computer bay in commercial aircraft. A workstation also may be
located in a controlled area such as a cleanroom. The key ESD control elements
comprising most workstations are a static dissipative worksurface, a means of
grounding personnel (usually a wrist strap), a common point ground, and appropriate
signage and labeling. A typical workstation is shown in Figure 2.
The workstation provides a means for connecting all worksurfaces, fixtures, handling
equipment, and grounding devices to a common point ground. In addition, there may be
provision for connecting additional personnel grounding devices, equipment, and
accessories such as constant or continuous monitors and ionizers.
ESD protective worksurfaces with a resistance to ground of 1.0 x 10 6 to 1.0 x 109

provide a surface that is at the same electrical potential as other ESD control items at
the workstation. They also provide an electrical path to ground for the controlled
dissipation of any static charges on materials that contact the surface. The ESD
protective worksurface also helps define a specific work area in which ESDS items are
to be handled. The ESD protective worksurface is connected to the common point
ground.
[7]
Figure 2: Typical ESD Workstation
CONTINUOUS OR CONSTANT MONITORS

Continuous (or constant) monitors are designed to provide ongoing testing of the wrist
strap system. While a number of technologies are utilized, the goal remains consistent:
electrical connections are tested between the ground point, ground cord, wristband and
person's body while the wearer handles ESDS items. Continuous monitors may also
provide a monitoring circuit for the ESD protective worksurface or other equipment
connection to the ground reference.
Typical test programs recommend that wrist straps that are used daily should be tested
daily. However, if ESDS items are sensitive to a value that a continuous, reliable ground
is needed; then continuous monitoring should be considered or even required. Daily
wrist strap testing may be omitted if continuous monitoring is used. Users should
research the different types of continuous monitoring systems, sensitivities of their
ESDS items, and which system will work best for their ESD Control Program.
[8]
PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT AND PRODUCTION AIDS
Although personnel can be one of the prime generators of electrostatic charge,
automated manufacturing and test equipment also can pose an ESD problem. For
example, an ESDS item may become charged from sliding down a component part
feeder. If the device then contacts the insertion head or another conductive surface, a
rapid discharge occurs from the device to the metal object and a CDM event takes
place. If charging of the ESDS item cannot be avoided – which is quite often the case in
modern assembly lines due to the insulative IC packages – charge stored on packaging
materials should be reduced by the use of ionizers. In addition, various production aids
such as hand tools, tapes, or solvents can also be concerns when handling exposed
ESDS items.
Grounding is the primary means of controlling static charge on equipment and many
production aids. Much electrical equipment is required by the National Electrical Code to
be connected to the equipment ground (the green wire) in order to carry fault currents.
This ground connection also will function for ESD control purposes. All electrical tools
and equipment used to process or handle ESDS items require the 3 prong grounded
type AC plug. Hand tools that are not electrically powered, i.e., pliers, wire cutters, and
tweezers, are usually grounded through the ESD protective worksurface and the
grounded person using the conductive/dissipative tools. Holding fixtures should be
made of conductive or static dissipative materials when possible; static dissipative
materials are often suggested when very sensitive devices are being handled. A
separate ground wire may be required for conductive or dissipative fixtures not in
contact with an ESD protective worksurface or handled by a grounded person. For
those items that are composed of insulative materials, the use of ionization or
application of topical antistats may be required to control electrostatic charge generation
and accumulation of static charges.
GLOVES AND FINGER COTS

Certainly, grounded personnel handling ESDS items should not be wearing gloves or
finger cots made from insulative material. If gloves or finger cots are used, the material
should be dissipative or conductive. ESD TR53 provides test procedures for measuring
the electrical resistance of gloves or finger cots together with personnel in a system.
PACKAGING MATERIAL HANDLING CONTAINERS

Inside the EPA, packaging and material handling containers are to be low charging and
be dissipative or conductive. Outside the EPA packaging and material handling
containers are to also have a structure that provides electrostatic discharge shielding.
Direct protection of ESDS items from electrostatic discharge is provided by packaging

materials such as shielding bags, corrugated boxes, and rigid or semi-rigid plastic
packages. The primary use of these items is to protect the product when it leaves the
facility, usually when shipped to a customer. In addition, material handling containers
such as tote boxes and other containers primarily provide protection during inter- or
intra-facility transport.
[9]
When used with ESDS items the main function of packaging and materials handling
containers is to limit the possible impact of ESD from triboelectric charge generation,
direct discharge, and in some cases electrostatic fields. The initial consideration is to
have low charging materials in contact with ESDS items. For example, the low charging
property would control triboelectric charge resulting from sliding a board or component
into the package or container. A second requirement is that the material can be
grounded so the resistance range must be conductive or dissipative. A third property
required outside the EPA is to provide protection from direct electrostatic discharges
which would make the packaging and material handling container discharge shielding.
Many materials are available that provide all three properties: low charging, resistance,
and discharge shielding. The inside of these packaging materials has a low charging
layer, but also has an outer layer with a surface resistance conductive or dissipative
range. Per the Packaging standard ANSI/ESD S541, a low-charging, conductive or
dissipative package is required for packaging or material handling containers within an
EPA. Outside the EPA, the packaging or material handling containers must also have
the discharge shielding property. Effectiveness, cost and device vulnerability to the
various mechanisms need to be balanced in making packaging decisions (see
ANSI/ESD S541, the ESD Handbook ESD TR20.20, and/or CLC/TR 61340-5-2 User
guide for more detailed information).
Resistance or resistivity measurements help define the material's ability to provide

electrostatic shielding or charge dissipation.
 Electrostatic shielding attenuates electrostatic fields on the surface of a package to
prevent a difference in electrical potential from existing inside the package.
 Discharge shielding is provided by materials that have a surface resistance equal to
3
or less than 1 × 10 ohm when tested according to ANSI/ESD STM11.11 or a
3
volume resistance of equal to or less than 1 × 10 ohm-cm when tested according to
the methods of ANSI/ESD STM11.12. In addition, effective shielding may be
provided by packaging materials that provide a sufficiently large air gap between the
package and the ESDS items. The ability of some packages to provide discharge
shielding may be evaluated using ANSI/ESD STM11.31 which measures the energy
transferred to the package interior.
 Dissipative materials provide charge dissipation characteristics. These materials
4 11
have a surface resistance greater than 1 × 10 ohm but less than 1 × 10 ohm when
tested according to ANSI/ESD STM11.11 or a volume resistance greater than 1.0 ×
5 12
10 ohm-cm but less than or equal to 1.0 × 10 ohm-cm when tested according to
the methods of ANSI/ESD STM11.12.
 A material's low charging properties are not necessarily predicted by its resistance or
resistivity.
[10]
IONIZATION
Most static control programs also deal with isolated conductors that are not grounded,
or insulating materials (e.g., most common plastics) that cannot be grounded. Topical
antistats may provide temporary ability to dissipate static charges under some
circumstances.
More frequently, however, air ionization is used to neutralize the static charge on
insulated and isolated objects by producing a balanced source of positively and
negatively charged ions. Whatever static charge is present on objects in the work
environment will be reduced, neutralized by attracting opposite polarity charges from the
air. Because it uses only the air that is already present in the work environment, air
ionization may be employed even in cleanrooms where chemical sprays and some
static dissipative materials are not usable.
Air ionization is one component of a complete ESD control program, and not a
substitute for grounding or other methods. Ionizers are used when it is not possible to
properly ground everything and as backup to other static control methods. In
cleanrooms, air ionization may be one of the few methods of static control available.
See Ionization standard ANSI/ESD STM3.1, ANSI/ESD SP3.3, and ESD TR53 for
testing offset voltage (balance) and discharge times of ionizers.
CLEANROOMS
While the basic methods of static control discussed here are applicable in most
environments, cleanroom manufacturing processes require special considerations.
Many objects integral to the semiconductor manufacturing process (quartz, glass,

plastic, and ceramic) are inherently charge generating. Because these materials are
insulators, this charge cannot be removed by grounding. Many static control materials
contain carbon particles or surfactant additives that sometimes restrict their use in
cleanrooms. The need for personnel mobility and the use of cleanroom garments often
make the use of wrist straps difficult. In these circumstances, ionization and ESD control
flooring/footwear systems become key weapons against a static charge.
IDENTIFICATION
A final element in our ESD control program is the use of appropriate symbols to identify
ESDS items, as well as specialty products intended to control ESD. The two most
widely accepted symbols for identifying ESDS items or ESD control protective materials
as defined in ESD Association Standard ANSI/ESD S8.1 — ESD Awareness Symbols.
[11]
Figure 3: The ESD Susceptibility Symbol (Figure 3) consists of a
ESD Susceptibility Symbol triangle, a reaching hand, and a slash through the reaching
hand. The triangle means "caution" and the slash through
the reaching hand means "Don't touch." Because of its
broad usage, the hand in the triangle has become
associated with ESD, and the symbol literally translates to
"ESD sensitive stuff, don't touch."
The ESD Susceptibility Symbol is applied directly to

integrated circuits, boards, and assemblies that are ESD
susceptible. It indicates that handling or use of this item
may result in damage from ESD if proper precautions are
not taken. Operators should be grounded prior to handling.
If desired, the sensitivity level of the item may be added to the label.
Figure 4: The ESD Protective Symbol (Figure 4) consists of the

ESD Protective Symbol reaching hand in the triangle. An arc around the triangle
replaces the slash. This "umbrella" means protection. The
symbol indicates ESD protective material. It is applied to
mats, chairs, wrist straps, garments, packaging, and other
items that provide ESD protection. It also may be used on
equipment such as hand tools, conveyor belts, or
automated handlers that are especially designed or
modified to provide ESD control properties (low charging,
conductive/dissipative resistance, and/or discharge
shielding).
SUMMARY
Effective ESD control programs require a variety of procedures and materials. The ESD
coordinator should release and control regularly a list of the specific ESD control
products permitted to be used in the facility's ESD control program. We have provided a
brief overview of the most commonly used products. Additional in-depth discussion of
individual materials and procedures can be found in publications such as the ESD
Handbook (ESD TR20.20) published by the ESD Association or the CLC/TR 61340-5-2
User guide.
Your program is up and running. How do you determine whether it is effective? How do
you make sure your employees follow it? In Part Four, we will cover the topics of
Auditing and Training.
[12]
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
ESD Association Standards
ANSI/ESD S1.1: Wrist Straps, ESD Association, Rome, NY 13440
ANSI/ESD STM2.1: Garments-Characterization, ESD Association, Rome, NY 13440
ANSI/ESD STM3.1: Ionization, ESD Association, Rome, NY 13440
ANSI/ESD SP3.3: Periodic Verification of Air Ionizers, ESD Association, Rome, NY
13440
ANSI/ESD STM4.1: Worksurfaces-Resistance Measurements, ESD Association, Rome,
NY 13440
ANSI/ESD STM4.2: ESD Protective Worksurfaces - Charge Dissipation Characteristics,
ESD Association, Rome, NY 13440
ANSI/ESD S6.1: Grounding, ESD Association, Rome, NY 13440
ANSI/ESD STM7.1: Resistive Characterization of Materials-Floor Materials, ESD
Association, Rome, NY 13440
ANSI/ESD S8.1: Symbols-ESD Awareness, ESD Association, Rome, NY 13440
ANSI/ESD STM9.1: Footwear-Resistive Characterization, ESD Association, Rome, NY
13440
ESD SP9.2: Footwear-Foot Grounders Resistive Characterization, ESD Association,
Rome, NY 13440
ANSI/ESD SP10.1: Automated Handling Equipment, ESD Association, Rome, NY
13440
ANSI/ESD STM11.11: Surface Resistance Measurement of Static Dissipative Planar
Materials, ESD Association, Rome, NY 13440
ANSI/ESD STM11.12: Volume Resistance Measurement of Static Dissipative Planar
Materials, ESD Association, Rome, NY 13440
ANSI/ESD STM11.13: Two-Point Resistance Measurement, ESD Association, Rome,
NY 13440
ANSI/ESD STM11.31: Evaluating the Performance of Electrostatic Discharge Shielding
Bags, ESD Association, Rome, NY 13440
ANSI/ESD STM12.1: Seating-Resistive Measurement, ESD Association, Rome, NY
13440
ESD STM13.1: Electrical Soldering/Desoldering Hand Tools, ESD Association, Rome,
NY 13440
ANSI/ESD SP15.1: In-Use Resistance Testing of Gloves and Finger Cots, ESD
ANSI/ESD S20.20: Standard for the Development of an ESD Control Program, ESD
[13]
ANSI/ESD STM97.1: Floor Materials and Footwear - Resistance in Combination with a
Person, ESD Association, Rome, NY 13440
ANSI/ESD STM97.2: Floor Materials and Footwear - Voltage Measurement in
Combination with a Person, ESD Association, Rome, NY 13440
ANSI/ESD S541: Packaging Materials for ESD Susceptible Items , ESD Association,
Rome, NY 13440
ESD ADV1.0: Glossary of Terms, ESD Association, Rome, NY 13440
ESD ADV11.2: Triboelectric Charge Accumulation Testing, ESD Association, Rome, NY
13440
ESD ADV53.1: ESD Protective Workstations, ESD Association, Rome, NY 13440
ESD TR20.20: ESD Handbook, ESD Association, Rome, NY 13440
ESD TR53: Compliance Verification of ESD Protective Equipment and Materials, ESD
Other Resources
System Reliability Center, 201 Mill Street, Rome, NY 13440
ANSI/IEEE STD142, IEEE Green Book, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
ANSI/NFPA 70, National Electrical Code, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy,
MA
CLC/TR 61340-5-2 User guide, European Committee for Electrotechnical
Standardization, Brussels
[14]
Part Four – Training and Compliance Verification Auditing
Your static control program is up and running. How do you determine whether it
is effective? How do you make sure your employees follow it? In Part Three, we
covered basic static control procedures and materials of your ESD Control
Program. In Part Four, we will focus on two ESD Control Program plan
requirements: training and compliance verification auditing. Per ANSI/ESD
S20.20 and IEC 61340-5-1, the written ESD control plan is to include a training
plan and a compliance verification plan.
PERSONNEL TRAINING
The procedures are in place. The materials are in use. But, your ESD Control
Program just does not seem to yield the expected results. Failures declined
initially, but they have begun reversing direction. Or perhaps there was little
improvement. The solutions might not be apparent in inspection reports of
incoming ESD protective materials. Nor in the wrist strap log of test results. In
large companies or small, it is hard to overestimate the role of training in an ESD
Control Program. ANSI/ESD S20.20 and IEC 61340-5-1 ESD Control Program
standards cite training as a basic administrative requirement within an ESD
Control Program.
There is significant evidence to support the contribution of training to the success

of the program. We would not send employees to the factory floor without the
proper soldering skills or the knowledge to operate the automated insertion
equipment. We should provide them with the same skill level regarding ESD
control procedures.
ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE TRAINING PROGRAMS

Although individual requirements cause training programs to vary from company
to company, there are several common threads that run through the successful
programs.
1. Successful training programs cover all affected employees.

We train the line employees who handle ESD susceptible (ESDS) items
and typically test their wrist straps or place finished products in ESD
protective packaging. But we also include department heads, upper
management, and executive personnel in the process. Typically they are
responsible for the day-to-day supervision and administration of the
program, or they provide leadership and support. Even subcontractors and
suppliers should be considered for inclusion in the training program if they
are directly involved in handling your ESDS items.
[1]
Because ESD Control Programs cover such a variety of job disciplines
and educational levels, it may be necessary to develop specialized
training modules for each organizational entity. For example, the modules
developed for management, engineering, assembly technicians, and field
service could differ significantly from one another because their day-to-day
concerns and responsibilities are much different. Also, different education
and skills should be considered.
2. Effective training is comprehensive and consistent.

Training not only covers specific procedures but also the physics of the
problem and the benefits of the program as well. Consistent content
across various groups, facilities, and even countries (adjusted for cultural
differences) reduces confusion and helps assure conformance. The
training content should include topics such as the fundamentals of static
electricity and electrostatic discharges, the details of the organization's
ESD Control Program Plan, and each person's role in that Plan.
3. Use a variety of training tools and techniques.

Choose the methods that will work best for your organization. Combine
live instruction with training videos or interactive computer-based
programs. You may have in-house instructors available, or you may need
to go outside the company to find instructors or training materials. You can
also integrate industry symposia, tutorials, and workshops into your
program. Consider using this "Fundamentals of ESD" series of articles.
Effective training involves employees in the process. Reinforce the

message with demonstrations of ESD events and their impact. Bulletin
boards, newsletters, and posters provide additional reminders and
reinforcement.
Maintaining a central repository for educational ESD control materials will

help your employees keep current or answer questions that may occur
outside the formal training sessions. Materials in such a repository might
include:
• Material from initial and recurring training sessions

• ESD Association or internal bulletins or newsletters
• DVDs or CDs
• Computer-based training materials
• Technical papers, studies, standards (e.g., ESD Association, IEC,
JEDEC), test methods and technical reports
• ESD control material and equipment product technical data sheets
[2]
Also, a knowledgeable person in the organization should be available to
answer trainee questions once they have begun working.
4. Test, certify, and retrain.

Your training should assure comprehension, material retention, and
emphasize the importance of the effort. If properly implemented, testing
and certification motivate and builds employee pride. Retraining or
refresher training is an ongoing process that reinforces, reminds, and
provides opportunities for implementing new or improved procedures.
Establish a system to highlight when employees are due for retraining,
retesting or recertification.
5. Feedback, compliance verification, and measurement.

Motivate and provide a mechanism for program improvement. Sharing
yield or productivity, quality, and reliability data with employees
demonstrates the effectiveness of the program and their efforts. Tracking
these same numbers can indicate that it's time for retraining or whether
modifications are required in the training program.
The design and delivery of an effective ESD training program can be just
as important as the procedures and materials used in your ESD Control
Program. Without an effective personnel training program, investments in
ESD materials can be wasted. A training program built on identifiable and
measurable performance goals helps assure employee understanding,
employee implementation, and employee success.
A key method of training effectiveness is the observation of the operator in the

EPA following ESD control procedures and precautions. Non-compliance with
required ESD Control Program practices should be treated in the same manner
as other impermissible actions that are handled through the company's
disciplinary process. This includes verbal warnings, retraining, written warnings,
and eventually re-assignment or termination.
COMPLIANCE VERIFICATION AUDITING

Developing and implementing an ESD Control Program itself is obvious. What
might not be so obvious is the need to continually review, verify, analyze,
feedback, and improve. You will be asked to continuously identify the program's
financial return on investment and to justify expenditures with the cost savings
realized. Technological changes will dictate improvements and modifications.
Feedback to employees and top management is essential. Management
commitment will need continuous reinforcement.
Like training, regular program compliance verification and auditing becomes a

key factor in the successful management of ESD Control Programs. The mere
presence of the auditing process spurs compliance with program procedures. It
helps strengthen management's commitment. Program compliance verification
[3]
reports should trigger required corrective action and help foster continuous
improvement.
The benefits to be gained from regular compliance verification of ESD control

procedures are numerous.
• Prevent problems before they occur rather than always fighting

fires.
• Identify problems and take corrective action.
• Identify areas in which our programs may be weak and provide us
with the information required for continuous improvement.
• Leverage limited resources effectively.
• Determine when our employees need to be retrained.
• Improve yields, productivity, and reliability.
• Bind our ESD program together into a successful effort.
An ESD Control Program compliance verification audit measures performance to

the ESD Control Program Plan's required limits. Typically, we think of the ESD
program compliance verification as a periodic review and inspection of the ESD
protective area (EPA) verifying the correct use of packaging materials, wearing of
wrist straps, following defined procedures, and similar items. Auditing can range
from informal surveys of the processes and facilities to the more formal third-
party audits for ISO 9000 or ANSI/ESD S20.20 certification.
REQUIREMENTS FOR EFFECTIVE COMPLIANCE VERIFICATION

Regardless of the structure, effective compliance verification revolves around
several factors. First, the existence of a written and well-defined ESD Control
Program Plan with defined required limits for each ESD control item and
protective material in the EPA. It is difficult to measure performance if you do not
have anything to measure against. Yet, you quite frequently hear an auditor ask,
"Some people say you should measure less than 500 volts in an EPA, but others
say you should measure less than 100 volts. What's acceptable when I audit the
factory floor?" This question indicates a lack of a formal ESD Control Program
Plan defined required limits and test procedures, and the audit will be relatively
ineffective.
Second, the taking of some measurements – typically measuring resistance and

detecting the presence of charge or fields. Therefore, you will need test
equipment to conduct compliance verification measurements of the ESD control
items and protective materials in the EPA. As a minimum, you will need an
electrostatic field meter, a high range resistance meter, a ground AC outlet
tester, and appropriate electrodes and accessories.
Third, include all areas in which ESD control is required to protect electrostatic
discharge susceptible (ESDS) items. Typically included are receiving, inspection,
stores and warehouses, assembly, test and inspection, research and
[4]
development, packaging, field service repair, offices and laboratories, and
cleanrooms. All the areas listed in the ESD Control Program Plan are subject to
compliance verification. Even the areas that are excluded from the Plan need to
be reviewed to ensure that unprotected ESDS items are not handled in those
areas. If devices do enter those areas (e.g., Engineering and Design),
mechanisms must be put in place to ensure that the devices are handled as a
non-conforming product. Similarly, we need to audit all of the various processes,
materials, and procedures that are used in our ESD Control Programs –
personnel, equipment, wrist straps, floors, clothing, worksurfaces, continuous
monitors, seating, training, and grounding.
Fourth, we need to conduct compliance verification audits frequently and

regularly. Compliance Verification test procedures listed in TR53 are used to
identify if significant changes have occurred to the performance of ESD control
equipment and protective materials used in the EPA. However, the user must
determine the frequency (and if sampling is appropriate).
Examples of how test frequencies are considered:
• Daily wrist strap checks are sufficient in some applications, wherein other
operations constant wrist strap monitoring may be used for added
operator grounding reliability.
• Packaging checks may depend on the composition of the packaging and
its use. Some packaging may have static control properties that
deteriorate more quickly with time and use, and some packaging may be
humidity dependent and may have limited shelf life.
Some materials, such as floor finishes, may require more frequent monitoring
because of their lack of permanency. Other materials, such as vinyl floor
covering, may require less monitoring. The testing of a floor should also be
considered after maintenance on the floor has been performed."
The actual frequency of compliance verification audits depends upon your facility
and the ESD problems that you have. Following an ESD Control Program initial
audit, some experts recommend auditing each department once a month if
possible and probably a minimum of six times per year. If this seems like a high
frequency level, remember that these regular verification audits are based upon a
sampling of work areas in each department, not necessarily every workstation.
Once you have gotten your program underway, your frequency of audit will be
based on your experience. If your audits regularly show acceptable levels of
conformance and performance, you can reduce the frequency and the sampling.
If, on the other hand, your audits regularly uncover continuing problems, you will
want to increase the frequency and the sampling.
Fifth, we need to maintain trend charts and detailed records and prepare reports.
They help assure that specified procedures are followed regularly. The records
[5]
are essential for quality control purposes, corrective action, and compliance with
ISO-9000.
Finally, upon completion of the compliance verification audit, it is essential to

implement corrective action if deficiencies are discovered. Trends need to be
tracked and analyzed to help establish corrective action, which may include
retraining of personnel, revision of requirement documents or processes, or
modification of the existing facility.
TYPES OF AUDITS
There are three types of ESD audits: program management audits, quality
process checking, and ESD Control Program compliance verification (workplace)
audits. Each type is distinctively different, and each is vitally important to the
success of the ESD Control Program.
Program management audits measure how well a program is managed and the
strength of the management commitment. The program management audit
emphasizes factors such as the existence of an effective implementation plan,
realistic program requirements, ESD training programs, regular compliance
verification audits, and other critical factors of program management. The
program management audit typically is conducted by a survey specifically
tailored to the factors being reviewed. Because it's a survey, the audit could be
conducted without actually visiting the site. The results of this audit indirectly
measure workplace compliance and are particularly effective as a means of self-
assessment for small companies as well as large global corporations.
Quality process checking applies statistical quality control techniques to the ESD
process and is performed by operations personnel. This is not a periodic
verification audit, but rather tracking daily effectiveness of the program. Visual
and electrical checks of the procedures and materials, wrist strap testing, for
example, are used to monitor the quality of the ESD control process. Checking is
done on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis.
Trend charts and detailed records trigger process adjustments and corrective
action. They help assure that specified procedures are followed on a regular
basis. The records are essential for quality control purposes, corrective action,
and compliance with ISO 9000.
ESD Control Program Compliance Verification audits verify that program

procedures are followed and that ESD control equipment and protective
materials are within required limits or are functioning properly. Compliance
Verification audits are performed regularly, often monthly, and utilize sampling
techniques and statistical analysis of the results. The use of detailed checklists
and a single auditor assures that all items are covered and that the audits are
performed consistently over time.
[6]
BASIC AUDITING INSTRUMENTATION
Special test equipment will be required to conduct EPA compliance verification.
The specific test equipment will depend on what you are trying to measure, the
precision you require, and the sophistication of your static control and material
evaluation program. However, as a minimum, you will need an electrostatic field
meter, a high range resistance meter, a ground/AC outlet tester, and appropriate
electrodes and accessories. Additional test equipment might include a charged
plate monitor, footwear and wrist strap testers, chart recorders/data acquisition
systems and timing devices, discharge simulators, and ESD event detectors.
Although this equipment must be accurate and calibrated according to the

manufacturer's recommendations, it needs not to be as sophisticated as
laboratory instruments. The compliance verification audit is intended to verify
basic functions and not for product qualification of ESD control equipment or
protective materials. You want the right tool for the job. Just as you would not buy
a hammer if you are planning to saw wood, you would not purchase an
electrometer to measure static voltages on a production line. Remember, many
of the test equipment you might choose for compliance verification are good
indicators, but not suitable for precise evaluation of materials. However, be sure
that you can correlate the measurements obtained on the factory floor with those
obtained in the laboratory. If you are making measurements according to specific
standards or test methods, be sure the instrumentation meets the requirements
of those documents.
With a hand-held electrostatic field meter, you can measure the presence of
electrostatic fields in your environment, allowing you to identify problems and
monitor your ESD Control Program. These instruments measure the electrostatic
field associated with a charged object. Many electrostatic field meters simply
measure the gross level of the electrostatic field and should be used as general
indicators of the presence of a charge and the approximate level of the electrical
potential of the charge. Others will provide more precise measurements for
material evaluation and comparison.
For greater precision in facility measurements or for laboratory evaluation, a

charged plate monitor is a useful instrument that can be used in many different
ways; for example, to evaluate the performance of flooring materials or
measuring the offset voltage (balance) and discharge times of ionizers.
Because grounding is so important, resistance is one of the key factors in

evaluating ESD protective materials. A high range resistance meter becomes a
crucial instrument. Most resistance measurements are made using a 100 volt or
10-volt test voltage. The resistance meter you choose should be capable of
applying these voltages to the materials being tested. In addition, the meter
should be capable of measuring resistance ranges of 1.0 x 103 to 1.0 x 1012
ohms. With the proper electrodes and cables, you will be able to measure the
resistance of flooring materials, worksurfaces, equipment, furniture, garments,
[7]
and some packaging materials.
The final instrument is a ground/AC outlet tester. With this device, you can
measure the continuity of your ESD grounds, check the impedance of the
equipment grounding conductor (3rd wire AC ground) as well as verify that the
wiring of power outlets in the EPA is correct.
AREAS, PROCESSES, AND MATERIALS TO BE AUDITED

Previously we stated that ESD protection was required "wherever unprotected
ESDS items are handled." Our audits need to include these same areas. Table 1
indicates some of the physical areas that may be part of the ESD Control
Program Plan and, therefore, will be involved in Compliance Verification Audits.
Remember, some areas may be excluded from the Plan depending on the Scope
of the Plan.
As noted in Part 3 Table 1 Typical Facility Areas Requiring ESD Protection
Table 1
Typical Facility Areas Requiring ESD Protection
Receiving
Inspection
Stores and Warehouses
Assembly
Test and Inspection
Research and Development
Packaging
Field Service Repair
Offices and Laboratories
Cleanrooms
Similarly, we need to conduct Compliance Verification audits of all the various

requirements that are used in our ESD Control Program Plan. Some of these are
shown in Table 2.
Table 2
Typical Processes, Materials, and Procedures
Personnel
Wrist Straps
Floors, Floor Mats, Floor Finishes
Shoes, Foot Grounders, Casters
Garments
Mobile Equipment (Carts, trolleys, lift trucks)
Workstations
Worksurfaces
Packaging and Materials Handling
[8]
Ionization
Grounding
Continuous Monitors
Seating
Production Equipment
Tools and Equipment (Soldering irons, fixtures, etc.)
Marking
Purchasing Specifications and Requisitions
ESD Measurement and Test Equipment
Personnel Training
CHECKLISTS
Checklists can be helpful tools for conducting Compliance Verification audits.
However, it is important that ESD Control Program requirements are well
documented and accessible to avoid a tendency for checklists becoming de facto
lists of requirements. Table 3 indicates the type of questions and information that
might be included in an auditing checklist. Other checklists are in the ESD
Handbook ESD TR20.20. Your checklists, of course, will be based on your
specific needs and program requirements. They should conform to your actual
ESD control procedures and specifications, and they should be consistent with
any ISO 9000 requirements you may have. For ANSI/ESD S20.20 based ESD
Control Programs, the recognized Certification Bodies (Registrars) use a formal
checklist supplied by the ESD Association to aid in conducting the Certification
Audit.
In addition to checklists, you will use various forms for recording the
measurements you make: resistance, voltage generation, etc. Part of your
compliance verification audit will also include the daily logs used on the factory
floor such as those used for wrist strap checking.
[9]
Table 3
Partial Audit Checklist
ESD Control Program
Function/Area Audited: Facilities
Date:
By:
Audit Questions Y N Comments
1. Where ESD protective flooring is
used for personnel grounding, are
ESD footwear worn?
2. Where ESD floors and footwear
are used for personnel grounding,
do personnel check and log
continuity to ground upon entering
the EPA?
3. Are personnel wearing grounded
wrist straps at the ESD protective
workstations (if required)?
4. Are personnel checking wrist
straps for continuity or using a
continuous monitor?
5. Where continuous monitors are not
used, are wrist straps checked and
logged routinely and at frequent
intervals?
6. Are wrist strap checkers and
continuous monitors checked and
maintained periodically?
7. Are wrist strap cords checked, on
the person, at the workstation?
8. Are disposable foot grounders
limited to one time use?
9. Are test records for wrist straps
and foot grounders kept and
maintained?
10. When required, are ESD
protective garments correctly
worn?
11. Are nonessential personal
items kept out of the EPA?
12. Are personnel working in the
EPA currently certified or
escorted?
13. Are ESD Control requirements
imposed on visitors to the EPA?
[10]
REPORTING AND CORRECTIVE ACTION
Upon completion of the compliance verification auditing process, Reports should
be prepared and distributed in a timely manner. Details of the audits need to be
fully documented for ISO 9001 or ANSI/ESD S20.20 certification. As with all
audits, it is essential to implement corrective action if deficiencies are discovered.
Trends need to be tracked and analyzed to help establish corrective action,
which may include retraining of personnel, revision of requirement documents or
processes, or modification of the existing facility.
CONCLUSION
Compliance verification and personnel ESD control training are key ANSI/ESD
S20.20 and IEC 61340-5-1 requirements to maintain an effective ESD Control
Program. They help assure that handling procedures are properly implemented
and can provide a management tool to gauge program effectiveness and to
make continuous improvement.
FOR FURTHER REFERENCE

ANSI/ESD 20.20—Electrostatic Discharge Control Program, ESD Association,
Rome, NY
ESD TR20.20, ESD Control Handbook, ESD Association, Rome, NY.
"An Effective ESD Awareness Training Program," Owen J. McAteer, EOS/ESD
Symposium Proceedings, 1980, ESD Association, Rome, NY.
"Facility Evaluation: Isolating Environmental ESD Issues," Stephen A. Halperin,
EOS/ESD Symposium Proceedings, 1980, ESD Association, Rome, NY.
"The Production Operator: Weak Link or Warrior in the ESD Battle?" G. E.
Hansel, EOS/ESD Symposium Proceedings, 1983, ESD Association, Rome, NY
"A Realistic and Systematic ESD Control Plan," G. T. Dangelmayer, EOS/ESD
"Employee Training for Successful ESD Control," G. T. Dangelmayer, E. S.
Jesby, EOS/ESD Symposium Proceedings, 1985, ESD Association, Rome, NY
"A Tailorable ESD Control Program for the Manufacturing Environment," Norman
B. Fuqua, EOS/ESD Symposium Proceedings, 1986, ESD Association, Rome,
NY.
"Internal Quality Auditing and ESD Control," D. H. Smith, C.D. Rier, EOS/ESD
Symposium Proceedings, 1986, ESD Association, Rome, NY
"Developing and Maintaining an Effective ESD Training Program," F. Dinger,
EOS/ESD Symposium Proceedings, 1988, ESD Association, Rome, NY
"Standardized Qualification and Verification Procedures for Electrostatic
Discharge (ESD) Protective Materials," Adrienne R. Kudlich, et al., EOS/ESD
[11]
"Modular ESD Certification Training Program," M. Berkowitz, B. Hamel,
"Tracking Results of an ESD Control Program Within a Telecommunications
Service Company," R. J. Zezulka, EOS/ESD Symposium Proceedings, 1989,
ESD Association, Rome, NY
"Development of a Corporate Standardization Program for ESD Control Materials
and Products at Hughes Aircraft Company and Delco Electronics," J. L. Joyce, R.
L. Johnson, EOS/ESD Symposium Proceedings, 1991, ESD Association, Rome,
NY.
"Implementation of Computer-Based ESD Training: A Case Study Comparing the
Computer Approach with Traditional Classroom Techniques," J. Woodward-Jack,
H. Sommerfeld, EOS/ESD Symposium Proceedings, 1991, ESD Association,
Rome, NY
"A Systematic ESD Program Revisited," G. T. Dangelmayer, EOS/ESD
"You've Implemented An ESD Program – What's Next?" W. Y. McFarland, R. A.
Brin, EOS/ESD Symposium Proceedings, 1993, ESD Association, Rome, NY
"A Successful ESD Training Program," L. Snow, G. T. Dangelmayer, EOS/ESD
"Implementing an ESD Program in a Multi-National Company: A Cross-Cultural
Experience," W. H. Tan, EOS/ESD Symposium Proceedings, 1994, ESD
Association, Rome, NY
"Effectiveness of ESD Training Using Multimedia," G. Smalanskas, J. Mason,
"ESD Demonstrations to Increase Engineering and Manufacturing Awareness,"
G. Baumgartner, EOS/ESD Symposium Proceedings, 1996, ESD Association,
Rome, NY
"ESD Program Auditing: The Auditor's Perspective," T.L. Theis, et al., EOS/ESD
"Procedures For The Design, Analysis, and Auditing of Static Control
Flooring/Footwear Systems," L. Fromm, et al., EOS/ESD Symposium
Proceedings, 1997, ESD Association, Rome, NY
"Continuous Voltage Monitoring Techniques for Improved ESD Auditing," A.
Wallash, EOS/ESD Symposium Proceedings, 2003, ESD Association, Rome, NY
"A Comparison of High-Frequency Voltage, Current and Field Probes and
Implications for ESD/EOS/EMI Auditing," A. Wallash, V. Kraz, EOS/ESD
IEC 61340-5-1, "Electrostatics – Part 5.1: Protection of electronic devices from
electrostatic phenomena – General requirements", IEC, Geneva, Switzerland,
2007-08.
[12]
Part Five – Device Sensitivity and Testing
In Part Two of this series ("Principles of ESD Control – ESD Control Program
Development"), we indicated that a key element in a successful static control program is
the identification of the most sensitive or ESD susceptible (ESDS) item you are using
and what is the withstand voltage classification of the products that you are
manufacturing and shipping. Susceptibility of an ESDS item to an ESD event is
determined by the device's ability to dissipate or shunt the energy of the discharge or
withstand the current and voltage levels involved. Although energy or (peak) current are
the most important parameters, the ESD sensitivity or ESD susceptibility is typically
classified by withstand voltage. The withstand voltage is defined by the voltage, which
causes the discharge, not the voltage, which can be measured at the ESDS item. Part
Two included:
• Define the level of control needed in your environment. What is the most
sensitive or ESD susceptible (ESDS) item you are using, and what is the
withstand voltage classification of the products that you are manufacturing and
shipping? To get an idea of what is required, it is best to know the Human-Body
Model (HBM) and Charged-Device Model (CDM) sensitivity levels for all devices
that will be handled in your facility. ANSI/ESD S20.20 and IEC 61350-5-1 define
control program requirements for items that are sensitive to 100 volts HBM and
200 volts CDM. With proper documentation and objective evidence, both
standards allow the requirements to be tailored as appropriate for specific
situations.
Some devices may be more readily damaged by discharges occurring within automated
equipment, while others may be more prone to damage from handling by personnel. In
Part Five, we will cover the models and test procedures used to characterize,
determine, and classify the sensitivity of items to ESD. Today, these test procedures are
based on the two primary models of ESD events: Human Body Model (HBM) and
Charged Device Model (CDM). The models used to perform component testing cannot
replicate the full spectrum of all possible ESD events, and there is no direct correlation
between discharges in the field and in a test system. Nevertheless, these models have
been proven to be successful in reproducing over 99% of all ESD field failure
signatures, and typically, the ESD withstand voltages obtained by models in test
systems are worst-case compared to real-world events with the same discharge
voltage. With the use of standardized test procedures, the industry can:
• Develop and measure suitable on-chip protection.
[1]
• Enable comparisons to be made between devices.
• Provide a system of ESD sensitivity classification to assist in the ESD design and
monitoring requirements of the manufacturing and assembly environments.
• Have documented test procedures to ensure reliable and repeatable results.
HUMAN BODY MODEL (HBM) TESTING

One of the most common causes of ESD damage is the direct transfer of electrostatic
charge from the human body or from a charged material to the ESDS item. When one
walks across a floor, an electrostatic charge accumulates on the body. Simple contact
(or even close proximity) of a finger to the leads of an ESDS item allows the body to
discharge, possibly causing device damage. The model used to simulate this event is
the Human Body Model (HBM).
The Human Body Model is the oldest and most commonly used model for classifying
device sensitivity to ESD. The HBM testing model represents the discharge from the
fingertip of a standing individual delivered to the device. It is modeled by a 100 pF
capacitor, which is charged by a high-voltage supply through a high-ohmic resistor
(typically in the megohm regime) and then discharged through a switching component
and a 1.5 k (1,500 ohms) series resistor through the component to ground or to a
lower potential. This model, which dates from the nineteenth century, was developed for
investigating explosions of gas mixtures in mines. It was adopted by the military in MIL-
STD-883 Method 3015 and is referenced in ANSI/ESDA/JEDEC JS-001: Electrostatic
Discharge Sensitivity Testing – Human Body Model (HBM) Component Level. This
document replaces the previous ESDA and JEDEC methods, STM5.1-2007 and
JESD22-A114F, respectively. The simplified Human Body Model circuit without any
parasitics from the test system is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Typical (simplified) Human Body Model Circuit
[2]
A typical HBM waveform has a rise time of 2–10 ns, a peak current of 0.67
amps/kilovolts, and a double-exponential decay with a width of 200 ns. Typically, the
decisive parameter which causes the failure is the energy of the HBM pulse.
Testing for HBM ESD susceptibility is typically performed using automated test systems.
The device is placed in the test system and contacted through a relay matrix. One pin is
connected to the HBM network ("zap pin"), and one or several other pins are connected
to tester ground ("ground pins"). With today's high-pin count devices, a full test of all
possible stress combinations is no longer possible, thus pin combinations have to be
selected, which guarantees sufficient coverage to detect weak stress combinations.
These pin combinations which must be stressed are defined in the current HBM
standard. Electrostatic discharges (ESD) are applied with a waveform generated by a
Human Body Model network. A device is determined to have failed if it does not meet
the datasheet parameters using parametric and functional testing.
One has to state clearly that the Human Body Model, according to JS-001 addresses
handling issues. Sometimes, the well-known IEC 61000-4-2 is also called "Human Body
Model," but that model addresses ESD events in a system under different operating
conditions and, therefore, should be applied to systems only. The waveform and the
severity of the IEC 61000-4-2 and the JS-001 cannot be compared. For handling issues,
only JS-001 is meaningful.
CHARGED DEVICE MODEL (CDM) TESTING

The transfer of charge from an ESDS item to a conductive surface at a lower potential is
also an ESD event. A device may become charged, for example, from sliding down the
part feeder in automated handling equipment. If it then contacts the insertion head or
another conductive surface, which is at a lower potential, a rapid discharge may occur
from the device to the conductive surface. This discharge event is known as the
Charged Device Model (CDM) event and can be more damaging than the HBM for
some devices. Although the duration of the discharge is very short – often less than one
nanosecond – the peak current can reach several tens of amperes, causing significant
voltage drops in the device and eventually resulting in breakdown of dielectrics (e.g.,
gate oxides) due to the excessive current.
The device testing standard for CDM is ANSI/ESDA/JEDEC JS-002: Electrostatic

Discharge Sensitivity Testing – Charged Device Model (CDM) Device Level. This
document replaces the previous ESDA and JEDEC methods, STM5.3.1 and JESD22-
C101, respectively. The test procedure involves placing the device on a field plate with
its leads pointing up, then charging it, and discharging the device. All pins are treated
equally and are discharged after positive and negative charging. Figure 2 illustrates a
simplified CDM test circuit with direct charging of the device.
[3]
Figure 2: Typical Charged Device Model Test
OTHER TEST METHODS

Machine Model (MM) Testing
Over the years, the industry shifted away from MM as a qualification test and moved
towards using the qualification documents of ANSI/ESDA/JEDEC JS-001 (HBM) and
ANSI/ESDA/JEDEC JS-002 (CDM) to fully characterize a component's ESD
susceptibility. A discharge can occur from an isolated conductor, or a charged
conductive object, such as a metallic tool, or an automatic equipment or fixture,
therefore the CDM method simulates metal to metal discharges better.
Originating in Japan as the result of trying to create a worst-case HBM event, the model
is known as the Machine Model. This ESD model consists of a 200 pF capacitor
discharged directly into a component with no series DC resistor in the output circuitry.
The discharge waveform can be oscillating with the rise time and pulse width, similar to
HBM. The Machine Model typically addresses the same physical failure mode as the
Human Body Model, therefore, it is useful when determining failure mode and producing
HBM-like ESD effects at significant lower levels.
Testing of devices for MM sensitivity using ESD SP5.2: Electrostatic Discharge

Sensitivity Testing – Machine Model (MM) Component Level is similar in procedure to
HBM testing. The basic test equipment and the stress combinations are the same, but
the test head is very different. The MM version does not have a 1,500 ohm resistor, but
otherwise, the test board and the socket are often the same as for HBM testing. The
series inductance, as shown in Figure 3, is the dominating parasitic element that shapes
the oscillating machine model wave form. The series inductance is indirectly defined
through the specification of various waveform parameters like peak currents, rise times,
and the period of the waveform. However, the inductance is not well defined. Hence, for
different testers, the MM withstand voltage might differ by at least a factor of 2–5,
although both test systems comply with the current standard. The lack of reproducibility
of test results and the fact that the well reproducible HBM addresses the same failure
[4]
mode as HBM are the main reasons that the industry shifted away from MM
qualification. JEDEC and ESDA do not recommend to qualify products with Machine
Model, but qualifying with HBM and CDM instead. Furthermore, the Machine Model risk
is now referred to as Isolated Conductor risk mitigation in the ANSI/ESD S20.20.
Machine Model testing of integrated circuits (ICs) should be limited to failure analysis
without correlation of withstand voltages and charging in the field.
(Megohms)
Figure 3: Typical Machine Model Circuit
DEVICE SENSITIVITY CLASSIFICATION

The HBM and CDM methods include a classification system for defining the component
sensitivity to the specified model (See Tables 1 and 2). These classification systems
have a number of advantages. They allow easy grouping and comparing of components
according to their ESD sensitivity, and the classification gives you an indication of the
level of ESD protection that is required for the component.
Table 1: ANSI/ESDA/JEDEC JS-001 Table 3: HBM ESD Component Classification

Levels
Classification Voltage Range (V)

0Z < 50
0A 50 to < 125
0B 125 to < 250
1A 250 to < 500
1B 500 to < 1000
1C 1000 to < 2000
[5]
2 2000 to < 4000
3A 4000 to < 8000
3B ≥ 8000
Table 2: ANSI/ESDA/JEDEC JS-002 Table 3: CDM ESD Component Classification

Levels
Classification Voltage Range (V)

C0A < 125
C0B 125 to < 250
C1 250 to < 500
C2A 500 to <750
C2B 750 to < 1000
C3 ≥ 1000
The current HBM and standards divide the Class 0 classification into three withstand
voltage levels with class 0Z being less than 50 volt sensitivity, 0A being 50 volts to less
than 125 volts, and class 0B being 125 volts to less than 250 volts.
If handling class 0Z and/or 0A items, or sensitivities less than 125 volts, program
improvements are called for. To control the environment to decrease the probability of
ESD damage in class 0Z or 0A situations involves increasing ESD protective
redundancies by adding ESD control items in the EPA and ensuring that they are
working properly by increasing the frequency of compliance verifications of those ESD
control items perhaps to more stringent required limits.
An ESDS item should be classified using both the Human Body Model and the Charged
Device Model. This would alert a potential user of the ESDS item to the need for a
controlled environment, whether assembly and manufacturing operations are performed
by human beings or automatic machinery.
A word of caution is that these classification systems and component sensitivity test
results function as guides, not necessarily as absolutes. The events defined by the test
data produce narrowly restrictive data that must be carefully considered and judiciously
used. The two ESD models represent discrete points used in an attempt to characterize
ESD vulnerability. The data points are informative and useful, but to arbitrarily
extrapolate the data into a real-world scenario can be misleading. The true utility of the
data is in comparing one device with another and to provide a starting point for
developing your ESD Control Programs.
[6]
SUMMARY
Device failure models and device test methods define the ESD susceptibility of the
electronic devices and assemblies to be protected from the effects of ESD. With this key
information, you can design more effective ESD Control Programs. However, do expect
devices to become more susceptible. The ESD Association's White Paper "Electrostatic
Discharge (ESD) Technology Roadmap – Revised April 2010" includes "With devices
becoming more sensitive through 2010-2015 and beyond, it is imperative that
companies begin to scrutinize the ESD capabilities of their handling processes. Factory
ESD control is expected to play an ever-increasing critical role as the industry is flooded
with even more HBM (Human Body Model) and CDM (Charged Device Model) sensitive
designs. For people handling ESDS items, personnel grounding systems must be
designed to limit body voltages to less than 100 volts." Users should refer to the most
recent update by the Industry Council for guidance.
FOR FURTHER REFERENCE

ANSI/ESDA/JEDEC JS-001 Electrostatic Discharge Sensitivity Testing – Human Body
Model, ESD Association, Rome, NY.
ESD SP5.2: Electrostatic Discharge Sensitivity Testing – Machine Model, ESD
ANSI/ESDA/JEDEC JS-002 Electrostatic Discharge Sensitivity Testing – Charged
Device Model, ESD Association, Rome, NY.
ANSI/ESD S20.20 Standard for the Development of an ESD Control Program, ESD
Association, Rome, NY
ESD Industry Council White Paper 1: "A Case for Lowering Component Level HBM/MM
ESD Specifications and Requirements," August 2008, and ESD Association's White
Paper "Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Technology Roadmap – Revised April 2010
http://www.esda.org/IndustryCouncil.html.
ESD Industry Council White Paper 2: "A Case for Lowering Component Level CDM
ESD Specifications and Requirements," March 2009,
http://www.esda.org/IndustryCouncil.html.
"Process ESD Capability Measurements," Steinman, Arnold, EOS/ESD Symposium
Proceedings, 2012, p. 211, ESD Association, Rome, NY.
"Is there a Correlation Between ESD Qualification Values and the Voltages Measured in
the Field?", Gaertner, Reinhold, and Stadler, Wolfgang, EOS/ESD Symposium
Proceedings, 2012, p. 198, ESD Association, Rome, NY.
"A Closer Look at the Human ESD Event," Hyatt, Hugh, et al., EOS/ESD Symposium
Proceedings, 1981, ESD Association, Rome, NY.
"Charged Device Model Testing: Trying to Duplicate Reality," Avery, L.R., EOS/ESD
"Critical Issues Regarding ESD Sensitivity Classification Testing," Pierce, Donald C.,
[7]
"Beyond MIL HBM Testing - How to Evaluate the Real Capability of Protection
Structures, Avery, L.R., EOS/ESD Symposium Proceedings, 1991, ESD Association,
Rome, NY.
"Mechanisms of Charged-Device Electrostatic Discharges," Renninger, Robert G.,
"Analysis of HBM ESD Testers and Specifications Using a 4 th Order Lumped Element
Model," Verhaege, Koen, et al., EOS/ESD Symposium Proceedings, 1993, ESD
"A Comparison of Electrostatic Discharge Models and Failure Signatures for CMOS
Integrated Circuit Devices," Kelly, M., et al., EOS/ESD Symposium Proceedings, 1995,
ESD Association, Rome, NY.
"Study of ESD Evaluation Methods for Charged Device Model," Wada, Tetsuaki,
"A Compact Model for the Grounded-Gate nMOS Behavior Under CDM ESD Stress,"
Russ, Christian, et al., EOS/ESD Symposium Proceedings, 1996, ESD Association,
Rome, NY.
"Recommendations to Further Improvements of HBM ESD Component Level Test
Specifications," Verhaege, Koen, et al., EOS/ESD Symposium Proceedings, 1996, ESD
"Very Fast Transmission Line Pulsing of Integrated Structures and the Charged Device
Model," Gieser, H., and Haunschild, M., EOS/ESD Symposium Proceedings, 1996, ESD
"Investigation into Socketed CDM (SDM) Tester Parasitics," Chaine, M., et al.,
"Issues Concerning CDM ESD Verification Modules-The Need to Move to Alumina,"
Henry, L.G. et al, EOS/ESD Symposium Proceedings, 1999, ESD Association, Rome,
NY.
"The Importance of Standardizing CDM ESD Test Head Parameters to Obtain Data
Correlation," Henry, L.G., et al., EOS/ESD Symposium Proceedings, 2000, ESD
"Component Level ESD Testing," Review Paper, Verhaege, Koen, Microelectronics
Reliability Journal, 1998.
[8]
Part Six – ESD Standards
The electronics industry is continually shifting. Device circuitry density and technology are
more complex, and electronics manufacturing is more heavily reliant on out-sourcing. As
ESDS items are becoming more sensitive, ESD Control Programs have mushroomed.
The early history belief of “smoke and mirrors,” “magic,” and lofty claims of performance
is rapidly being relegated to the past.
Today, more than ever, meeting the complex challenge of reducing ESD losses requires
more than reliance on faith alone. Users require a way to legitimately evaluate and
compare competing brands and types of products and ESD protection strategies. They
need objective confirmation that their ESD Control Program provides effective solutions
to their unique ESD problems. Contract manufacturers and OEM’s require mutually
agreed-upon ESD Control Programs that reduce duplication of process controls.
That is where standards come into play. They provide information in developing programs
that effectively address ESD process control. They help define the sensitivity of the
products manufactured and used. They help define the performance requirements for
various ESD control materials, instruments, and tools. Standards are playing an ever-
increasing role in reducing marketplace confusion in the manufacture, evaluation, and
selection of ESD control products and programs.
THE WHO AND WHY OF STANDARDS
Who uses ESD standards? Manufacturers and users of ESD sensitive (ESDS) items,
manufacturers and distributors of ESD control products, certification registrars, and third-
party testers of ESD control products.
Why use ESD standards? They help assure consistency of ESDS items and consistency
of ESD control products and services. They provide a means of objective evaluation and
comparison among competitive ESD control products. They help reduce conflicts
between users and suppliers of ESD control products. They help in developing,
implementing, auditing, and certifying ESD control programs. And, they help reduce
confusion in the marketplace.
In the United States, the use of standards is voluntary, although their use can be written
into contracts or purchasing agreements between buyer and seller. In most of the rest of
the world, the use of standards, where they exist, is compulsory.
[1]
KEY STANDARDS AND ORGANIZATIONS
In the early 1980s, there were relatively few reliable ESD standards and few ESD
standards development organizations. Today’s ESD standards landscape is not only
witnessing an increase in the number of standards but also increasing cooperation among
the organizations that develop them.
Today’s standards fall into three main groups. First, there are those that provide ESD
program guidance or requirements. These include documents such as ANSI ESD S20.20
– Standard for the Development of an ESD Control Program, IEC 61340-5-1 – Protection
of electronic devices from electrostatic phenomena – General requirements, ANSI/ESD
S8.1 – Symbols-ESD Awareness, or ANSI/ESD TR20.20 – ESD Handbook.
A second group covers requirements for specific products or procedures such as

packaging requirements and grounding. Typical standards in this group are ANSI/ESD
S6.1 –Grounding and ANSI/ESD S541 –Packaging Materials.
A third group of documents covers the standardized test methods used to evaluate
products and materials. Historically, the electronics industry relied heavily on test
methods established for other industries or even for other materials (for example, ASTM-
257 – DC Resistance or Conductance of Insulating Materials). Today, however, specific
test method standards focus on ESD in the electronics environment, largely as a result of
the ESD Association’s activity. This includes standards such as ANSI/ESDA/JEDEC JS-
001– Device Testing, Human Body Model.
WHO DEVELOPS STANDARDS?

Standards development and usage is a cooperative effort among all organizations and
individuals affected by standards. There are several key ESD standards development
organizations.
Military Standards
Traditionally, the U.S. military spearheaded the development of specific standards and
specifications concerning ESD control in the U.S. Today, however, U.S. military agencies
are relying on commercially developed standards rather than developing standards
themselves. For example, the ESD Association completed the assignment from the
Department of Defense (DoD) to convert MIL-STD-1686 into a commercial standard
called ANSI/ESD S20.20 which was adopted by the DoD July 7, 2000.
ESD Association
The ESD Association has been a focal point for the development of ESD standards in
recent years. An ANSI-accredited standards development organization, the ESD
Association is charged with the development of ESD standards and test methods. The
ESD Association also represents the US on the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) Technical Committee 101-Electrostatics.
[2]
The ESD Association has multiple standards documents and Technical Reports
available. These voluntary standards cover the areas of material requirements,
electrostatic sensitivity, and test methodology for evaluating ESD control materials and
products. In addition to standards documents, the ESD Association also has published a
number of informational advisories. Advisory documents may be changed to other
document types in the future.
ESD ASSOCIATION STANDARDS CLASSIFICATIONS AND DEFINITIONS

There are four types of ESD Association standards documents with specific clarity of
definition. The four document categories are consistent with other standards development
organizations. These four categories are defined below.
Standard: A precise statement of a set of requirements to be satisfied by a

material, product, system, or process that also specifies the procedures for determining
whether each of the requirements is satisfied.
Standard Test Method: A definitive procedure for the identification,

measurement, and evaluation of one or more qualities, characteristics, or properties of a
material, product, system, or process that yields a reproducible test result.
Standard Practice: A procedure for performing one or more operations or

functions that may or may not yield a test result. Note: If a test result is obtained, it may
not be reproducible between labs.
Technical Report: A collection of technical data or test results published as an

informational reference on a specific material, product, system, or process.
As new documents are approved and issued, they will be designated into one of these
four categories. Existing documents have been reviewed and have been reclassified as
appropriate. Several Advisory Documents still exist and may be migrated to either
Technical Reports or Standard Practices in the future.
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
The international community, led by the European-based International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC), also develops and publishes standards. IEC Technical Committee
101 has released a series of documents under the heading IEC 61340. The documents
contain general information regarding electrostatics, standard test methods, general
practices, and an ESD Control Program Development Standard IEC 61340-5-1 that is
technically equivalent to ANSI/ESD S20.20. A Facility Certification Program is also
available. Global companies can seek to become certified to both ANSI/ESD S20.20 and
IEC 61340-5-1 if they so choose. Japan also has released its proposed version of a
national electrostatic Standard, which also shares many aspects of the European and
U.S. documents.
[3]
ORGANIZATIONAL COOPERATION
Perhaps one of the more intriguing changes in ESD standards has been the
organizational cooperation developing between various groups. One cooperative effort
was between the ESD Association and the U.S. Department of Defense, which resulted
in the ESD Association preparing ANSI/ESD S20.20 as a successor to MIL-STD-1686.
A second cooperative effort occurred between the ESD Association and JEDEC, which
started with an MOU and resulted in the development of 2 documents: a joint Human
Body Model document ANSI/ESDA/JEDEC JS-001 and a joint Charged Device Model
document ANSI/ESDA/JEDEC JS-002 have been published.
Internationally, European standards development organizations and the ESD Association

have developed working relationships that result in an expanded review of proposed
documents, greater input, and closer harmonization of standards that impact the
international electronics community.
For users of ESD standards, this increased cooperation will have a significant impact.
First, we should see standards that are technically improved due to broader input.
Second, we should see fewer conflicts between different standards. Finally, we should
see less duplication of effort.
SUMMARY
For the electronics community, the rapid propagation of ESD standards and continuing
change in the standards environment mean greater availability of the technical references
that will help improve ESD Control Programs. There will be recommendations to help set
up effective programs. There will also be test methods and specifications to help users of
ESD control materials evaluate and select ESD control products that are applicable to
their specific needs. Additionally, there will be guidelines for suppliers of ESD control
products and materials to help them develop products that meet the real needs of their
customers.
Standards will continue to fuel change in the international ESD community.
SOURCES OF STANDARDS
ESD Association, 7900 Turin Road, Building 3, Rome, NY 13440. Phone: 315-339-6937.
Fax: 315-339-6793. Web Site: http://www.ESDA.org
IHS Global Engineering Documents, 15 Inverness Way East, Englewood, CO 80112.
Phone: 800-854-7179. Fax: 303-397-2740. Web Site: http://global.ihs.com
International Electrotechnical Commission, 3, rue de Varembe, Case postale 131, 1211
Geneva 20, Switzerland. Fax: 41-22-919-0300. Web Site: http://www.iec.ch/
Military Standards, Naval Publications and Forms Center, 5801 Tabor Avenue,
Philadelphia, PA 19120 https://assist.dla.mil
JEDEC Solid State Technology Association, 3103 North 10th Street, Suite 240-S
Arlington, VA 22201-2107, http://www.jedec.org
[4]
Principal ESD Standards
U.S. Military/Department of Defense

MIL-STD-1686: Electrostatic Discharge Control Program for Protection of Electrical and
Electronic Parts, Assemblies and Equipment (Excluding Electrically Initiated Explosive
Devices)
This military standard establishes requirements for ESD Control Programs. It applies to
U.S. military agencies, contractors, subcontractors, suppliers, and vendors. It requires the
establishment, implementation, and documentation of ESD control programs for static
sensitive devices, but does NOT mandate or preclude the use of any specific ESD control
materials, products, or procedures. It is being updated and converted to a commercial
standard by the ESD Association. Although DOD has accepted the new ANSI/ESD
S20.20 document as a successor, it has not yet taken action to cancel STD-1686
MIL-HBDK-263: Electrostatic Discharge Control Handbook for Protection of Electrical and

Electronic Parts, Assemblies and Equipment (Excluding Electrically Initiated Explosive
Devices)
This document provides guidance, but NOT mandatory requirements, for the
establishment and implementation of an electrostatic discharge control program in
accordance with the requirements of MIL-STD-1686.
MIL-PRF 87893 — Workstation, Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Control

This document defines the requirements for ESD protective workstations.
MIL-PRF-81705—Barrier Materials, Flexible, Electrostatic Protective, Heat Sealable

This document defines requirements for ESD protective flexible packaging materials.
MIL-STD-129—Marking for Shipment and Storage

Covers procedures for marketing and labeling ESD sensitive items.
ESD Association
Standards Documents
ANSI/ESD S1.1: Wrist Straps

This standard provides electrical and mechanical test methods and performance limits for
product qualification, acceptance testing, and system testing of wrist straps.
ANSI/ESD STM2.1: Garments

This document provides test methods for evaluating the electrical resistance of static
control garments that contain surface conductive or dissipative components or materials.
ANSI/ESD STM3.1: Ionization

This document provides test methods and procedures for evaluating and selecting air
ionization equipment and systems (ionizers).
[5]
ANSI/ESD SP3.3: Periodic Verification of Air Ionizers.
This standard practice provides test procedures for periodic verification of the
performance of air ionization equipment and systems (ionizers).
ANSI/ESD SP3.4: Periodic Verification of Air Ionizers Using a Small Test Fixture
This Standard Practice provides a test fixture example and procedures for performance
verification of air ionization used in confined spaces where it may not be possible to use
the test fixtures defined in ANSI/ESD STM3.1 or ANSI/ESD SP3.3.
ANSI/ESD STM4.1: Worksurfaces – Resistance Measurements

This document provides test methods for evaluating and qualifying worksurfaces,
including shelving and mobile equipment.
ANSI/ESD STM4.2: ESD Protective Worksurfaces – Charge Dissipation Characteristics

The purpose of this standard test method is to aid in determining the ability of ESD
protective worksurfaces to dissipate charge from a conductive test object placed on
them. This ability may not be revealed through standard resistance measurements as
outlined in ANSI/ESD S4.1.
ANSI/ESD SP5.0: Reporting ESD Withstand Levels on Datasheets

This document provides guidance to device manufacturers in developing datasheets and
to device customers in understanding datasheet entries.
ANSI/ESDA/JEDEC JS-001: Human Body Model (HBM) Component Level

The purpose of this standard is to establish a test method that will replicate HBM failures
and provide reliable, repeatable HBM ESD test results from tester to tester, regardless of
component type. Repeatable data will allow accurate classifications and comparisons of
HBM ESD sensitivity levels.
ANSI/ESD SP5.1.3: Human Body Model (HBM) Testing – A Method for Randomly
Selecting Pin Pairs
The objective of this standard practice is to establish an alternative method for selecting
pin pairs used in human body model testing as described in ANSI/ESDA/JEDEC JS-
001.
ANSI/ESD SP5.2: Machine Model (MM) - Component Level

The purpose of this document is to establish a test method for characterizing a
component’s reaction to MM waveform stimulus.
ANSI/ESDA/JEDEC JS-002: Charged Device Model (CDM) - Component Level

The purpose (objective) of this standard is to establish a test method that will replicate
CDM failures and provide reliable, repeatable CDM ESD test results from tester to tester,
regardless of device type. Repeatable data will allow accurate classifications and
comparisons of CDM ESD sensitivity levels.
[6]
ANSI/ESD SP5.3.3: Charged Device Model (CDM) - Component Level – Low Impedance
Contact CDM as an Alternative CDM Characterization Method
The purpose of this standard practice is to define a low impedance contact-based test
method for charged device model (CDM) characterization.
ANSI/ESD SP5.4.1: Latch-up Sensitivity Testing of CMOS/BiCMOS Integrated Circuits -

Transient Latch-up Testing - Device Level
This document addresses steps which are required to perform transient latch-up (TLU)
characterization under well-defined conditions. It defines pre-conditioning of the device-
under-test (DUT), applying the stress pulse, detecting latch-up, and determining failure
criteria. Additionally, a procedure to verify the test equipment is described. The test
methods enable the user to perform an application specific TLU characterization with
reliable and verified test set-ups.
ANSI/ESD STM5.5.1: Transmission Line Pulse (TLP) - Component Level

The purpose of the document is to establish a methodology for both testing and reporting
information associated with transmission line pulse (TLP) testing. This document covers
TLP systems applying quasi-rectangular pulses with a wide range of pulse widths and
rise times. All such systems are referred to as TLP systems.
ESD SP5.6: Human Metal Model (HMM) - Component Level

This document establishes a test method for stressing pins of electrical components that
will be connected to external ports of a system to provide a figure of merit (the onset of
physical damage) for survivability of the tested pin from electrically induced physical
damage due to electrostatic discharge events (ESD) events.
ANSI/ESD S6.1: Grounding

This standard specifies the parameters, materials, equipment, and test procedures
necessary to choose, establish, verify, and maintain an electrostatic discharge (ESD)
control grounding system for use within an ESD protected area (EPA) for protection of
ESD susceptible items. This standard also specifies the criteria for establishing ESD
bonding for the protection of ESD susceptible items in field service or other remote
operations.
ANSI ESD STM7.1: Floor Materials –Characterization of Materials

This standard test method provides procedures for measuring the electrical resistance of
floor materials used for the control of electrostatic charge and discharge. It also provides
test methods for the qualification of floor materials prior to their installation or application,
as well as test methods for acceptance and monitoring of floor materials after installation
or application.
ANSI ESD S8.1: Symbols – ESD Awareness

The purpose of this document is to standardize commonly available and in-use symbols
and to clarify the meaning of each of these symbols.
The correct usage of symbols will eliminate confusion between symbols that indicate that
an item or material is ESD susceptible and those that indicate that an item is designed to
[7]
afford some degree of ESD protection. This symbol standard is developed in accordance
with international graphical guidelines and standards.
ANSI/ESD STM9.1: Footwear - Resistive Characterization (not to include heel straps and
toe grounders)
This standard test method provides a test method to measure the electrical resistance of
static control footwear and footwear systems with a person.
ESD SP9.2: Foot Grounders - Resistive Characterization (not to include static control
shoes)
This document describes the electrical resistance test methods for qualification of foot
grounders (for example, heel straps, toe grounders, sole grounders, and booties).
ANSI/ESD SP10.1: Automated Handling Equipment (AHE)

Provides testing and data reporting procedures for the evaluation of ESD ground integrity
in AHE and for the evaluation of charge generation and accumulation on devices in AHE.
These methods evaluate newly installed and existing equipment by verifying the
equipment’s existing ground paths and by determining if charge on ESD-sensitive devices
(ESDS) can be detected.
ANSI ESD STM11.11: Surface Resistance Measurement of Static Dissipative Planar

Materials
This standard provides a test method for measuring the surface resistance of planar
materials in the static dissipative range.
ANSI/ESD STM11.12: Volume Resistance Measurement of Static Dissipative Planar

Materials
This standard defines the test procedure, equipment, sample preparation, and
conditioning needed to achieve reproducible volume resistance test results on static
dissipative planar materials.
ANSI/ESD STM11.13: Two-Point Resistance Measurement

This standard test method provides a test method to measure the resistance between two
points on a surface of an item.
ANSI ESD STM11.31: Bags

The purpose of this standard is to ensure that testing labs, using this test method to
evaluate a given packaging material, will obtain similar results.
ANSI/ESD S11.4: Static Control Bags

This standard establishes performance limits for bags that are intended to protect
electronic parts and products from damage due to static electricity and moisture during
common electronic manufacturing industry transport and storage applications.
[8]
ANSI/ESD STM12.1: Seating - Resistive Measurement
This document provides test methods for measuring the electrical resistance of seating
used in an ESD control program. This standard test method provides test methods for the
qualification of seating prior to installation or application.
ANSI/ESD S13.1: Electrical Soldering/Desoldering Hand Tools

This standard provides electrical soldering/desoldering hand tool test methods for
measuring current leakage, tip to ground reference point resistance, and tip voltage.
ANSI/ESD SP14.5: Near Field Immunity Scanning – Component/Module/PCB Level

This standard practice establishes a test method for immunity scanning of ICs, modules
and PCB’s. Results from scanning relate to the system level performance but cannot be
used to predict system level performance using the IEC 61000-4-2 test method. The
reason is that variations exist in coupling paths between injection points and local current
densities and associated fields coupled into traces or IC’s.
ANSI/ESD STM15.1: In-Use Resistance Testing of Gloves and Finger Cots

This document provides test procedures for measuring the intrinsic electrical resistance
of gloves and finger cots, as well as their electrical resistance, together with personnel as
a system. The system test provides data that are relevant to the user’s specific
environment and application.
ANSI/ESD S20.20: Protection of Electrical and Electronic Parts, Assemblies and

Equipment (Excluding Electrically Initiated Explosive Devices)
This standard provides administrative and technical requirements for establishing,
implementing, and maintaining an ESD Control Program.
ANSI/ESD SP27.1: Recommended Information Flow Regarding Potential EOS Issues

between Automotive OEM, Tier 1, and Semiconductor Manufacturers
This document provides guidance based on a two-level approach that describes what
necessary and important information should be shared between automotive original
equipment manufacturer (OEM), Tier 1, and semiconductor manufacturers to solve
electrical overstress (EOS) issues.
ANSI/ESD STM97.1: Floor Materials and Footwear - Resistance Measurement in

Combination with a Person
This document provides test methods for measuring the electrical system resistance of
floor materials in combination with persons wearing static control footwear.
ANSI/ESD STM97.2: Floor Materials and Footwear - Voltage Measurement in

Combination with a Person
This document establishes test methods for the measurement of the voltage on a person
in combination with floor materials and static control footwear, shoes or other devices.
[9]
ANSI/ESD S541: Packaging Materials for ESD Sensitive Items
This standard defines the packaging properties needed to protect electrostatic discharge
susceptible (ESDS) electronic items through all phases of production, transport, and
storage. Packaging requirements are defined to support the ESD control program
requirements stated in ANSI/ESD S20.20. Test methods are referenced for the evaluation
of ESD protective packaging and packaging materials. Required limits are provided.
Advisory Documents and Technical Reports

Advisory Documents and Technical Reports are not Standards, but provide general
information for the industry or additional information to aid in better understanding of
Association Standards.
ESD ADV1.0: Glossary of Terms

This glossary promotes technically correct terminology in the electrical
overstress/electrostatic discharge (EOS/ESD) community.
ESD ADV11.2: Triboelectric Charge Accumulation Testing

This advisory provides guidance in understanding the triboelectric phenomenon, and to
relate current information and experience regarding tribocharge testing as used in static
control for electronics.
ESD ADV53.1: ESD Protective Workstations

This Advisory defines the minimum electrical requirements of a basic ESD Protective
Workstation. This Advisory provides a test method for evaluating, or monitoring of a
basic ESD protective workstation. This method is designed to establish accurate and
repeatable measurement techniques for the specified resistance ranges. It establishes
methods for continuity and resistance measurement of the components to the common
point ground.
ESD TR1.0-01: Survey of Constant (Continuous) Monitors for Wrist Straps

Since people are one of the greatest sources of static electricity and ESD, proper
grounding is paramount. One of the most common ways to ground people is with a wrist
strap. Ensuring that wrist straps are functional and are connected to people and ground
is a continuous task.
ESD TR2.0-01: Consideration for Developing ESD Garment Specifications

Concerns about effective ESD garments are best addressed by starting with an
understanding of electrostatic measurements and how they relate to ESD protection.
Basic ESD measurements are simple, but for yarns, fabrics, or garments, measurements
become difficult and complicated.
ESD TR2.0-02: Static Electricity Hazards of Triboelectrically Charged Garments

This technical report is intended to provide some insight to the electrostatic hazards
present when a garment is worn in a flammable or explosive environment. The primary
focus from the military application standpoint has been in the area of chemical defense
[10]
ensembles, although this report may be applied to textiles in general. A brief overview of
electrostatic charge generation and charge dissipation is also presented.
ESD TR3.0-01: Alternate Techniques for Measuring Ionizer Offset Voltage and Discharge
Time
The purpose of this document is to characterize and describe test methods used for in-
situ testing of air ionization equipment.
ESD TR3.0-02: Selection and Acceptance of Air Ionizers

This document provides guidance in establishing a performance specification for an
ionizer.
ESD TR4.0-01: Survey of Worksurfaces and Grounding Mechanisms

This document provides guidance for understanding the attributes of worksurface
materials and their grounding mechanisms.
ESDA/JEDEC JTR001-01: ESD Association Technical Report User Guide of

ANSI/ESDA/JEDEC JS-001 Human Body Model Testing of Integrated Circuits
The information and procedures explained in this technical report are intended to help
those familiar with traditional HBM testing use the new options that were introduced in
ANSI/ESDA/JEDEC JS-001-2011. ANSI/ESDA/JEDEC JS-001-2011 has since been
superseded by JS-001-2014 but all of the changes discussed in this guide were retained
in the 2014 version.
ESD TR5.2-01: Machine Model (MM) Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Investigation –

Reduction in Pulse Number and Delay Time
The proliferation of high pin-count package configurations within the electronics industry
has resulted in increasing stress times for all Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) test
methodologies and models. One of these ESD models, Machine Model (MM), is an
electrostatic simulation approximating the discharge event produced by machinery,
furniture, or automated handling equipment. Present MM test methodology requires the
application of three ESD pulses to a pin under test using several stressing configurations
(referred to as pin combinations). Further requirements state that a one second delay
between consecutive ESD pulses must be used.
ESDA/JEDEC JTR5.2-01: ESDA/JEDEC Joint Technical Report for Discontinuing Use of

the Machine Model for Device ESD Qualification
The machine model test, as a requirement for component ESD qualification, is being
rapidly discontinued across the industry. This publication is intended to document why
MM evaluation is not necessary for qualification.
ESD TR5.3.1-01: Contact Charged Device Model (CCDM) Versus Field Induced CDM
(FICDM) A Case Study
This document explains issues associated with today’s field induced charged device
model (FICDM) test methods and describes the advantages and disadvantages of the
new 50-ohm contact charged device model (CCDM) test method.
[11]
ESD TR5.4-01: Transient Induced Latch-up (TLU)
In this report, a brief background on early LU work is presented and then the issues
surrounding the power supply response requirements is reviewed. The efforts on RLC
TLU testing, transmission line pulse (TLP) stressing, and the new bi-polar stress TLU
methodology are discussed.
ESD TR5.4-02: Determination of CMOS Latch-up Susceptibility – Transient Latch-up –

Technical Report No. 2
The information presented in this technical report covers the time period from January
2000 when the first technical report was published through the development and release
of the TLU SP to present. The data contained herein represents a wide variety of
hardware but is primarily based on the procedure in the SP or experiments that led to that
method. Data demonstrating the latch-up effect is presented. This data is used to
determine the shape of the waveform used in the test method as well as justify some of
the limits for the parameters defined such as polarity, pulse width and rise-time (slew
rate).
ESD TR5.4-03: Transient Latch-up Testing - Component Level - Supply Transient

Stimulation
The information and procedures defined in this technical report may be used to search
for latch-up sensitive layouts within integrated circuits. The stress levels and stimuli
parameter values defined may be used for a wide range of devices. Levels and values
can be scaled up or down to suit the requirements of the actual device under test and
types of transient stimuli being used.
ESD TR5.4-04: Transient Latch-up Testing

This technical report provides a comprehensive summary of the state of transient latch-
up. It was hoped that by compiling a summary of the state of knowledge on the subject,
it would make it clear whether a single transient latch-up test was needed or if a small set
of stress tests could cover a large fraction of the integrated circuits which have latch-up
sensitivity when exposed to transient signals.
ESD TR5.5-01: Transmission Line Pulse (TLP)

This document includes information collected during the development of the standard
practice and as part of the ongoing effort to develop a standard test method for TLP.
ESD TR5.5-02: Transmission Line Pulse Round Robin

The purpose of this document is to detail round robin results in order to establish the
repeatability and reproducibility of the ESDA 5.5 Transmission Line Pulse (TLP) standard
practice. The results shown here are for 100 nanosecond pulse lengths and should not
be confused with very fast transmission line pulse (VF-TLP). Work done here follows the
recommendations found in the ASTM E691.
[12]
ESD TR5.5-03: Very-Fast Transmission Line Pulse Round Robin
This technical report reviews the round robin measurements and analysis used to support
the elevation of the VF-TLP document from standard practice to standard test method
status. It also discusses some of the lessons learned about VF-TLP and the performing
of a round robin experiment. VF-TLP is defined as TLP testing using pulses of 10 ns or
shorter [1]. The analysis of the data was based on ASTM E691.
ESD TR5.5-04: Transmission Line Pulse (TLP) – User and Application Guide
The information and procedures explained in this technical report are intended to help
those performing transmission line pulse (TLP) testing as described in ANSI/ESD
STM5.5.1 - ESD Association Standard Test Method for Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)
Sensitivity Testing – Transmission Line Pulse (TLP) – Device Level.
ESD TR5.5-05: Transmission Line Pulse (TLP) – Transient Response Evaluation

This document covers measurement issues and a collection of already available and
published characterization examples.
ESD TR5.6-01: Human Metal Model (HMM)

This standard practice defines how devices and components are to be tested if the IEC
61000-4-2 waveform is used. The ESDA subcommittee 5.6 Device Testing (HMM) has
written a standard practice document describing the stressing of electrical components
with the IEC 61000-4-2 stress waveform. The standard practice is intended as an initial
document to serve the industry’s demand for an ESD system level related stress of
components. The purpose of this report is to provide the rationale for the HMM standard
practice document and its usefulness to the industry.
ESD TR7.0-01: Static Protective Floor Materials

Movement of people and materials in the work environment is frequently cited as a major
source of static electricity. This routine movement, particularly the contact and separation
of shoes with the floor, generates voltages on personnel as high as several thousand
volts. Similarly, the movement of carts or other equipment will generate electrostatic
charge. This technical report will review the use of floor materials to dissipate electrostatic
charge. It provides an overview on floor coverings, floor finishes, topical antistats, floor
mats, paints and coatings. It also covers a variety of other issues related to floor material
selection, installation and maintenance.
ESD TR10.0-01: Measurement and ESD Control Issues for Automated Equipment
Handling of ESD Sensitive Devices Below 100 Volts
This technical report will explore the considerations for handling extremely sensitive
devices, particularly with automated equipment.
ESD TR13.0-01: EOS Safe Soldering Iron Requirements

Soldering iron requirements to prevent electrical overstress (EOS) vary throughout the
world. EOS issues related to soldering irons have not been researched based on device
physics or sound electrical engineering practice. In the United States the most prominent
standard has been the MIL STD-2000 series documents that contain soldering
[13]
specifications. (MIL STD-2000 is now cancelled without replacement as the Military is
using civilian documents.) ESD documents often consider the soldering iron requirements
part of electrostatic discharge (ESD) protection, but the soldering iron requirements are
really intended to control one of the many forms of EOS, not ESD. An underlying, but
misguided concern is the possibility of causing a latent defect that would become a latent
failure. This issue has been addressed and it has been shown that a latent failure is highly
improbable, therefore latency is not an issue, even with a faulty soldering iron.
ESD TR14.0-01: Calculation of Uncertainty Associated With Measurement of

Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Current
Uncertainty is the estimated bounds of the deviation of a measured quantity from its true
value. A statement of uncertainty is used to reflect the quality/accuracy of a measured
result as compared with the true value which is and usually will remain unknown. The
statement of uncertainty is accompanied by a statement of confidence that can be placed
in the value of uncertainty. A calculation of uncertainty should be performed for each
measured parameter of a calibration. ESD simulator pulses are notoriously difficult to
measure because of their fast rise time and shot-to-shot variations in waveform. It is
necessary to consider all the possible error sources and calculate the uncertainty when
measuring waveforms generated by ESD simulators. Without the statement of uncertainty
and confidence, it is not clear if the simulator’s performance truly falls within acceptable
limits.
ESD TR14.0-02: System Level Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Simulator Verification

The purpose of this document is to define a measurement system and fixtures that can
be used to make measurements of the discharge current from ESD simulators and other
sources.
ESD TR15.0-01: ESD Glove and Finger Cots

The purpose of this technical report is to review the existing known industry test methods
for the qualification of ESD Protective Gloves and Finger Cots. The results of this study
would be used to determine if ESD Association Standard Test Methods for ESD
Protective Gloves and Finger Cots are necessary.
ESD TR17.0-01: ESD Process Assessment Methodologies in Electronic Production Lines

– Best Practices Used in Industry
Gives the reader examples of best practices of process assessment methodologies and
test methods.
ESD TR18.0-01: ESD Electronic Design Automation Checks

The purpose of this document is to provide a guideline for both EDA industry and ESD
design community to establish a comprehensive ESD electronic design automation (EDA)
verification flow satisfying the ESD design challenges of modern ICs. This includes the
definition of a common terminology and the description of the required check types. The
document is also aimed to convey the basic ESD concepts and their implementation
during the IC design process to EDA industry.
[14]
ESD TR20.20: Handbook for the Development of an Electrostatic Discharge Control
Program for the Protection of Electronic Parts, Assemblies and Equipment
Provides guidance that can be used for developing, implementing, and monitoring an
electrostatic discharge control program in accordance with ANSI/ESD S20.20. This
handbook applies to activities that include manufacturing, processing, assembling,
installing, packaging, labeling, servicing, testing, inspecting, or otherwise handling
electrical or electronic parts, assemblies, and equipment susceptible to damage by
electrostatic discharges greater than or equal to 100 volts human body model (HBM), 200
volts charged device model (CDM), and exposure to charged isolated conductors.
ESD TR21.0-01: Flat Panel Display

This document describes some of the more critical static charge related issues in FPD
manufacturing.
ESD TR22.0-01: Relevant ESD Parameters for Seamless ESD Design and Verification
Flow
This report describes the essential requirements on ESD-related technology data which
need to be delivered to design customers by a foundry vendor. Design customers can be
design houses, IDMs following a foundry strategy or IP vendors. The purpose is to ensure
seamless design integration and ESD EDA verification of IC level ESD concepts.
ESD TR22.0-02: Relevant ESD Foundry Parameters for Seamless ESD Design and
Verification Flow – Part 2 – ESD Parameters from Intellectual Property (IP) Providers
This document is intended to highlight the ESD-related issues relevant to intellectual
property (IP) selection, IP on-chip usage, and IP integration verification. It addresses best
practices which are consolidated between IP providers and IP users. Latch-up rules are
only addressed as far as they are related to integration of ESD protection elements.
ESD TR23.0-01: Electrical Overstress in Manufacturing and Test

This document covers certain aspects of the control, mitigation, and monitoring of
electrical stresses, which may cause EOS damage.
ESD TR25.0-01: Charged Board Event (CBE)

While no industry standard currently exists for CBE testing, this technical report aims to
fill the gap of knowledge for its various aspects. Trying to standardize the CBE stress
testing procedure will be very challenging because PCB designs and layouts vary
significantly and each PCB may have several tens to hundreds of potential discharge
points.
ESD TR50.0-01: Can Static Electricity be Measured?

This document will try to give an overview of fundamental electrostatic concepts and
electrostatic effects and most importantly of electrostatic metrology, especially what can
and what cannot be measured.
[15]
ESD TR50.0-02: High-Resistance Ohmmeters - Voltage Measurements
High Resistance Meters are one of the most commonly used meters for the measurement
of materials used to control ESD. From work surfaces to floors, evaluators use these
meters to qualify materials and audit workstations and ESD safe areas. There are a
number of parameters that can cause different readings from these meters when
improper instrumentation and techniques are used. These techniques and precautions
will be discussed in this technical report in order that the measurement will be as accurate
and repeatable as possible for high resistance measurement of materials. Several orders
of magnitude differences in measured resistance values have been observed and
reported to the ESD Technical Advisory and Services committee. Materials that may
have a non-linear resistance for various levels of applied voltages. Also, measurement
may vary because of materials used in the electrodes, but these issues are beyond the
scope of the investigation conducted for this TR.
ESD TR50.0-03: Voltage and Energy Susceptible Device Concepts, Including Latency
Considerations
This technical report contains information to promote an understanding of the differences
between energy and voltage susceptible types of devices and their sensitivity levels.
Understanding these susceptibilities and their differences, aids personnel involved in
electrostatic discharge (ESD) protective program planning and tailoring. This technical
report emphasizes the importance of identifying device technology differences and
contains simple analogies along with more advanced information for both non-technical
and technical personnel. The two types of susceptibility and their vulnerability to be
damaged from different static sources or events will be explained.
ESD TR53-01: Compliance Verification of ESD Protective Equipment and Materials

The purpose of this technical report is to provide compliance verification test procedures
and troubleshooting guidance for ESD protective equipment and materials. Test results
may be used for the Compliance Verification Plan Requirements of ANSI/ESD S20.20 or
those of the user if more restrictive.
ESD TR55.0-01: Electrostatic Guidelines and Considerations for Cleanrooms and Clean
Manufacturing
This document provides guidelines and considerations for the use of electrostatic
discharge (ESD) and electrostatic attraction (ESA) control methods, equipment and
materials in cleanrooms and clean manufacturing environments.
[16]

Fundamentals of ESD

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Fundamentals of ESD

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Fundamentals of Electrostatic Discharge

Part One—An Introduction to ESD

HISTORY & BACKGROUND

STATIC ELECTRICITY: CREATING CHARGE

ESD can change the electrical characteristics of a semiconductor device, degrading or

Controlling electrostatic discharge begins with understanding how electrostatic charge

Creating electrostatic charge by contact and separation of materials is known as

Static electricity is measured in coulombs. The charge (q) on an object is determined by

HOW MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS AFFECT STATIC CHARGE

Electrostatic charge can be created triboelectrically on conductors the same way it is

ESD DAMAGE—HOW DEVICES FAIL

BASIC ESD EVENTS—WHAT CAUSES ELECTRONIC DEVICES TO FAIL?

Discharge to the Device

Discharge from the Device

HOW MUCH ESD CONTROL PROTECTION IS NEEDED?

1. Virtually all materials, including conductors, can be triboelectrically charged.

2. Define the Level of Control Needed in Your Environment.

3. Identify and Define the Electrostatic Protected Areas (EPA).

5. Dissipate and Neutralize

Figure 2: Six critical elements of a successful ESD control program

1. Establish an ESD Coordinator and ESD Teams

2. Assess Your Organization, Facility, Processes and Losses

3. Establish and Document Your ESD Control Program Plan

4. Build Justification to Get the Top Management Support

5. Develop and Implement a Training Plan

6. Develop and Implement a Compliance Verification Plan

1. Establish an ESD Coordinator and ESD teams

FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

In Part Two, Principles of ESD Control – ESD Control Program Development, we

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF STATIC CONTROL

1. Design in protection by designing products and assemblies to be as robust

Typical Facility Areas Requiring ESD Protection

Stores and Warehouses

Test and Inspection

Research and Development

Field Service Repair

Rework and Repair Center

Offices and Laboratories

The second step is to connect the common point ground to

CONTROLLING STATIC CHARGE ON PERSONNEL AND MOVING EQUIPMENT

ESD CONTROL FOOTWEAR, CASTERS

 ESD Category 1 garment; a static control garment without being attached to

WORKSTATIONS AND WORK SURFACES

ESD protective worksurfaces with a resistance to ground of 1.0 x 10 6 to 1.0 x 109

CONTINUOUS OR CONSTANT MONITORS

GLOVES AND FINGER COTS

PACKAGING MATERIAL HANDLING CONTAINERS

Direct protection of ESDS items from electrostatic discharge is provided by packaging

Resistance or resistivity measurements help define the material's ability to provide

Many objects integral to the semiconductor manufacturing process (quartz, glass,

The ESD Susceptibility Symbol is applied directly to

Figure 4: The ESD Protective Symbol (Figure 4) consists of the

There is significant evidence to support the contribution of training to the success

ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE TRAINING PROGRAMS

1. Successful training programs cover all affected employees.

2. Effective training is comprehensive and consistent.

3. Use a variety of training tools and techniques.

Effective training involves employees in the process. Reinforce the

Maintaining a central repository for educational ESD control materials will

• Material from initial and recurring training sessions

4. Test, certify, and retrain.

5. Feedback, compliance verification, and measurement.

A key method of training effectiveness is the observation of the operator in the