NFPA1081 Standard Additional NFPA Standards

Inc ipie nt Indust ria l Fire B riga de M e mbe r NFPA 600 Standard on Industri al Fi re Bri gades
NFPA1081 contai ns no Inci pi ent Industri al j ob performance requi rements for thi s NFPA 1500 Standard on Fi re Department Oc cupati onal Safety and Heal th
chapter. Program

A dv a nc ed Ext erior Indust ria l Fire B riga de Me mbe r 6.2.4 Conduct search
and rescue operati ons as a member of a team, gi ven an assi gnment, obscured
Knowledge Objectives
vi si on conditi ons, personal protecti ve equi pment, a fl ashli ght, forci bl e entry tool s, After compl eti ng thi s chapter, you will be able to:
handli nes, and l adders when necessary, so that all equi pment i s correctl y used, all • Defi ne search and rescue.
assi gned areas are searched, all vi cti ms are l ocated and removed, team i ntegrity i s • Descri be the i mportance of scene si ze -up i n search and rescue.
mai ntai ned, and team members' safety, i ncl udi ng respi ratory protecti on, i s not • Descri be search techni ques.
compromi sed. • Descri be the pri mary search.
• Descri be search patterns.
(A) Requi si te Knowl edge. Use of appropri ate tool s and equi pment, psychol ogi
• Descri be the secondary search.
cal effects of operati ng i n obscured conditi ons and way s to manage them,
• Descri be how to ensure brigade member safety duri ng a search.
methods to determi ne if an area i s tenable, pri mary and secondary search
techni ques, team members' rol es and goal s, methods to use and i ndi cators of • Descri be l adder rescue techni ques.
• Descri be i ndustri al hazards and i ssues, whi ch may affect search and
findi ng vi cti ms, vi cti m removal metho ds, and consi derati ons rel ated to respi ra
rescue operations.
tory protecti on.
(B) Requi si te Skill s. The abili ty to use SCBA to exit through restri cted passages,
use tool s and equi pment for vari ous types of rescue operations, rescue an
industri al fi re bri gade member wi th functi oni ng respi ratory protecti on, rescue an
Skills Objectives
industri al fi re bri gade member whose respi ratory protecti on i s not functi oni ng, After compl eti ng thi s chapter, you will be abl e to perform the foll owi ng skill s:
rescue a person who has no respi ratory protecti on, and asses s areas to deter • Demonstrate the one -person wal ki ng assi st.
mi ne tenabili ty. • Demonstrate the two -person wal ki ng assi st.
• Demonstrate the two -person extremity carry.
• Demonstrate the two-person seat carry.
Inte rior St ruc tural Indust ria l Fire B riga de M e mbe r 7 .2.8 Conduct search • Demonstrate the two -person chai r carry.
and rescue operati ons as a member of a team, gi ven an assi gnment, obscured • Demonstrate the cradl e -i n-arms carry.
vi si on conditi ons, personal protecti ve equi pment, a fl ashli ght, forci bl e entry tool s, • Demonstrate the cl othes drag.
handli nes, and l adders when necessary, so that all equi pment i s correctl y used, all • Demonstrate the bl anket drag.
assi gned areas are searched; all vi cti ms are l ocated and removed, team integri ty i s • Demonstrate the webbi ng sli ng drag.
mai ntai ned, and team members' safety, i ncl udi ng respi ratory protecti on, i s not • Demonstrate the bri gade member drag.
compromi sed. • Demonstrate the one-person emergency drag from a vehi cl e.
(A) Requi si te Knowl edge. Use of appropri ate tool s and equi pment, psychol ogi • Demonstrate the l ong backboard rescue.
cal effects of operati ng i n obscured conditi ons and way s to manage them, • Demonstrate rescui ng a consci ous person from a wi ndow.
methods to determi ne if an area i s tenable, pri mary and secondary search • Demonstrate rescui ng an unconsci ous person from a wi ndow.
techni ques, team members' rol es and goal s, methods to use and i ndi cators of • Demonstrate rescui ng an unconsci ous small adult from a wi ndow.
findi ng vi cti ms, vi cti m removal methods, and consi derati ons rel ated to respi ra • Demonstrate rescui ng a l arge adult from a wi ndow.
tory protecti on.
(B) Requi si te Skill s. The abili ty to use SCBA to exit through restri cted passages,
jse tool s and equi pment for vari ous types of rescue operati ons, rescue an
industri al fi re bri gade member whose respi ratory protecti on i s not functi oni ng,
rescue a person who has no respi ratory protecti on, and asses s areas to deter
mi ne tenability.
 As you enter the classroom of your fire brigade training session, several fire brigade members are
discussing a search and rescue operation at a chemical processing facility similar in size to your
plant. The incident occurred in a large indoor processing building. When the facility fire brigade
arrived on scene, the area foreman indicated that one of the process technicians who was working
within the building was not present at the evacuation site and was presumed to still be inside the
building. A team of fire brigade members, including a member familiar with the process building,
was assigned to conduct search and rescue operations. It took several teams of search and
rescue personnel to find the process technician inside the large open-area building, which was a
maze of piping, pumps, and other process equipment.
1. What techniques are used to search large open-area buildings?
2. What hazards may be encountered by search teams within a process-area type of environ
ment?
3. What would be the quickest and safest method to remove an employee from this type of
environment?

Introduction training (h igh angle, confined space, etc.). Additionally, fire

The mission of the fire brigade is to save lives and protect
property. Saving lives is the highest priority at a fire scene. That
is why search and rescue are so important at any incident. The
first brigade members to arrive must always consider the pos -
sibility that lives could be in danger and act accordingly.
Saving lives remains the highest priority until it is deter-
mined that everyone who was in danger has been found and
moved to a safe location, o r until it is no longer possible to
rescue anyone successfully. The first situation occurs when a
thorough search is done and there is no one remaining to be
rescued. The second situation might occur if fire conditions
or other factors make it likely that no one could still be alive to
be rescued.
Search and Rescue
Search and rescue are almost always performed in tandem. A
search is done to look for victims who need assistance to leave a
dangerous area. Rescue is the physical removal of a person
fro m confinement or danger, such as when a brigade member
leads an occupant to an exit or carries an unconscious victim
out of a burning building and down a ladder. Both are exam-
ples of rescues because the victim is physically removed from
imminent danger through the actions of a rescuer.
Although any fire brigade un it could be assigned to
search-and-rescue operations, many fire brigades assign this
responsib ility to b rigade memb ers with specialized rescue
brigade members must be trained to the proper level of
haz-mat response to enter fire areas that contain hazardous
materials. All fire brigade members must be trained and
prepared to perform basic search and rescue funct ions.
Search-and-rescue operations must be conducted quickly
and efficiently A systematic approach will ensure that every-
one who can possibly be saved is successfully located and
removed fro m danger. Brigade members should practice the
specific search and rescue procedures used by their brigades
to sharpen their skills and increase their efficiency.
Often, the first-arriving brigade members may not know if
anyone is inside a burning bu ilding, near a process area, or
how many peop le could be in the area or in a stru cture.
Brigade members should never assume that an area is unoc-
cupied. Industrial facilit ies routinely maintain evacuation
plans and roll call procedures to account for workers and vis -
itors in an operating area or a structure. Searches are not gen-
erally necessary if all personnel have been accounted for. I:
there are doubts or questions regarding the accountability of
personnel in the affected area, a thorough search is necessar
Due to the hazards associated with many industrial opera-
tions, a search may not be possible because of the risk tc
brigade members when weighed against the possibility ::
survival of missing emp loyees or guests. There are t imes
when a search cannot be conducted immed iately. Depends:
on the circumstances, the search could be delayed or limitec to
a specific area because of the risk to brigade members an: the
low probability of survivors.

( Figure 13-1) To support search -and-rescue operations, brigade members
may first have to position hose lines to protect the means of egress.
Coordinating Search and Rescue
with Fire Suppr ession
Although search and rescue are always the first priorities at a
fire, they are never the only act ions taken by first-arriving
brigade members. Brigade members must plan and coordi-
nate all other activ ities to support the search-and-rescue pri-
ority. When search-and-rescue operations are finished, fire
brigade members can focus totally on fire suppression and
other incident stabilization operations.
Often, b rigade members must take act ion to confine or
contro l the fire before search-and -rescue operat ions can
begin. It might be necessary to posit ion hose lines to keep
the fire away fro m potential victi ms or to protect the entry
and exit paths, so that the victims can be found and safely
removed (A Figure 13-1). In some cases, the best way to save
lives is to control the fire and eliminate the danger quickly.
Other fire scene activit ies also must be coordinated with
search and rescue. Forcib le entry might be needed to provide
entrances and exits for search-and-rescue teams. Well-placed
ventilat ion can reduce interior temperatu res and improve
visibility, enabling search teams to locate victims more rap -
idly. Portable lighting can provide valuable assistance to inte-
rior search crews. Isolation of hazardous conditions (sources
of electricity, hazardous materials, etc.) can make areas more
tenable for victims and safer for fire brigade members con -
ducting search operations.
Often, the search for potential victims also provides valu-
able information about the location and extent of the fire and
other hazardous conditions within a build ing and/or exterior
process operation area. The searchers act as a reconnaissance
team to determine which areas are involved and where the fire
or hazards might spread. They report this information to the
Incident Co mmander (IC) who is developing an overall plan
for the situation.
Searc h a nd Resc ue 365
( Figure 13 -2) The IC must weigh the risk to brigade members against the
possibility of saving anyone inside before authorizing an interior search.
Searc h-and- Rescu e Size-Up
The size-up process at every fire should include a specific
evaluation of the critical factors for search and rescue. These
includ e th e nu mber o f occupants in the bu ild ing , th eir
location, the degree of risk to their lives, and their ability to
evacuate by themselves. Usually, this information is not imme-
diately available, so actions have to be based on a combination
of observations and expectations. The type of facility; the size,
construction, complexity, and condition of the building/exte-
rior process area; and the apparent smoke, fire, and hazardous
conditions, as well as the time of day and day of week, are
important observations that could indicate whether and how
many people may need to be rescued.
Brigade members can then develop a search-and-rescue
plan based on their conclusions. This plan identifies the areas to
be searched, the priorit ies for searching different areas, the
number of search teams required, and any additional actions
needed to support the search-and-rescue activities. One
search-and-rescue team with standard firefighting gear may be
sufficient for a small industrial building, but mu ltiple teams
with thermal imaging cameras and air monitoring equipment
might be necessary to search a large, multihazard industrial
facility.
Risk-Benefit Analysis
Plans for search and rescue must take into consideration the
risks and benefits of the operat ion. In so me s ituations,
search-and-rescue operat ions must be limited or cannot be
performed. For example, if a building is exh ibit ing potential
backdraft conditions, or eminent overp ressure or boiling liq -
uid, expand ing vapor explosion (BLEVE) condit ions exist,
the risk to fire brigade members might be too high and the
possibility of saving anyone inside might be too low to justify
sending a search-and-rescue team into the bu ild ing/exterior
process area (A Fig ure 13 -2). A similar d ecision might be
366 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
Brigade Member Safety Tips
Search-and-Rescue Size-Up Considerations
• Occ upancy • Size of building • C onst ruct ion of building
• Tim e of day and day of w eek • N um ber of occ upant s •
Degree of risk t o the occupants pres ented by t he fire •
Ability of occ upants t o ex it on t heir ow n
made if the fire is in an abandoned building or a bu ilding in
danger of structural collapse. In other situations, it might not
be possible to conduct a search until the fire has been extin -
guished and/or other hazards have been contro lled.
Occupancy Factors
When a bu ild ing is kno wn or b eliev ed to be o ccup ied,
brigade members should first rescue the occupants who are
in the most immediate danger, fo llowed by those who are in
less danger. Search teams should be assigned on the basis of
these priorit ies.
Several factors determine the level of risk faced by the
occupants of a burning build ing. These include the locat ion
of the fire within the building, the direct ion of spread, the
volu me and intensity of the fire, and s mo ke cond it ions in
different areas.
In establishing search priorities, brigade members should
also consider where occupants are most likely to be located.
Occupants who are close to the fire, above the fire, o r in the
path of spread are usually at greater risk than those who are
farther away fro m the fire. A person in the immed iate area
where the fire started is probab ly in immed iat e danger,
whereas the occupants of a lower floor or a remote area of a
large building or facility are relatively safe.
Workers who are at windows or other elevated areas call-
ing fo r help obviously realize they are in danger and want to
be rescued. But there may be other emp loyees within the
facility or area who cannot be immed iately seen. These people
cou ld be un conscious, in cap acitat ed , o r t rapped . A search
has to be conducted to locate them before they can be rescued.
The occupancies of industrial facilities can very greatly.
During a day shift, large facilit ies may have an occupancy of
hundreds of production and support personnel. If the facility
is running mu lt iple production shifts, there may be large
populations on each shift. During the non-production shifts,
a small group o f maintenance and janito rial personnel may
inhabit the facility. During turnaround or retooling periods,
the facility populations may even exceed the normal levels.
P R I N C I P L E S AND P R A C T I C E
Another type of occupancy factor that must be considered
within industrial facilities is the type and quantity of hazards
within the facility. Refineries and chemical plants will contain
a vast array of petrochemicals in extremely large quantities. A
power generation facility will contain high-voltage distribu-
tion systems as well as hazards associated with the type of fuel
used (coal dust, fuel o il, nuclear, etc.). Steel mills and
foundries will contain mo lten metal and heavy mach inery
hazards. Other industrial types of industrial facilities will
house other unique hazards. These hazards must be consid -
ered during the search-and-rescue size-up p rocess.
Observations
Brigade members should never assume that a build ing is
comp letely unoccupied. An observant brigade member will
notice clues that indicate whether o r not a building is occu -
pied and how many people are likely to be present. The initial
size-up at an incident can p rovide valuab le informat ion on
the probability o f finding occupants, the number of occupants,
and the most likely location o f any occupants.
Unlike many municipal fire serv ice agencies, industrial
fire brigade members have the requirement of having a good
working kno wledge of the facility in which they work. The
brigade members will typ ically have an understanding of
what portions of the facility are occupied due to their routine
work activit ies. They are mo re than likely very aware of the
areas of the facility that are populated during any given time.
They may not only know what areas are populated, but may
also know the general areas where the occupants may be
located based on routine wo rk hab its.
Much like search and rescue operations in the mun icipal
sector, key observat ions at the incident site can also give
mo re information regard ing the potential for v ictims to be
present in the area ( ►Figures 13-3 ). Vehicles adjacent to a
build ing or plant area may indicate a potential for vict ims.
Personal effects such as lunch boxes, hard hats, coats, tool
belts, and so forth could indicate that personnel could be in
the area. Other observations that could ind icate potential
victims within the area include operating process equipment
(wh ich is not normally left unattended), unsecured facilit ies
(wh ich are normally secured when unoccupied), and paper-
wo rk (wo rk permits, load ing pap ers , etc.) th at ind icat es
work was under way in the area.
Occupant Information
Occup ants who have already escap ed and wo rkers wh
know the other personnel in the work area can p rovide valu -
ab le in fo rmat ion abo ut ho w many peop le mig ht s t ill b e
ins ide the facility and where they might be. A lthough th is
in fo rmat ion may be valuab le, it is no t always accu rat e
Emp loyees stand ing ou tside a bu rn ing bu ild ing o r pro cess
area is a good sign , but th is does not necessarily mean that
everyone is safe. An important question to as k is "Are you I
sure that no one else is left inside the area?"

( Figures 13-3 ) Exterior observations can often provide a good indic ation if a building is occupied. A. A single vehicle parked outside the building may
indicate minimal occupancy. B. Industries may retire unused facilities and identify their out -of-service status.
It is often d ifficu lt to obtain accurate info rmat ion fro m
people who have just escaped fro m a burn ing industrial
facility, especially if they believe a coworker or close friend
may still be inside. People may be too emotional too speak or
even think clearly . If so meone says they think workers are
still inside, b rigade members should obtain as much info r-
mat ion as possible. They should ask specific questions such
as "Where was the employee last seen?" and "What was the
emp loyee doing at the t ime o f the emergency?"
Other important sources of info rmat ion availab le to
industrial fire brigade members include a knowledge of the
facility evacuat ion plans and an understanding of the area
worker accountability p rocess. Almost all industrial facili-
ties have emergency evacuation p lans with pre -designated
evacuation sites. These sites must be checked du ring emer-
gency situations to help account for any personnel. Brigade
members must also use the facility accountability systems
(area sign -in sheets, accountab ility/ID tags, etc.) to help
verify potential missing personnel. These resources actually
provide industrial brigade members an advantage over their
mun icipal counterparts, who routinely respond to residen tial
fires with no idea of how many personnel occupy the
build ing.
Building Size and Arrangement
The size and arrangement o f the build ing are other impor -
t ant facto rs t o cons ider in p lann ing and con duct ing a
search . A larg e bu ild in g, with many ro o ms , must be
searched on a systematic basis. Access to an interio r layout
or floor p lan is o ften help ful when p lanning and assigning
teams to search a bu ild ing. To ensure that each area is
searched p ro mpt ly and that no areas are o mitt ed, th ere
must be a systematic way of assigning specific areas to dif-
ferent teams. Teams must report when they have co mpleted
search ing each area. Assign ments are o ft en based o n the
Search and Rescue 3G7
stairway lo cat ions, co rrido r arrangements, bu ild ing
sec-ments (areas of a building part it ioned by firewalls and/or
grouped by wo rk areas), o r roo m nu mbering systems .
Because it is difficu lt to determine this informat ion in the
midst of an emergency fire brigades often conduct
pre-inci-dent surveys of facilit ies. Fire brigades assemb le
detailec info rmat ion about the facilit ies during the survey
and use it to p repare pre -p lans so they are ready when an
emergency occurs.
Pre-incid ent p lans for indust rial facilit ies can include
valuable information such as:
• Corridor layouts
• Exit locations
• Stairway locations
• Process/manufactu ring equip ment locat ions
• Special function roo ms or areas
• Locations of specialized hazards
• Evacuation site locations
• Safe shelter/places of refuge locations
• Typical population of areas by shift
Brigade members should note how the floors of a building
are nu mbered . Bu ild ings constructed on a slope may appear to
have a different number of levels when viewed from differ ent
sides. For examp le, a fire may appear to be on the third floor
to a brigade member standing in front of the buil ding wh ile a
brigad e member at th e rea r o f th e bu ild ing might report that
it is on the fifth floor. W ithout knowing how fl: are nu mbered,
brigade members can be sent to work abc fire instead of below
it.
Outdoor Process Area
Size and Arrangement
Industrial facilit ies such as refineries, chemical
process:.-plants, and similar large-scale operat ions have
large outdoor
 368 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
processing areas. These areas include a maze of d ifferent
types of processing equipment such as tanks, pressure ves -
sels, reacto rs, pu mps, and similar equ ip ment. The equ ip -
men t may be locat ed at g roun d level o r on elev at ed
structures that may be accessed by regular stairwells or vertical
ladder cages. Confined-space areas and build ings may be
dispersed th roughout the outdoor process areas dependent
on the facility.
Fire b rigades conduct a pre-incident survey of the out-
door process area very similar to the surveys conducted for a
building. The information gathered during the survey is used
to develop a pre-plan (or plot plan) of the processing area.
Pre-p lans of outdoor processing areas typically include the
following informat ion:
• Stairwell/vertical ladder locat ion
• Process/manufactu ring equip ment locat ions
• Locations of specialized hazards
• Build ing locat ions with in process areas
• Heights of process equip ment
• Evacuation site locations
• Safe shelter/places of refuge locations
• Typical population of areas by shift
Search Coordination
The overall plan for the incident must focus on the life-safety
prio rity as long as search -and -rescue operat ions are still
underway. As soon as all searches are comp lete, the priority
can shift to contro lling the incident, whether that be ext in -
guishing the fire o r contro lling other hazardous situations.
The 1C makes search assignments and serves as the search
coordinator. As the teams co mplete their search of each area,
they must notify the IC of the results. An "all clear" report
indicates that an area has been searched and all v ictims have
been removed.
If brigade members who have been assigned to perform
some other task discover a victim or co me upon a critical res -
cue situation, they must notify the IC immed iately. Because
life safety is always the highest priority, the IC will adjust the
overall plan to support the rescue situation. Fo r examp le,
another group might be assigned to perform the first team's
task and to assist with rescue.
Another aspect of search coord inat ion is keep ing t rack
of everyone who was rescued o r escap ed withou t assis -
tance. This in format ion should be tracked at the co mmand
post so that reports o f missing persons can be matched to
reports o f rescued persons. Brigade members should also
conduct an ext erio r search fo r any miss ing peop le. An
emp loyee who escaped fro m the emergency locat ion may
be lying unconscious on the g round nearby or in the care of
coworkers o r may have repo rted to an area evacuat ion site.
So meone who ju mped fro m an elevated locat ion cou ld be
in ju red and unab le to move.
During emergencies at industrial facilities, it is extremely
impo rtant fo r the IC to coo rd inat e th e search operat ion in
P R I N C I P L E S AND P R A C T I C E
unison with the emergency evacuation p lans that are imp le-
mented by facility emp loyees. The IC mus t understand the
locations o f the evacuation sites and safe shelters for the
affected areas and interface with the personnel conduct ing
accountability operat ions at those sites. Being able to obtain a
rap id status o f th e area evacu at ion and t he poss ib le
nu mber an d locat ion of miss ing personnel can g reat ly
imp rove the efficiency of search operations. The coord ina-
tion between fire brigade search operat ions and employee
evacuat ion operat ions cannot be emphas ized enough and
needs to be rout inely p ract iced to make the co mmun ica tions
second nature.
Search Priorities
A search beg ins with the areas where v ict ims are at the
greatest risk. One or two well-trained search teams can usu-
ally go th rough all roo ms in a s maller industrial bu ild ing
(the size of a typical single-family dwelling) in less than five
minutes. Mu lt iple teams and a systemat ic d iv ision of the
build ing are needed in larger structures such as warehouses
and manu factu ring areas . Outdo or p rocessing areas will
also require larger-scale search resources as well as the
potential of specialized personnel and equip ment fo r rescue
operations. Area search assign ments should be based on a
system of priorities:
• The first priority is to search the area immed iately
around the fire, then the rest of the fire floor.
• The second priority is to search the area d irect ly
above the fire and the rest of that floo r.
• The next priority is higher level floors, working
fro m the top floo r down , because s moke and heat
are likely to accu mu late in these areas.
• Generally, areas below the fire floor are a lower priority.
At an emergency involving an elevated structure or build -
ing , th e IC migh t assign t wo or more search -and -rescue
teams to each floo r. The teams must wo rk together closely
and coord inate their searches to ensure that all areas are
covered. For example, one team might search all areas/rooms
on the right side of the corridor, wh ile the other searches
areas/rooms on the left side.
For emergencies involving hazardous materials or other
highly hazard situations or large-scale search areas, in itial
search priorities may need to be reevaluated. Initial searches
may need to be conducted fro m the fringe areas o f the hot
zone, and search-and-rescue personnel may only be requested
to enter the area if victims can be confirmed fro m the fringe
area search. This type of search prioritization provides greater
safety for brigade members and a more rapid coverage of wide
areas.
Search Techniques
Brigade memb ers shou ld emp loy stan dard techn iqu es t o
search assigned areas quickly, efficiently, and safely. Searchers

(Figure 13-4) Searc h teams consist of at least two members.
must always operate in teams of two and should always stay
together (A Figure 13-4). The partners must remain in direct
visual, voice, or physical contact with each other.
At least one member of each search team must also have a
radio to maintain contact with the co mmand post or some one
outside the build ing. The team uses the radio to call for help if
they become disoriented, trapped by fire, or need assistance.
If the search team finds a victim, they must notify the IC so
that help is available to remove the victim fro m the build ing
and provide med ical t reat ment. The team must also notify the
IC when the search of each area has been co mpleted so the
IC can make in formed decisions. A back-up team is required
for these searches.
Two types of searches are performed in build ings. A
primary search is a quick attempt to locat e any potential
victims who are in danger. The primary search should be as
thorough as time permits and should cover any place where
victims are likely to be found. Fire conditions might make it
impossible to conduct a primary search in some areas or may
limit the time availab le for an exhaustive search.
A secondary search is conducted after the situation is
under control. Du ring this follo w-up search , b rigade mem-
bers should take the time to look everywhere and ensure that
no one is missing. If possible, the secondary search should
be conducted by a different team, so that each area of the
building is examined with a fresh set of eyes.
Primary Search
During the primary search, brigade members rapid ly search
th e access ib le areas o f a b u rn ing s t ruct u re to lo cate any
po tential vict ims. The object ive o f the p rimary search is to
find any potential victims as quickly as possible and remove
them fro m danger. When b rigade members co mp lete the
pri.mary search, they have gone as far as they could and
have removed anyone that could be rescued. The phrase
"primary
Searc h a nd Resc ue 369
Brigade Member Tips
Primary search teams are us ually the first brigade mem bers to enter a
burning building. As they searc h for possible victims, team m embers
will often obtain valuable information about the location and spread of
the fire. This reconnaissance inform ation should be c ommunicat ed to
the IC to help in m anaging the overall operation.
all clear" is used to report that the primary search has been
completed.
By necessity, the p rimary search is conducted quickly
and gives prio rity to the areas where v ictims are most likely to
be located. Time is always a crit ical concern , because
brigade members must reach potent ial vict ims before they
are burned, overco me by smo ke and to xic gases, or trapped
by a structural collapse. Search teams may have only a few
minutes to conduct a primary search . In that limited t ime,
brigade members must t ry to find anyone who cou ld be in
danger and remove them to a safe area. Often, act ive fire
conditions may limit the areas that can be searched quickly
as well as the t ime that can be spent in each area.
Fire brigade members should try to check all areas where
victims might be, such as areas where workers are normally
assigned during specific wo rk hours, areas where they were
last seen by coworkers, or areas where they were assigned as
outlined in the facility accountability process. Personnel who
try to escape on their o wn are often found near doors, win -
dows, stairwells, and other means of egress. In some cases,
emp loyees may seek places of refuge such as office/control
rooms, levels of buildings/process areas above or below the
actual fire area, or other areas that provide relief fro m heat or
smoke conditions.
The primary search is frequently conducted in conditions
that expose both brigade members and victims to the risks
presented by heavy smo ke, heat, structural collapse, and
entrapment by the fire. Search teams must often work in con -
ditions of zero visibility and may have to crawl along the floor
to stay below layers of hot gases. Because the beam fro m a
powerfu l hand light might be v isible for only a few inches
inside a smoke-filled building, search-and-rescue teams must
practice searching for v ictims in total darkness. They must
know how to keep track of their location and how to get back
to their entry point. Practicing these skills in a contro lled
environment will enable brigade members to perform confi-
dently under similar condit ions at an emergency incident.
Brigade members must rely on their senses when they
search a building. The three most important senses during a
search are:
• Sight—Can you see anything?
• Sound—Can you hear so meone calling for help,
moan ing, or groaning?
• Touch—Do you feel a v ictims body?
370 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
( Figure 13-5) Use your tools to extend your reach and sweep the area in front
of you.
If smo ke and fire restrict visib ility, searchers must use
sound and touch to find v ictims. Every few seconds a member
of the search team should yell out, "Is anyone in here? Can
anyone hear me?" Then listen. Ho ld your breath to quiet your
breathing regulator and stop moving. People who have
suffered bu rns or are semi-conscious may not be ab le to
speak intelligib ly , so you will need to listen fo r guttural
sounds, cries, faint voices, groans, and moans. Focus on the
direct ion of any sounds you hear.
As you search, feel around for hands, legs, arms, and tor-
sos of po tent ial v ict ims . Use hand too ls to extend you r
reach, sweeping ahead and to the sides with the hand le as
you crawl. Use the too l to reach to ward th e center o f the
room as you move along the walls (A Figure 13-5). Practice
until you can tell the d ifference between a p iece of fu rniture
or industrial equ ip ment and a hu man body . In many indus -
trial environ ments, the presence of "softer" objects such as
furniture, clothing, and so forth is very limited, thus making
the determinat ion of a v ictim with in a hostile env iron ment
much easier.
Zero -v isib ility cond it ions can b e very d isorient ing .
Searchers must follow walls and note turns and doorways to
avoid becoming lost. After locating a victim or co mpleting a
search of an area, the search team must be able to retrace its
path and retu rn to its entry po int. Search teams must also
have a secondary escape route in case fire conditions change
and block their p lanned exit . During the search , b rigade
members should note the locat ions of stairways, doors, and
windows. Searchers should always be aware o f the nearest
exit and an alternate exit.
If the situat ion d eterio rates rap id ly , a window cou ld
become the emergency exit fro m a roo m. Searchers should
keep track of the exterior walls and window locations, even
reaching up to feel for the windows if condit ions force them
P R I N C I P L E S AND P R A C T I C E
to crawl. In industrial areas with mu lt iple levels with open
hand rail systems, open stairwells, and ladder cage systems,
fire brigade members must be extremely careful to note their
position during heavy smo ke condit ions in regard to the
openings and elevated areas. Disorientat ion or careless
movements in such unguarded areas can be d isastrous.
Searchers must remain in contact with someone on the
outside and must be able to state their location at all times,
particularly if they need assistance. The search team must be
able to give their location, including the building section and
floor, to the IC. If the team needs a ladder for the rescue, the
IC will need to kno w where the ladder should be p laced
(wh ich s ide of the build ing) and how long a ladder will be
needed (which floor). Searchers should use standard incident
management system terminology to describe their location
over the radio. In process equipment areas, fire brigade mem-
bers must have a basic understanding of the process equip -
ment in the area. In these large open -space areas, an
understanding of the facility layout and/or plot p lan will be
essential to a successful search process. Frequent review of
facility layouts and changes to the facility will provide a great
advantage to fire brigades.
Search Patterns
Each roo m should be searched us ing a standard pattern . If
the rooms are relat ively small, searchers should follow the
walls around the perimeter o f each roo m and reach toward
the middle to feel fo r v ict ims. In larger roo ms, one team
member can maintain contact with the wall, wh ile the other
maintains contact with the first, and the two work their way
around the roo m in tand em.
So me fire b rig ades use a clo ckwise pat tern to search a
room while others use a counterclockwise pattern. In a
clockwise search (also known as a left-hand search), brigade
members turn left at the entry point, keep the left hand in
contact with the wa ll, and use the right arm to sweep the
room. At each corner the searchers make a right turn, eventu -
ally returning to the entry door (V Figure 13-6). A counter-
clockwise search moves around the room in the opposite
direction (► Figure 13-7). Brigade members should regularlv
pract ice and use the standard system adop ted by th eir
brigade.
Brig ade members can use t he hand le o f a han d to o l t
extend their reach while sweeping across the floor and under
fu rn itu re. Search ers shou ld always ch eck under des ks, in I
chairs, and in other locat ions where vict ims may hide, such as
closets, bathrooms, and enclosed stairwells.
The same clockwise/counterclockwise search pattern also
applies to search areas that are divided into small spaces, such as
o ffice cub icle areas o r warehouse/ maint en ance areas
Searchers should work their way around the area fro m parti-
t ion t o part it ion o r ais le to ais le in a standard d irect ion
search ing each area in the same mann er. At the end o f the
search, they should be back at the entry po int.

( Figure 13-6) To use a clockwise search pattern, turn left when you enter, then
right at each corner around the room.
(Figure 13-7) I n a c ount erclockwise search pattern, turn right when you enter,
then left at each corner around the room.
If a door is closed, brigade members should check the
temperature of the door to determine if there is an active fire
on the other s ide. Brigad e members should fo llow their
brigade standard p rocedures fo r perfo rming such a check.
So me organ izations permit a b rigade member to remove a
glove just long enough to feel the temperature o f a door.
Other organizat ions consider this to be a risky procedure. A
thermal i magi ng device , which shows heat images instead
of visual images, can be used to determine if there is a fire
behind the door. A hot doo r should not b e op ened un less
there is a hose line ready to douse the fire. It is usually better to
leave a hot door closed and move on to search ad jacent
rooms.
Search a nd Rescue 371
( Figure 13-8) In large buildings, doors should be marked after the rooms are
searched.
Searchers must keep track of their position in relation to
the entry door so they can find their way out of the room. To
keep the door open during the search of a small roo m, one
team member should remain at the door wh ile the second
team member perfo rms the search. A chock can be used to
keep the door from closing or a flashlight can be placed in the
doorway to serve as a beacon and to help searchers maintain
their orientation. Searchers should always exit through the
same door that they entered.
The search roo m o r process area should be marked so
that other personnel will kno w that it has been searched.
Chalk, crayons, felt tip markers, or masking tape can be used
to mark the door. Some fire brigades use a two-part marking
system to ind icate when a search is in p rogress and when it
has been completed. A “/” indicates a search in p rogress, and
an " X" in d icates t h at t h e s earch h as b een co mp let ed (A
Figure 13-8). Other brigades place an object in the doorway
or attach a tag or latch strap to the doorknob to indicate that
the roo m has been searched.
Thermal Imaging Devices
A thermal imaging device is a valuable tool for conducting a
primary search in a smoke-filled building. A thermal imag ing
device is similar to a television camera, except that it captures
372 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S AND P R A C T I C E

Brigade Member Tips

Learn the features of your thermal im ager and practice with it
regularly to get the maximum advantage.

heat images instead of visible light images. The images appear

on a display screen and show the relative temperatures of dif-
ferent objects. The device can be set to distinguish small tem-
perature differences, enabling brigade members to conduct a
search quickly and thoroughly.
The major benefit of using a thermal imag ing device is that
it can "see" the image of a person in conditions of total dark-
ness or th rough s mo ke that totally obscures no rmal v ision ( T
Figure 13-9) Brigade members will be able to identify the (Figure 13-10) A thermal im aging device can be used to check for
shape of a human body with a thermal image scan because the hidden fire.
body will be either warmer or cooler than its surroundings.
Temperature differences also enable the thermal imaging
device to show furniture, walls, doorways, and windows. This
enables a brigade member to nav igate through the interior of a
smoke-filled building. The thermal imaging device can even be
used to locate a fire in a smo ke-filled build ing or behind walls
or ceilings (► Figure 13-10). A thermal image scan of the
exterior of a building can be used to locate the fire source and
the direction of fire spread. Scanning a door before opening it
can indicate whether the room is safe to enter.
There are several d ifferent types of thermal imaging
devices. Some thermal imagers are hand-held devices, similar
to a hand-held co mputer with a built-in mon itor. Others are
helmet-mounted and produce an image in front of the users
self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) facepiece. Brigade
members need training and pract ice to beco me p roficient in

(Figure 13-11) The use of search ropes will be essential when searching large
open-area environments such as warehouses.

using these devices, interpreting the images, and maneuver-

ing confidently through a build ing while wearing a thermal
imager. The use of a thermal imaging device in an industrial
facility takes add itional t raining and interpretat ion o f the
camera's images since there can be many heat sources within
the facility. Brigade members must understand both the cam-
era's capabilities and the type of reaction the camera will have
to the different type of heat sources within their facility.

(Figure 13-9) T he thermal im aging device can capture an im age of a
person and hot processing equipment in the same area.
Search Ropes
Special techniques must be used to search large, open are
such as warehouses or indoor production areas, when v isibility
is limited (A Figure 13-11 ). Search ropes should be used
when it is impossible to cover the interio r by fo llowing the
walls. They also should be used in areas with interconnected

rooms o r spaces, or with mult ip le aisles created by production
equipment or storage racks. Without a search rope, the s earch
t eams might not be ab le to fin d their way ou t o f the area.
Search ropes should be ancho red at the entry po int to
provide a d irect path to this locat ion for each searcher. One
brigade member should remain at the anchor po int to tend
the ropes and maintain accountability for the brigade mem-
bers who enter. One b rigad e member stretches a large
d iameter rop e do wn the cen ter o f a roo m. The ot her
searchers then attach their ind iv idual search ropes to the
main line and branch off to cover the area. The search ropes
always p rov ide a reliab le retu rn path to the entry po int. If
the brigade member assigned to the anchor point of a search
rope is part o f the rapid intervent ion team (t wo -in/t wo-out
rule), that indiv idual cannot be utilized as a memb er of the
interior search team.
Secondary Search
A secondary search is conducted after the fire is under contro l
or fu lly ext ingu ished. Du ring the secondary search, b rigade
members locate any victims that might have been missed in
the primary search and search any areas not included in the
primary search . Condit ions in the bu ilding are usually better
during the secondary search because the fire is u nder
contro l and there is ad equate vent ilat ion . Brigade members
will be able to see better and move around w it h o u t h av in g
t o cra w l u n d er lay ers o f h o t g as es ( T Fig ure 13-12).
After a secondary search is co mp leted, b rigad e members
should no t ify the IC by repo rt ing , "Secondary all clear."
Even though the fire is under control, safety remains a pri-
mary consideration during a secondary search. SCBA must be
used until the air is tested and pronounced safe to breathe.
The levels o f carbon mono xide and other po isonous gases
Figure 13- 12) A sec onda ry sear ch i s c ondu cted after the fi re i s c ontroll ed.
Searc h a nd Resc ue 373
often remain high for a long time after a fire. In burned areas,
brigade members must have a hose line available in case the
fire rekindles or starts up again. The structural stability of the
building also must be evaluated before beginning a secondary
search. Portable lighting should be used, and holes in floors
and other possible hazards should be marked .
The secondary search should be started as soon as the fire
is under control and sufficient resources are available. It is
conducted slowly and methodically to ensure that no areas
are overlooked. Whenever possib le, a d ifferent team o f
brigad e members shou ld perfo rm the secon dary search .
They should check all p laces where emp loyees may t ry to
exit the fire area and/or seek refuge fro m the fire, including
closets, b eh ind doo rs, in h allways, under windo ws , and
under desks o r work benches.
The secondary search must in clude areas that were
involved in the fire. In these areas, the secondary search
should be conducted as a body recovery p rocess. Brigade
members shou ld move carefu lly and loo k closely at the
debris to identify the remains of a deceased victim.
Search Safety
Search -and-rescue operations often p resent the highest risk
to brigade members during emergency situat ions. Du ring
these operations, brigade members are exposed to the same
risks that endanger the lives o f poten t ial v ict ims. Even
though brigade members have the advantages of protective
cloth ing, p rotect iv e equ ip ment , t rain ing, teamwo rk, and
standard operating procedures, they can still be seriously or
fatally in jured. Safety must be an essential considerat ion in
all search-and-rescue operations.
Risk Management
Search -and-rescue situations require a very special type o f
ris k management. Every emergency operation involves a
degree o f unavoidable, inherent risk to brigade members.
During search-and-rescue operat ions, brigade members will
probably encounter s ituations that invo lve a s ignificant ly
higher degree of personal risk. This level of risk is acceptable
only if there is a reasonable probability of saving a life.
The IC is responsible for managing the level of risk during
emergency operat ions. The IC must determine which act ions
are t aken in each situat ion. Act ions that present a h igh level
of risk to the safety of brigade members are justified only if
lives can be saved. Only a limited risk level is acceptable to
save property. When there is no possibility of saving either
lives or property, no risk is acceptable.
The acceptance of unusual risk can be justified only when
vict ims are known or believed to be in immed iate danger,
and there is a reasonable p robab ility that they can be res -
cued. It is not acceptable to risk the lives of brigade members
when there is no possibility of rescuing any vict ims. For
example, if a build ing is fully involved in flames, there is no
374 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E

possibility that any occupants would still be alive, so there is

no reason to send b rigad e members ins ide to search fo r
them. The risk invo lved in conducting search -and-rescue
operations must always be weighed against the probability of
find ing someone who is still alive to be rescued.
A primary search is conducted during the active stages of
a fire, when time is a critical factor. During a primary search, it
may be necessary to accept a h igh level o f risk to save a life.
A secondary search, conducted after the fire is ext in guished,
should not expose brigade members to any avo idable risks.
The IC must decide whether to conduct a primary search,
based on a risk-benefit evaluation of the situation. In making
this decision, the IC must consider the stage of the fire, the con-
dition of the building, and the presence of any other hazards.
These risks must be weighed against the probability of finding
any occupants who could be rescued. This on-scene evaluation
is often guided by established policies. For example, many fire
brigade have policies that prohibit brigade members fro m
entering abandoned structures known to be in poor structural
condition. This policy is based on the probability that such a
building has a high risk of collapse and the low probability that
anyone would be inside.
The IC may decid e not to conduct a p rimary search
because the risk to brigade members is too great or the pos -
sibility of making a successful rescue is too remote. Such a
decision might be based on advanced fire conditions, potential
backdraft condit ions, imminent structural co llapse, or other
circu mstances (►Figure 13-13) The IC may be able to
identify these conditions fro m the exterior, or may learn o f
them fro m a team assigned to conduct a search . A search (Figure 13 -13) A prim ary search s hould not be conducted in a process
team that encounters conditions that make entry impossible area that is f ully involved in fire.
should report their findings back to the IC. In these situa-
tions, a secondary search is conducted when it is feasible to
enter.

Search-and-Rescue Equipment
To perform search and rescue properly, brigade members must
have the appropriate equipment (► Figure 13-14).
Search-and-rescue equipment includes:
• Personal p rotective equip ment
• Portable radio
• Hand light or flashlight
• Forcib le entry tools
• Hose lines
• Thermal imag ing devices
• Ladders
• Long rope(s)
• A piece o f tubu lar webbing or short rope (16' to 24')
• Multi-gas analyzer
• Rapid Intervention Team (RIT) breath ing apparatus
system
• Stokes basket
• Emergency rescue drag harness or rescue drag tarp (Figure 13-14^) Fire brigade members must be thoroughly trained in the
use of search and rescue equipment.

Brigade Member Safety Tips
During searc h-and-rescue operations, brigade m embers should
remember to: • W ork from a s ingle plan. • M aint ain radio c ont act
with t he IC, through the c hain of comm and and portable radios. •
Monit or fire conditions during t he s earc h. • C oordinate ventilation
with s earch -and-resc ue activ ities. • M aint ain y our accountabilit y
system. • Stay wit h a part ner.
Full personal protect ive equip ment, wh ich is always
required for structural fire fighting, is essential for interior
search and rescue. The proper attire includes helmet, protec-
tive hood, bun ker coat, turnout pants, boots, and g loves.
Each brigade member must use SCBA and carry a flashlight
or hand light. Before entering the building, brigade members
must act ivate their personal alert safety system (PA SS)
devices.
At least one member of each search team should be
equipped with a portab le radio . If possible, each ind ividual
should have a radio. If a b rigade member gets into trouble,
the radio is the best means to obtain assistance.
Each b rigade member assigned to search and rescue
should carry at least one forcible entry hand tool, such as an
ax, Halligan tool, or short ceiling hook. These tools can be
used both to open an area for a search and, if necessary, to
open an emergency exit path. A hand tool can also be used to
extend the brigade members reach du ring a sweep for
unconscious victims. Due to the high potential for hazardous
materials within industrial occupancies, many fire brigades
require search teams to carry a mult i-gas analy zer to con-
stantly monitor the level of contaminants in the air. Another
very impo rtant piece of rescue equip ment in the industrial
environ ment is a RIT breathing apparatus system. This type
of system can be used to deliver breathing air to a victim who
has no respiratory protect ion or to assist a person who is
wearing respiratory protection but is low on air.
A search-and-rescue team working close to the fire should
have a hose line or be acco mpanied by another team with a
hose line. A hose line can protect the brigade members and
enable them to search a structure more efficiently. A hose line
is essential when a search team is working close to or directly
above the fire. The hose line can be used to knock down the
fire, to protect a means of egress (stairway or corridor), or to
protect the victims as they are escaping.
A hose line also can be used to guide searchers out of a
structure. Searchers can fo llow the hose line to a coupling,
feel the coupling to determine the male and female ends, and
then follow the hose in the d irect ion of the male coupling. If
t he t eam is wo rking witho ut a hose line, it shou ld h av e
Searc h a nd Resc ue
375
Brigade Member Tips
Risk-Benefit Analysis
The IC must alw ays balanc e the risks involved in an emergency
operation with the potential benefits. • Actions that pres ent a high
level of risk to t he s afety of brigade members are justified only if there
is a potential to save liv es. • Only a limit ed lev el of risk is acc ept able
to sav e valuable property. • It is not acceptable to risk the safety of
brigade mem bers when there is no poss ibility to s ave lives or
property.
NFPA1500 Requirements
Specific safety requirem ents for searc h-and-resc ue operations are
defined in NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Program, and in regulations enforced by the
Occupational Saf ety and H ealth Administrati on 29CFR1910.134. The
NFPA requirements state that a team of at least two brigade mem bers
must enter together, and at least two other brigade mem bers must remain
outside the danger area, ready to rescue the brigade members who are
inside the building. This is sometimes called the two-in/two-out rule.
An exc eption to this rule is permitted in an imminent lif e-threat ening
situation, where immediate action can prevent the loss of life or serious
injury. Only under such specific circumstanc es are brigade members
allow ed to take actions at a higher lev el of risk. The initial IC must
evaluate the situation and determine if the risk is justified. The IC also
must be prepared to explain his or her decisi on.
search ropes, particularly if it would be d ifficult for brigade
members to find their way out of a search area. More infor -
mat ion on emerg ency exit p rocedu res is p resented in
Chapter 18, Brigade Member Surv ival.
Brigade members also must pay attention to their air sup -
plies during search-and-rescue operations. Brigade members
must have adequate air to make a safe exit. Th is limits the
time that can be spent search ing and th e d istan ce t hat
brigade members can penetrate into a build ing.
Meth ods to Det er mine if an Are a Is T ena ble
Brigade members must make rapid, accurate, and on-going
assessments about the safety of the building while working at
a structure fire. When they arrive, brigade members must
quickly determine the type of structure involved, the possi-
bility of collapse, and the life safety risk involved. They also
must evaluate the stability of the structure and the potential
for backdraft or flashover. Sagging walls, chipped or cracked
mo rtar or cement, warped or failing structural steel, and any
part ial co llapse are s ign ificant ind icato rs o f an imp end ing
378 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
collapse. Dark black smo ke, blackened windows, the appear-
ance of a "breathing" building, and intense heat are signs of
possible flashover or backdraft. Fire brigade members must
also be ab le to evaluate other hazards associated with
process-area fire search -and-rescue operations. This could
include hazards such as the release of hazardous materials,
potential BLEVE of pressurized containers, presence of
high-voltage systems, and/or the presence of operating
machinery. Fire brigade members must be aware of the special
hazards common to their industrial sites and be able to
quickly evaluate the search locations to determine if the areas
can be searched safely.
Even after the decision has been made to enter a burning
structure, brigade members must continue to reevaluate the
safety of the operation. Brigade members working inside the
building must rely on other brigade members and the IC out -
side the structure to notify them of changing fire conditions.
The IC may know or see things that brigade members working
inside may not know and may call for an evacuation as the fire
situation changes. Conditions inside the structure must
constantly be evaluated. Brigade members should check and
recheck the surface they are working on. Floo rs that have
been burnt through or feel soft or spongy should be avoided. A
rapid rise in the amount of heat or flame "rollover" may
indicate a potential flashover.
Rescue Techniques
Rescue is the removal of a person who is unable to escape
fro m a dangerous situation. Brigade members rescue people
not only fro m fires but also from a wide variety of accidents
and mishaps. Although this section refers primarily to rescu -
ing occupants fro m burn ing build ings, some o f the tech -
niques can be used for other types of situations. As a brigade
member, you must learn and practice the assists, carries ,
drags, and other techniques used to rescue people from fires.
After mastering these techniques, you will be able to rescue
victims fro m a life -threatening situation.
Rescue is the second component of search and rescue.
When you locate a victim during a s earch, you must direct,
assist, or carry the person to a safe area. Rescue can be as
basic and simple as verbally directing an occupant toward an
exit. Or it can be as demand ing as ext ricating a trapped,
unconscious victim and physically carry ing that pers on out
of the building. The term rescue is generally applied to situ -
ations where the rescuer physically assists or removes the
victim fro m the dangerous area.
Brigade Member Safety Tips
To exit from a fire, follow the hos e line in the direction of the m ale
coupling.
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
Most people who realize that they are in a dangerous sit-
uation will attempt to escape on their o wn. Elderly persons,
physically or develop mentally hand icapped persons, and ill
or in jured persons, however, may be unable to escape and
will need to be rescued. People who are sleep ing o r under
the influence of alcoho l or d rugs may not become aware o f
the danger in time to es cape on their own. To xic gases may
incapacitate even healthy ind ividuals before they can reach
an exit. Vict ims also may be trapped when a rapidly spreading
fire, an explosion, or a structural collapse cuts off potential
escape routes.
Because fires are life-threatening to both victims and res -
cuers, the first priority is to remove the v ictim fro m the fire
build ing or dangerous area as quickly as possible. It is usu -
ally better to move the v ict im to a safe area first, and then
provide any necessary med ica l t reat ment. The assists, lifts,
and carries described in th is chapter should not be used if
you suspect that the victim has a spinal in jury, unless there is
no other way to remove him o r her fro m the life -threatening
situation.
Always use the safest and most practical means of egress
when removing a victim fro m a dangerous area. A building's
normal exit system, such as interio r co rridors and stairways,
should be used if it is open and safe. If the regular exits cannot
be used, an outside fire escape, a ladder, or some other
method of eg ress must be found. Ladder rescues, which are
covered in this chapter, can be both difficu lt and dangerous,
whether the victim is conscious and physically fit or uncon -
scious and injured (►Figure 13-15).
Shelter-in-Place
In some situations, the best option is to shelter the occupants
in place instead of trying to remove them from a fire building.
This option should be considered when the occupants are
conscious and in a part of the building that is adequately pro-
tected from the fire by fire-resistive construction and/or fire
suppression systems. If s moke and fire conditions block the
exits, they might be safer staying in the sheltered location than
attempting to evacuate through a hazardous environment.
Such a situation could occur in a h igh-rise office or p ro-
cessing building with a fire contained to one room o r area
within the bu ilding. The stairways and corridors could be
filled with s mo ke, but the emp loyees who are remote fro m
the fire would be very safe in the protected rooms within the
facility with the windo ws open to provide fresh air. They
would be exposed to mo re risk if they attempted to exit than if
they remained in their locat ion unt il the fire is ext in guished.
This decis ion must be made by the IC.
Exit Assist
The simp lest rescue is the exit assist. The v ictim is respon -
sive and ab le to walk without assistance or with very little
assistance. Th e b rigade member may on ly n eed to gu ide
t h e p ers o n t o s afet y o r t o p ro v id e a min i mal lev el o f

(ligure 13-15 ) Bringing an unconscious victim or a person who needs
assistance down a ladder can be difficult and dangerous.
physical support . Ev en if the v ict im can walk without
assistance, the b rigade memb er should take the person's
arm o r use the one -person walking assist (see b elo w) to
make sure that the v ict im does not fall or b eco me sepa rated
fro m the rescuer.
The follo wing assists can be used to help responsive vic-
tims exit a fire situation:
• One-person walking assist
• Two-person walking assist
One-Person Walking Assist
The one-person walking assist can be used if the person is
capable of walking.
To perform a one-person walking assist, follow the steps
in (► Skill Drill 13-1 >
1. Help the person to stand next to you, facing the same
direction. (Step 1)
2. Have the person p lace h is o r her arm beh ind your
back and around your neck. Ho ld the person's wrist
as it drapes over your shoulder. (Step 2)
3. Put your free arm around the person's waist and help
the victim to walk. (Step 3)
Searc h a nd Resc ue 377
Two-Person Walking Assist
The two-person walking assist is useful if the v ictim cannot
stand and bear weight without assistance. The two rescuers
completely support the victim's weight. It may be difficu lt to
walk through doorways or narrow passages using this type of
assist. To perform a two -person walking assist, fo llo w the
steps in Skill Drill 13-2).
1. Two brigade members stand facing the vict im, one on
each side of the victim. (Step 1)
2. Both brigade members assist the victim to a standing
position. (Step 2)
3. Once the v ict im is fu lly upright, p lace the v ict ims
right arm around the neck o f the brigade member on
the right side. Place the vict im's left arm around the
neck of the b rigade member on the left side. The
victim's arms should drape over the brigade members'
shoulders. The brigade members hold the person's
wrist in one hand. (Step 3)
4. Both brigade members put their free arms around the
person's waist, grasping each other's wrists for support
and locking arms together beh ind the v ict im.
(Step 4)
5. Both brigade members slowly assist the victim to
walk. Brigade members must coordinate their move
ments and move slowly. (Step 5)
Simple Victim Carr ies
Fo u r s imp le carries can be used t o mo ve a v ict im wh o is
conscious and responsive, but incapable of standing or
walking:
• Two-person ext remity carry
• Two-person seat carry
• Two-person chair carry
• Crad le-in-arms carry
Two-Person Extremity Carry
The two-person extremity carry requires no equipment and
can be performed in t ight or narrow spaces, such as mobile
home corridors, s mall hallways, and narrow spaces between
buildings. The focus of this carry is on the victim's extremities.
To perform a two-person extremity carry, fo llow the steps in
(►Skill Drill 13-3 ).
1. Two brigade members help the v ictim to sit up.
(Stepi)
2. One brigade member kneels behind the vict im,
reaches under the victim's arms, and g rasps the
victim's wrists. (Step 2)
3. The second brigade member backs in-between the
victim's legs, reaches around, and grasps the victim
behind the knees. (Step 3)
4. At the co mmand o f the first brigade member, both
brigade members stand up and carry the victim away,
walking straight ahead. Brigade members must coor
dinate their movements. (Step 4)
378 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E

Two-Person Seat Carry
The two-person seat carry is used with victims who are dis -
abled or paralyzed. Th is carry requ ires two b rigade mem-
bers, and mov ing through doors and do wn stairs may be
difficult. To perform a two-person seat carry, follo w the steps
in (►Skill Drill 1 3-4).
1. Two brigade members kneel near the victim's hips,
one on each side of the victim. (Step 1)
2. Both brigade members raise the victim to a sitting posi
tion and link arms behind the victim's back. (Step 2)
3. The brigade members' remain ing free arms are then
placed under the victim's knees and lin ked. (Step 3)
4. If possible, the vict im puts his or her arms around the
brigade members' necks for additional support. (Step 4)
Two-Person Chair Carry
The two-person chair carry is part icularly suitable when a
victim must be carried through doorways, along narro w
corridors, or up or down stairs. Two rescuers use a chair to
transport the victim. A fo lding chair cannot be used, and the
chair must be strong enough to support the weight of the vic-
tim wh ile being carried. The victim should feel much mo re
secure with this carry than with the two -person seat carry.
The victim should be encouraged to hold on to the chair. To
perform a two-person chair carry, follow (►Skill Drill 13-5 ).
1. Tie the v ictim's hands together or have the vict im
grasp hands together.
2. One brigade member stands behind the seated vict im,
reaches down, and grasps the back of the chair. (Step 1)
3. The brigade member t ilts the chair slightly backward
on its rear legs so that the second brigade member can
step back bet ween the legs of the chair and g rasp the
tips of the chair's front legs. The v ictim's legs should
be between the legs of the chair. (Step 2)
4. When both brigade members are co rrectly posit ioned,
the brigade member beh ind the chair g ives the co m
mand to lift and walk away.
5. Because the chair carry may force the victim's head
forward, watch the victim for airway problems.
(S tep 3)

One-Person Walking Assist

Help the person to stand. ■ Have the person place his or her arm around Put your free arm around the person's waist
your neck, and hold on to the person's wrist, and help the victim to walk.
which should be draped over your shoulder.
 Searc h a nd Re sc ue
379

Two-Person Walking Assist

Two brigade members stand facing the The brigade mem bers assist the victim to a Onc e the victim is fully upright, drape the
victim, one on each side of the victim. standing position. victim's arms around the necks and over the
shoulders of the brigade m embers, who
each hold one of the victim's wrists.

Both brigade mem bers put their free arm Assist walking at the victim's speed.
around the pers on's waist, grasping each
other's w rists for support and locking their
arms together behind the victim.
 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E

Two-Person Extremity Carry

Two brigade m embers help the victim to sit up. The first brigade m ember kneels behind the victim, reac hes under
the victim's arms, and grasps t he victim's wrists.

The second brigade mem ber backs in-between the victim's legs, The first brigade mem ber gives command to stand and carry the victim
reac hes around, and gras ps the victim behind the knees. away, walking straight ahead. Brigade members must coordinate their
movements.
 Searc h a nd R esc ue
381

Two-Person Seat Carry

Kneel beside the victim near the victim's hips. Raise the victim to a sitting position and link arms behind the
victim's back.

Place your free arms under the victim's knees and link arms. If possible, the victim puts his or her arms around your necks for
additional support.
382 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S AN D P R A C T I C E

Two-Person Chair Carry

One brigade member stands behind the seated victim, reaches The brigade mem ber tilts the chair slightly backward on its rear legs
dow n, and gras ps the back of the c hair. so that t he s econd brigade m em ber can step back betw een the legs of
the chair and gras p the tips of the chair's front legs. The victim's legs
should be betw een the legs of the chair.

When both br igade members are correctly positioned, the brigade mem ber
behind the chair gives the comm and to lift and w alk aw ay. Because the
chair carry may force the victim's head forward, watch the victim for airw ay
problems.

Brigade Member Safety Tips
Keep your back as straight as possible and use the large m uscles in your
legs to do t he lifting!
Cradle-in-Arms Carry
The cradle-in-arms carry can be used by one brigade member
to carry a small adult ( T Figure 13-16). The brigade member
should be careful of the vict im's head when moving through
doorways or do wn stairs. To perfo rm th e crad le -in -arms
carry follow the steps in (Skill Drill 13-6).
1. Kneel beside the child and p lace one arm around the
child 's back and the other arm under the th ighs.
2. Lift slightly and ro ll the child into the hollo w formed
by your arms and chest.
3. Be sure to use your leg muscles to stand.
Emergency Drags
The most efficient method to remove an unconscious or
unresponsive v ict im fro m a dangerous locat ion is a drag.
Five emergency drags can be used to remove unresponsive
victims fro m a fire situation:
• Clothes drag
• Blanket drag
• Webbing sling drag
• Brigade member drag
• Emergency drag fro m a vehicle
When using an emergency drag, the rescuer should make
every effort to pull the victim in line with the long axis of the
body to provide as much spinal protection as possible. The
victim should be moved head first to protect the head .
(Figure 13-16) Cradle-in-arms c arry.
Searc h a nd Resc ue 383
Clothes Drag
The clothes drag is used to move a victim who is on the floor or
ground and is too heavy for one rescuer to lift and carry. The
rescuer drags the person by pulling on the clothing in the neck
and shoulder area. The rescuer should grasp the clothes just
behind the collar, use the arms to support the victim's head,
and drag the victim away fro m danger. To perform the clothes
drag, follow the steps in (►Skill Drill 13-7).
1. Crouch beh ind the v ict im's head , g rab the shirt o r
jacket around the co llar and shoulder area, and sup
port the head with your arms. (Step 1)
2. Lift with your legs until you are fully upright. Walk
backwards, dragging the victim to safety. (Step 2)
Blanket Drag
The b lan ket d rag can b e used to mov e a v ict im who is
dressed in clothing that is too flimsy for the clothes drag, or it
can be used to provide additional protection fro m the area
conditions. This p rocedure requires the use of a large b lan ket,
curtain, rug, salvage cover, o r specialized rescue tarp. Place
the item on the floor and ro ll the v ictim onto it, then pu ll the
vict im to safety by dragg ing th e sheet o r b lan ket .
To perform a blan ket drag, fo llo w the steps in
(►Skill Drill 13-8).
1. Lay the v ictim supine (face up) on the ground. Stretch
out the material for dragging next to the victim. (Step 1)
2. Ro ll the v ict im onto the right or left s ide. Neat ly
bunch one-third o f the material against the v ictim so
the victim will lie appro ximately in the midd le of the
material. (Step 2)
3. Lay the vict im back do wn (supine) on the material.
Pull the bunched material out fro m underneath the
victim and wrap it around the victim. (Step 3 )
4. Grab the material at the head and drag backwards to
safety. (Step 4)
The standing drag is performed by fo llowing the steps in
(Skill Drill 13-9):
1. Stand at the head o f the supine v ict im. Then kneel at
the victim's head.
2. Raise the victim's head and torso 90°. The v ictim is
leaning against you.
3. Reach under the v ictim's arms, wrap your arms
around the vict im's chest, and lock your arms.
4. Stand straight up using your legs.
5. Drag the v ictim out.
Webbing Sling Drag
The webbing sling drag prov ides a secure grip around the
upper part o f a v ict im's body , for a faster removal fro m
the dangerous area. In th is drag, a sling is placed around the
victim's chest and under the armp its, and used to drag the
vict im. The webbing sling helps support the v ict im's head
and neck. A webb ing s ling can b e ro lled and kept in a
turnout coat pocket.
384 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
Clothes Drag
Crouch behind the victim's head and grab the shirt or jacket around
the collar and shoulder area.
A carab iner can b e attached to the s ling to secure the
straps under the victims arms and prov ide add itional protec-
tion for the head and neck.
To perform the webb ing sling drag, fo llow the steps in (►
Skill Drill 13-10).
1. Using a prepared webbing sling, p lace the victi m in
the center of the loop so the webbing is behind the
victim's back in the area just below the armp its.
(Step1)
2. Take the large loop over the v ictim and p lace it above
the vict im's head. Reach through, grab the webbing
behind the v ict im's back, and pull through all the
excess webbing. Th is creates a loop at the top of the
victim's head and two loops around the victim's arms .
(Step 2)
3. Adjust hand placement to p rotect the v ict ims head
while dragging. (Step 3)
Brigade Member Drag
The brigade member drag can be used if the vict im is heavier
than the rescuer because it does not requ ire lift ing or
carrying the v ict im. To perfo rm the b rigade member d rag,
follow the steps in ( Skill Drill 13-11).
1. Tie the victi m's wrists together with anything that is
handy: a cravat (a fo lded triangular bandage), gauze,
belt, or necktie. (Step 1)
2. Get do wn on hands and knees and stradd le the v ic
tim. (S tep 2)
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
Lift with your legs until y ou are fully upright, backwards,
dragging the victim to safety.
3. Pass the vict im's t ied hands around your neck,
straighten your arms , and d rag the v ict im across the
floor by crawling on your hands and knees. (Step 3 )
Emergency Drag from a Vehicle
An emergency drag fro m a vehicle is performed when the
victim must be quickly removed from a vehicle to save his or
her life. The drags described below might be used if the vehicle
is on fire or if the v ictim requires card iopulmonary resus -
citation (CPR).
One Rescuer
There is no effective way for one person to remove a victim
from a vehicle without some movement of the neck and spine.
Preventing excess movement of the victim's neck, however, is
important. To perform an emergency drag from a vehicle with
only one rescuer, follow the steps in (►Skill Drill 13-12),
1. Grasp the v ict im under the arms and cradle the head
between your arms. (Step 1)
2. Gently pull the victim out of the vehicle. (Step 2 )
3. Lo wer the v ictim do wn into a ho rizontal posit ion in a
safe place. (Step 3)
Long Back board Rescue
If four or mo re brigade members are p resent, one brigade
member can support the v ict im's head and neck, while the
second and third brigade members move the victim by lifting
under the arms . The v ict im can then be moved in line with

Blanket Drag
Stretch out the mat erial you are using next to the vic tim.
Lay the victim back down (s upine). Pull the bunc hed material out
from underneath t he victim and wrap it around t he victim.
the long axis of the body with the head and neck stabilized in
a neutral posit ion. Whenever possible, a long backboard
should be used to remove a v ictim fro m the vehicle. Follow
the steps in (►Skill Drill 13-13) to perform this skill.
1. The first brigade member supports the victims head
and cerv ical spine fro m behind . Support may be
applied fro m the side, if necessary, by reach ing
through the driver's side doorway. (Step 1 )
2. The second brigade member serves as team leader and,
as such, gives the commands until the patient is supine
on the backboard. Because the second brigade member
lifts and turns the victim's torso, he or she must be
physically capable of moving the patient. The second
brigade member works fro m the drivers side doorway.
Searc h a nd Resc ue 385
Roll the victim onto one side. Neatly bunc h one-third of the mat erial
against the victim's body.
Grab the material at the head and drag backwards to safety.
If the first brigade member is also working fro m that
doorway, the second brigade member should stand
closer to the door hinges toward the front of the vehicle.
The second brigade member applies a cervical collar.
(S tep 2)
3. The second brigade memb er p rovid es cont inuous
support of the v ict ims torso until the v ict im is supine
on the backboard . Once the second b rigade me mber
takes cont ro l o f the torso, usually in the form of a body
hug, he or she should not let go of the vict im fo r any
reason. So me type of cross -chest shoulder hug usually
works well, but you will have to decide what method
works best for you on any given vict im. You must
remember that you cannot simp ly reach into the
386 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
Webbing Sling Drag
Plac e the victim in the cent er of the loop so the w ebbing is behind the
patient's back.
Adjust hand placement to prot ect the victim's head w hile dragging.
car and g rab the v ict im; th is will on ly t wist the vic tim's
torso. You must rotate the v ictim as a unit. 4. Th e th ird
brigade member wo rks fro m th e front pas senger's seat
and is responsible fo r rotating the v ictim's legs and feet as
the torso is turned, ensuring that they are free o f the
pedals and any other obstruction. W ith care, the th ird
brigade member should first move the v ictim's nearer leg
laterally without rotating the vic tim's pelv is and lower
spine. The pelv is and lo wer spine rotate on ly as the th ird
brigade member moves the second leg du ring the next
step. Moving the nearer leg early makes it mu ch easier to
move the second leg in concert with the rest of the body.
After
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
Take the large loop over the victim and place it abov e the victim's
head. Reac h through, grab the webbing behind the victim's back,
and pull through all the exc ess webbing. This creates a loop at the
top of the victim's head and two loops around the victim's arms.
the third brigade member moves the legs together, they
should be moved as a unit. (Step 3)
5. The vict im is rotated 90° so that the back is facing out
the driver's door and the feet are on the front passen
ger's seat. This coordinated movement is done in three
or four short, qu ick "eighth tu rns." The second
brigade member d irects each quick turn by saying,
"Ready, turn" or "Ready, move." Hand position
changes should be made bet ween moves.
6. In most cases, the first brigade member will be work
ing fro m the back seat. At so me point, either because
the doorpost is in the way o r because he o r she cannot
reach farther fro m the back seat, the first brigade

Brigade Member Drag
Tie the victim's wrists together with anything that is handy.
Pass the victim's tied hands around your neck, straighten your arms, and
drag the victim across the floor by crawling on your hands and knees.
member will be unable to follo w the torso rotation. At
that time, the th ird brigade member should assume
tempo rary support of the head and neck unt il the first
brigade member can regain contro l of the head fro m
outside the vehicle. If a fourth brigade member is
present, he or she stands next to the second brigade
member. The fourth brigade member takes contro l of
the head and neck fro m outside the veh icle without
involv ing the third b rigade member. As soon as the
change has been made, the rotation can continue. (S tep
4)
7. Once the v ictim has been fully rotated, the backboard
should be p laced against the vict im's buttocks on the
Searc h a nd Resc ue
387
Get dow n on hands and knees and straddle the victim.
seat. Do not t ry to wedge the backboard under the
victim. If on ly three brigade members are present, be
sure to p lace the backboard within arm's reach of the
driver's door before the move so that the board can be
pulled into p lace when needed . In such cases, the far
end of the board can be left on th e g round. When a
fourth brigade member is available, the first brigade
member exits the rear seat of the car, places the
backboard against the pat ient's buttocks, and main -
tains p ressure in toward the veh icle fro m the far end o f
the board . (Note: When the door open ing allows, so me
brigade members prefer to insert the backboard onto
the car seat before the vict im is rotated.) ■
388 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
One-Person Emergency Drag from a Vehicle
Grasp the victim under the arms and cradle the head between
your arms.
Low er the victim dow n into a horizontal position in a safe place.
8. As soon as the victim has been rotated and the back
board is in p lace, the second b rigade memb er and
third b rigade member lo wer the pat ient onto the
board wh ile support ing the head and to rso so that
neutral align ment is maintained. The first brigade
member ho lds the backboard unt il the victim is
secured. (Step 5)
9. Next , the third brigade member must move across the
front seat to be in posit ion at the v ict im's hips. If the
third b rigade member stays at the victim's knees or
feet, he or she will be ineffect ive in help ing to move
the body's weight. The knees and feet follo w the hips.
P R I N C I P L E S AND P R A C T I C E
Gently pull the victim out of the vehicle.
10. Th e fou rth b rigade member maintains support of the
head and now takes over g iv ing the co mmands. The
second brigade member maintains direct ion o f the
ext rication . The second brigade member stands with
his or her back to the door, facing the rear o f the
vehicle. The backboard should be immed iately in front
of the third b rigade member. The second brigade
member g rasps the patient's shoulders o r armp its.
Then, on co mmand, the second brig ade member and
the th ird brig ade member s lide the v ict im 8" to 12"
along the backboard, repeat ing th is slide unt il the
victim's hips are firmly on the backboard. (Step 6 )

Long Backboard Rescue
The first brigade m ember provides in-line m anual support of the
head and cervical spine.
The third brigade member frees the victim's legs from the pedals and
moves t he legs together wit hout moving t he pelv is or s pine.
11. At that time, the th ird brigade member gets out of the
vehicle and moves to the opposite s ide o f the back
board, across fro m the second b rigade member. The
third b rigade member now takes contro l at the shoul
ders, and the second brigade member moves back to
take cont ro l o f the h ips. On co mmand, these t wo
brigade members move the vict im along the board in
8" to 12" slides until the victi m is placed fu lly on the
board. (Step 7)
12. The first (or fou rth) brigade member cont inues to
maintain support o f the head . The second brigad e
member and th ird brigade member no w g rasp their
Searc h a nd Resc ue
389
The second brigade mem ber gives commands and applies a cervical
collar.
The sec ond and third brigade m embers rotate the victim as a unit in
several short, coordinated moves. The first brigade mem ber (relieved
by the fourth brigade member as needed) supports the head and neck
during rotation (and later steps).
side o f the board, and then carry it and the v ict im away
fro m the vehicle onto the prepared cot nearby. (S tep 8)
These steps must be considered a general procedure to be
adapted as needed. Two -door cars differ fro m four-door
models. Larger cars differ fro m s maller co mpact models,
pickup t rucks, and fu ll-size sedans and four-wheel-d rive
vehicles. You will handle a large, heavy adult differently from a
small adult or ch ild. Every situation will be different—a
different car, a different patient, and a different crew. Your
resourcefulness and ability to adapt are necessary elements
to successfully perform this technique.
390 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
The first (or fourth) brigade member places the backboard on the
seat against the victim's buttocks. The second and third brigade
members lower the victim onto the long back board.
The third brigade member exits the vehicle, moves to the backboard
opposite the s econd brigade m ember, and together they continue to
slide the v ictim until the victim is fully on t he back board.
Assisting a Person down a Ground Ladder
Using a ground ladder to rescue a t rapped occupant is one
of the most crit ical, st ressful, and demand ing tasks per -
formed by brigade members. Assisting someone down a lad -
der involves a considerable risk of inju ry to both brigade
members and occupants. The brigade member must use the
proper technique to safely accomplish a ladder rescue. In
add it ion , the b rig ade me mber must h ave th e phys ical
strength and stamin a to acco mp lish the rescue without
inju ry to anyone involved. A lthough circu mstances could
require an individual brigade member to work alone, at least
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
The third brigade mem ber moves to an effective position for sliding the
victim. The second and third brigade m embers slide the victim along
the backboard in coordinat ed, 8" to 12" mov es until the hips rest on
the backboard.
The first (or fourth) brigade member continues to stabilize the victim's
head and neck while the s econd, third, and fourt h brigade m embers
carry the victim away from the vehicle.
two b rigade members should wo rk as a team to rescue a
person whenever possible.
Time is a crit ical facto r in many rescue s ituat ions.
Someone waiting to be rescued is often in immediate danger
and may be preparing to ju mp. Brigade members may have
only a limited t ime to work. They must quickly and effi -
ciently raise a ladder and assist the occupant to safety.
Ladder rescue begins with proper placement of the ladder.
A ladder used to rescue a person from a window should have
its tip p laced just belo w the windowsill. Th is position ing
makes it easier for the person to mount the ladder. If possible,
one or more brigade members in the interior should help the

person onto the ladder, and one brigade member should stay
on the ladder to assist the individual down.
A ladder used for rescue must be heeled or tied in. The
weight of an occupant and one or two brigade members, all
mov ing on the ladder at the same t ime, can easily destabilize
a ladder that is not adequately secu red.
Rescuing a Conscious Person from a Window
When a rescue involves a conscious person, brigade members
should establish verbal contact as quickly as possible to reas -
sure the individual that help is on the way. Many people have
jumped to their deaths seconds before a ladder could be raised
to a window. All ladder rescues should be performed with two
brigade members whenever possible; ( Skill Drill 13-14) pres-
ents a technique that could, if necessary, be performed by a
single brigade member.
1. The rescue team will p lace the ladder into the rescue
position with the tip of the ladder just belo w the win -
dowsill, and secure the ladder in p lace.
2. The first brigade member should climb the ladder,
make contact with the v ict im, and climb inside the
window to assist the vict im. Contact should be made
as soon as possible to calm the v ict im. The vict im
should be encouraged to stay at the window until the
rescue can be performed.
3. The second brigade member should climb up to the
window, standing one rung below the windowsill.
This leaves at least one rung available for the vict im.
When ready, the b rigade member should advise the
victim to s lowly co me out onto the ladder, feet first
and facing the ladder.
4. The brigade member should form a semi-circle around
the victim, with both hands on the beams of the ladder.
5. The brigade member and victim should then p roceed
slowly do wn the ladder, one rung at a t ime, with the
brigade member one rung belo w the v ict im.
6. If the v ictim slips or loses footing, the brigade mem
ber's legs should keep the victi m fro m falling.
7. The brigade member can take control of the vict im at
any time by lean ing in toward the ladder and squeez
ing the v ictim against the ladder.
Rescuing an Unconscious Person from a Window
If the trapped person is unconscious, one or more brigade
members will have to climb inside the building and pass the
person out of the window to a brigade member on the ladder.
Caution should be used when lowering an unconscious person
down a ladder, because it is very easy for the persons arms or
legs to get caught in the ladder. To rescue an unconscious
victim fro m a window and down a ladder, follow the steps in
(► Skill Drill 13-15).
1. The rescue team will p lace and secure the ladder in the
rescue pos ition with the t ip o f the ladder just below the
windowsill. (Step 1)
Search a nd Rescue 391
2. One b rigade memb er should climb up the ladder and
into the window to assist fro m the inside. The second
brigade member climbs up to the window open ing
and waits for the victim. (Step 2)
3. The brigade member on the ladder should have a firm
grip on the ladd er with both hands on the rungs. One
leg should be straight and the other should be bent so
that the th igh is horizont al to the g round, with the
knee at a 90° angle. The foot o f the straight leg should
be one rung below the foot o f the bent leg.
4. When both brigade members are ready , the interior
brigade member will pass the v ict im out th rough the
window and onto the ladder. The v ict ims back should
be toward the ladder, so the vict im is face-to-face with
the brigade member on the ladder. (Step 3)
5. The victim should be lowered so that the groin of the
victim will rest on the horizontal leg of the brigade
member. The brigade members arms should be under
the arms of the vict im and holding onto the rungs. It is
important to keep the balls of both feet on the rungs of
the ladder. It is much more difficult to move your feet in
this position if the heels are close to the rungs. (Step 4)
6. The brigade member can now climb down the ladder
slowly one rung at a t ime. The v ictim is always sup
ported at the gro in by one o f the b rigade members
legs. The brigade member's arms are under the vic
tim's arms to support the upper to rso. As an opt ion
the interior brigade member may t ie the vict im's
hands together and p lace them over the neck o f the
brigade member on the ladder. (Step 5)
Rescuing an Unconscious Small Adult from a
Window
Small adults can be cradled across a brigade member's arms dur-
ing a rescue. The victim must be light enough that the brigade
member can descend safely, using only arm strength to support
the victim. To carry an unconscious small adult from a window
and down a ladder, follow the steps in (►Skill Drill 13-16).
1. The rescue team will set up and secure the ladder in
the rescue posit ion , with the t ip o f the ladder just
below the windowsill. (Step 1)
2. The first brigade member should climb the ladder and
enter the windo w to assist fro m the interio r. The sec
ond brigade member will climb the ladder to the
window opening and wait for the v ict im. Both arms
should be level with hands on the beams. (Step 2)
3. When ready, the interio r brigade member should pass
the vict im to the b rigade member on the ladder so the
victim is cradled across the brigade member's arms .
(Step 3)
4. The brigade member can now climb down the ladder
slowly with the vict im being held in h is or her arms.
The brigade member's hands should s lide do wn the
beams. (S tep 4)
 VOICES OF EXPERIENCE
" Search and rescue operations in a process
unit environment required an open area search
operation which is much different than the right
or left hand search operations commonly used
inside of structures."

A
s part of our regular emergency response
training program, we conduct monthly drills
with our on-shift emergency response personnel.
One of our experienced shift
supervisors was coordinating the normal monthly drill which included a simulated
response to one of our newer processing units.
Prior to starting the drill, the shift supervisor review the proposed drill scenario with the
process operators and the shift supervisor from the process are where the drill was going
to take place. The shift supervisor obtained a rescue mannequin and stag ed the
mannequin on the deck of a co mpressor platform. After the drill location was properly set
up and all involved parties were briefed, the drill response was initiated by the dispatch
center.
The on-shift fire crew personnel responded to the process area and were met by a
process operator who informed the responders that a gas leak had occurred on the unit
and that a process operator was unaccounted for. Due to the unstable situation, the other
process operators had not entered the area and they could contact the operator via radio.
The incident commander immed iately assigned a search and rescue team to conduct a
primary search of the area and a back up team to standby to assist as necessary. The
search team in itiated a rapid open area search of the outdoor process area and after a
period of time located the "victim" on the compressor deck.
The search team attempted to remove the 150 lb. train ing mannequin from the deck and
soon found that it was much more difficult than they anticipated. The back up team was
requested to assist and the two teams worked together to "man handle" the victim through
the tight confines of the compressor deck, down the stairwell and out to the plot edge of
the process area.
After the rescue drill was completed, an on-scene review of the drill operations was
completed. The drill was deemed successful but all personnel involved agreed that the
search and rescue operations were extremely physically demanding. Search and rescue
operations in a process unit environment required an open area search operation which is
much different than the right or left hand search operations commonly used inside of
structures. Moving patients on and off the grating decks of the process area and through
congested areas was found to be very difficult. This drill was also conducted during an
evening shift so limited lighting also played a factor in the response.
Since this drill was conducted several years ago, our refinery has conducted additional search and rescue
training for fire crew members and have also added extra search and rescue equipment to the response
apparatus to be better prepared for potential search and rescue operations. Multi-gas analyzers are now
carried on each front line response apparatus. Rescue drag harnesses are carried on each foam engine
and "drag bags" are carried on the haz mat and rescue response vehicles. A SCBA "RIT" bag is also
carried on the primary foam engine. All of these changes will hopefully better prepare our team to
respond to an actual search and rescue operation if it is ever needed.

Rick Haase
ConocoPhillips Wood River Refinery
Roxana, Illinois
394 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E
Rescuing an Unconscious Victim from a Window
The tip of the ladder is placed just below
the windowsill.
Low er the victim to straddle the brigade
member's leg. The brigade member's arms
should be under the victim's arms holding
onto the rungs.
B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S
One brigade member enters to assist the
victim. The second brigade member clim bs
to the window.
Step down one rung at a tim e, transferring the
victim's weight from one leg to the other. The
victim's arms can be secured around the
brigade member's neck.
AN D P R A C T I C E
The brigade mem ber waiting on the ladder
plac es both hands on the rungs with one
leg straight and the other horiz ontal to the
ground wit h the k nee bent at 90° T he
interior brigade mem ber will then pass the
victim through the window onto t he ladder
with the victim's back toward the l adder.
 Searc h a nd Resc ue
395

Rescuing an Unconscious Small Adult from a Window

The ladder is placed in rescue pos ition, with the tip below One brigade m ember enters the window to assist the victim. The
the windowsill. second brigade m ember stands on the ladder to receiv e the victim,
with bot h arms level and hands on beams.

The victim is placed in the brigade mem ber's arms. The brigade mem ber descends, keeping arms level and sliding the
hands down the beams.
396 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
Brigade Member Tips
If you are removing a dec eas ed pers on, first plac e the victim in a
body bag, then plac e the body bag on a backboard or bask et
stretcher. Carrying a body bag without a rigid support is difficult and
awkward.
Rescuing a Large Adult
Three b rigade members using t wo ladders may be needed to
rescue very tall or heavy adults. To rescue a large adult using a
ladder, follow the steps in (Skill Drill 13-17),
1. The rescue team will p lace and secure two ladders,
side-by-side, in the rescue position. The tips of the two
ladders should be just below the windowsill.
2. Multip le b rigade members may be required to enter
the window to assist fro m the inside.
3. Two b rigade members, one on each ladder, should
climb up to the window opening and wait for the
victim.
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
4. When ready, the victim should be lowered down across
the arms of the brigade members, with one supporting
the victim's legs and the other supporting the victim's
arms. Once in place, the brigade members can slowly
descend the ladder, using both hands to hold onto the
ladder rungs.
Removal of Victims by Ladders
Ladders should be used to remove victims only when it is not
possible to use interior stairways or fire escapes. A ladder
rescue is often frightening to conscious victims. Rescuing an
unconscious victim by ladder is dangerous and difficult , but
may be the best way to save a life.
Aerial ladders and platforms: An aerial ladder or p latfo rm
often is used fo r rescue operations. The same basic rescue
techn iques are used with both aerial and g round ladders,
but aerial ladders have several advantages over ground lad-
ders. Aerial ladders are much stronger and have a longer
reach. They also are wider and more stable, with side rails
for additional security (►Figure 13-17 ).
 Searc h a nd Re sc ue 397

Aerial p latforms are even more suitable for rescue opera-

tions. These devices reduce the risk of slipping and falling
because the vict im is lowered to the g round mechan ically.
An aerial platform is usually preferred for rescue work if one is
available.

Ground ladders: Before a ground ladder can be used in a

rescu e, it must b e p rop erly p osit ioned and secu red .
Posit ioning and securing ground ladders are covered in
Chapter 12, Ladders. Add it ional personnel will be needed
to secure the lad der and to assist in b ring ing th e v ict im
down the ladder.

( Figure 13-17) An aerial ladder is stronger and more stable than a ground ladder.
• Searc h and rescue are t he highest priorities at a fire scene
and may be ass igned to any ty pe of fire c om pany.
• Searc h and rescue must be int egrated wit h other firefight-
ing funct ions.
• The init ial overview and obs erv ations of t he fire sc ene
prov ide v aluable informat ion f or m aking dec isions about
searc h-and-resc ue functions.
• The IC m ust be able t o m ak e an inform ed decision about
whether it is saf e to begin a s earc h.
• Searc h-and-resc ue priorities start wit h the fire floor and
then m ove t o t he f loor abov e the fire.
• Brigade m em bers m ust be properly dressed and equipped
for searc h and res cue.
• The prim ary search s hould be as t horough as possible in
the tim e av ailable.
• The s ec ondary search is m ade after t he fire is under
control.
• Brigade mem bers m ust use t he sens es of s ight, touc h, and
hearing w hen searc hing.
• Thermal im aging equipm ent c an im prov e the effectiv eness
and eff icienc y of a s earc h in a s m ok e-f illed building.
• Brigade m em bers m ust always be aw are of possible
escape routes.
• Resc ue tec hniques include ass ists, drags, and c arries.
Pri mar y sea rch An initial s earc h c onduc t ed t o det erm ine if
there are victims w ho m ust be resc ued.
Rekin dle A sit uat ion w here a f ire, w hic h w as t hought t o be
completely extinguished, reignit es.
Rescue T hos e activ ities direct ed at loc at ing endangered
pers ons at an emergency incident, rem oving those pers ons from
danger, t reating the injured, and providing for transport to an
appropriat e healt h care f acility.
Search T he proc ess of looking f or v ict ims w ho are in
danger.
Search ro pe A guide rope us ed by brigade m em bers t hat
allows t hem to m aint ain c ont act wit h a fix ed point.
Seco n dary searc h A m ore t horough s earc h undert ak en
after the fire is under c ontrol. T his searc h is done t o ens ure t hat
there are no v ictims st ill t rapped inside the building.
T h er ma l i ma g i n g d e vi ce s El ec t ro nic dev ic es t hat detect
differences in temperature based on inf rared energy and then
generate im ages based on thos e data. C om monly used in
obsc ured env ironm ents t o loc ate v ictims.
T wo- i n/t wo - out r u le A s af et y proc edure t hat r equires a
minim um of two pers onnel to ent er a hazardous area and a
minim um of t w o back-up pers onnel t o rem ain outs ide t he
haz ardous area during t he initial st ages of an incident.
 During the second shift on a Tuesday, the plant fire alarm at your vehicle manu-
facturing facility sounds for a report of working fire in a dust collection area. Brigade
members and apparatus begin to arrive at the fire building and are met by moderate
to heavy smoke but with no fire showing. The area foreman indicates that two
maintenance technicians were conducting welding repairs to a ductwork system at
the time of the fire, and only one technician was present at the area evacuation site.
The on-shift fire brigade leader tells you and two other brigade members to prepare
for a primary search-and-rescue operation. You enter the buildings and are met with heavy smoke and
heat conditions in an area that is highly congested with multiple pieces of ductwork, blower fans, and
conduit banks.

1. The f ollow ing st atements are true about s earc h and 2. You us e t he t herm al im aging devic e to s can the
resc ue risk-benefit exc ept: work area. The therm al imaging devic e captures:
A. It is not acc eptable to risk t he s afety of brigade A. infrared light rather t han v isible light im ages.
members w hen t here is no pos sibility of s aving B. light using a phot ocat hode t o conv ert phot on
lives or property. energy t o electrons and t o strike a phos phor
B. Pets are considered family members and s hould screen t hat emits an image you can s ee.
hav e the sam e risk c ons ideration as hum an loss C. heat images rat her than visible light images.
of life.
D. None of the abov e
C. Only a limit ed lev el of risk is acc ept able to s av e
valuable property.
D. Actions t hat present a high level of ris k to the
safety of brigade m em bers are justified only if
there is a potential to s ave lives.

With the aid of the thermal imaging device, you and your partners find the victim within 10 minutes. He is
unconscious but breathing. You need to remove the victim fast. The smoke is heavy and visibility is
poor.

3. W hat would be t he m ost appropriat e resc ue t ec h- 4. When rem oving a victim from a dangerous area, you
nique? should:
A. A w ebbing sling drag A. use t he s afest and m ost practic al m eans of
B. A tw o-pers on w alking ass ist egress.
C. An exit assist B. us e the building's norm al ex it system if clear
and safe.
D. A c radie-in-arm s c arry
C. use a ladder rescue w henever possible.
D. Bot h A and B