NFPA1081 Standard Additional NFPA Standards

Inc ipie nt Indust ria l Fire B riga de M e mbe r NFPA 11 Standard for Low, Medi um, and Hi gh -Expansi on Foam
NFPA 1081 contai ns no Inci pi ent Industrial j ob performance requi rements for thi s NFPA 600 Standard on Industri al Fi re Bri gades
chapter.

A dv a nc ed Ext e rior Indust ria l Fire B riga de Me mbe r 6.3 .4 * Exti ngui sh an
Knowledge Objectives
igni tabl e l i qui d fi re operati ng as a member of a team, gi ven an assi gnment, a After compl eti ng thi s chapter, you will be abl e to: Understand
handli ne, personal protecti ve equi pment, a foam propor tioning devi ce, a nozzle, foam terms. Describe how foam works. Understand the
foam concentrates, and a water suppl y, so that the correct type of foam foam tetrahedron. Describe expansi on rates. Expl ai n the
concentrate i s sel ected for the gi ven fuel and condi ti ons, a correctl y proporti oned different types of foam concentrate. Descri be foam
foam stream i s appli ed to the surface of the fuel to create and mai ntai n a foam characteri sti cs. Describe foam percentages and thei r
bl anket, fi re i s exti ngui shed, re -i gni ti on i s prevented, and team protection i s importance. Expl ai n foam gui deli nes and li mi tati ons.
mai ntai ned. Identify vari ous foam proporti oni ng devi ces. Recogni ze
the causes of poor foam quality deli very. Cal cul ate the
(A) Requi site Knowl edge. Methods by whi ch foam prevents or control s a hazard; appli cati on rates for a spill fi re. Cal cul ate the appli cati on
pri nci pl es by whi ch foam i s generated; cause s for poor foam generati on and rates for a di ked fire. Cal culate the appli cati on rates for a
correcti ve measures; difference between hydrocarbon and pol ar sol vent fuel s and tank fi re.
the concentrates that work on each; the characteri sti cs, uses, and li mitati ons of
fire-fighting foams; the advantages and di sadvantages of usi ng fog nozzl es
versus foam nozzles for foam appli cati on; foam stream appli cation techni ques;
hazards associ ated wi th foam usage; and methods to reduce or avoid hazards.
Skills Objectives
After compl eti ng thi s chapter, you will be abl e to perform the foll owi ng skill s:
(B) Requi site Skill s. The abili ty to prepare a foam concentrate suppl y for use,
• Assemble the correct foam stream components.
assembl e foam stream components, master vari ous foam appli cati on techni ques, • Perform the roll -on method of appl ying foam.
and approach and retreat from fi res and spill s as part of a coordinated team. • Perform the bounce -off method of appl yi ng foam.
• Perform the rai n-down method of appl yi ng foam.
Inte rior St ruc tural Indust ria l Fire B riga de M e mbe r 7 .3.4 * Exti ngui sh an
igni tabl e l i qui d fi re operati ng as a member of a team, gi ven an assi gnment, a
handli ne, personal protecti ve equi pment, a foam propor tioning devi ce, a nozzle,
foam concentrates, and a water suppl y, so that the correct type of foam concentrate
is sel ected for the gi ven fuel and conditi ons, a correctl y proportioned foam stream i s
applied to the surface of the fuel to create and mai ntai n a foam bl anket, fi re i s
exti ngui shed, re-i gniti on i s prevented, and team protecti on i s mai ntai ned.
(A) Requi site Knowl edge. Methods by whi ch foam prevents or control s a hazard;
pri nci pl es by whi ch foam i s generated; cause s for poor foam generati on and
correcti ve measures; difference between hydrocarbon and pol ar sol vent fuel s and
the concentrates that work on each; the characteri sti cs, uses, and li mitati ons of
fire-fighting foams; the advantages and di sadvantages of usi ng fog nozzl es
versus foam nozzl es for foam appli cati on; foam stream appli cati on techni ques;
hazards associ ated wi th foam usage; and methods to reduce or avoid hazards.
(B) Requi si te Skill s. The abili ty to prepare a foam concentrate suppl y for use,
assembl e foam stream components, master vari ous foam a ppli cati on techni ques,
and approach and retreat from fi res and spill s as part of a coordinated team.
 You are responding to a plant alarm with a report of a running spill in a partially diked area.
When you arrive, the area operator tells you that the source of the leak hasn't been determined;
the liquid spill could be a light hydrocarbon blend, methanol, or a combination of both. You are
carrying aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) in your foam tank. A second engine carrying
"alcohol foam" is 5 minutes away. You decide to begin foaming operations to prevent the vapors
from reaching an ignition source. A few minutes after foam application has started, you observe
that the foam blanket is remaining on the fuel's surface and spreading out, reducing the release
of vapors.
1. What are the six categories of foam concentrates that are commonly used in the fire
service?
2. What type of foam concentrate is required for polar solvent fuels?
3. Was the fuel spill hydrocarbon or methanol?

Introduction will increase the p robability o f a safe, efficient, and effec tive
response.
Brigade members are faced with a wide variety of flammable
and co mbustible liqu id risks. Successful cont rol and ext in -
guishment requires not only the proper applicat ion of foam
How Foam Works
on the fuel surface, but also an understanding of the physical Hydrocarbon fuels have a lower surface tension than water.
characteristics o f foam p roduction. A thorough kno wledge of When fuel and water are mixed, the two flu ids quickly sep -
the chemistry of the variety of foam concentrates that are arate; the fuel rises to the top and the water remains on the
availab le today is necessary to ensure brigade member safety bottom. When foam concentrate is mixed with water, the
and fire control. surface tension is reduced, allo wing the foam/ water mix to
Firefighting foam is div ided into t wo bas ic classifica - float on the surface o f the fuel.
tions: Class A or Class B. Class A foams are used to fight Foam extinguishes flammab le or co mbustible liquid fires
ordinary co mbustib le material (wood, text iles, and paper). in four ways (▼ Figure 17-Q
Often referred to as "wetting agents," Class A foams are very • It prevents air fro m mixing with the vapo rs on the
effect ive because they imp rove the penet rat ing effect o f fuel surface. The foam b lanket prov ides a physical
water and allo w for greater heat absorption. Class A foams barrier on the fuel surface.
are most co mmonly used by municipal, rural, and wildland
fire depart ments, but are being increasing ly used by indus -
trial fire brigades. Class B foam is used on Class B flamma ble
and co mbustible liqu id fires. Th is chapter will discuss Class
B foams that are widely used in the petrochemical industry.
Foam is not a "one s ize fits all" ext ingu ish ing agent .
The liqu id fuel involved will determine the type of foam
concentrate requ ired as well as the volu me and the dura -
t ion n ecessary to ext in gu ish th e fire and cont ro l t he
vapors.
Large vo lu me flammab le o r co mbust ib le liqu id fires
are spect acu lar and can have devastat ing effects. They
occur less frequent ly than s maller in cidents handled every
day by indust rial fire o rgan izat ions and fire b rig ades.
Un d erstand ing th e cap ab ilit ies an d limit at ions o f foam
( Figure 17-1) How foam works.

• It eliminates vapor release fro m the fuel surface. The
effect ive t ime for vapor suppression depends on the
vapor pressure of the fuel and the quality o f the foam
blanket.
• It separates the flames fro m the fuel surface. Because
the co mbustion process is taking p lace in the vapors
just above the fuel surface, foam flo wing on the fuel
surface interrupts flame p roduction.
• It cools the fuel surface and surrounding metal. Foam
solution is most ly water in the form o f bubb les. The
increased surface area p rovides a g reater amount of
heat absorption than water drop lets.
Foam Tetrahedron
Just as the elements o f the fire tetrahed ron must exist in the
correct p ropo rt ions to sustain the co mbustion p rocess, the
elements o f the foam t etrah edron must also b e in the co r rect
propo rt ions to p roduce an effect ive foam sol uti on
(►Figure 17-2).
Firefight ing foam (fi nished foam) is p roduced by
mechan ical agitation and mixing of air into a foam solution.
Too litt le foam concentrate in water will p roduce a foam
solution that is too thin to be effective and may quickly dis -
sipate into the fuel. Too much concentrate will produce foam
that may be too thick to be properly expanded o r aspirated
when mixed with air. The expansion of foam solution is
dependent on good mechan ical ag itat ion and air aspirat ion.
When an insufficient amount of air is introduced into the
solution stream, the solution is poorly aspirated. This results
in foam with few bubbles, and fewer bubbles mean the foam
will break down quickly and will not be ab le to suppress
vapors. Poorly aspirated foam will also break down qu ickly
when exposed to heat and flame.
Expansion Rates
The expansion rate is the rat io of finished foam p roduced
fro m foam so lut ion after bein g ag it ated and asp irat ed
through a foam-making appliance. NFPA 11 div ides foam
concentrates into three expansion ranges:
• Lo w expansion
• Mediu m expansion
• High expansion
Low Expansion
These foams, which have an expansion rat io up to 20:1, are
primarily designed for flammab le and co mbustible liqu ids.
Low expansion foam is effective in controlling and extin -
guishing most Class B fires. Special low expansion foams are
also used on Class A fires where the penetrating and cooling
effect of the foam solution is impo rtant.
'Medium Expansion
Mediu m expansion foams, wh ich have an expansion rat io
fro m 20:1 to 200:1, are used p rimarily to suppress vapo rs
Foam
527
(Figure 1 7- 2) Foam tetrahedron.
fro m hazardous chemicals. M id -range expansion rat ios of
30:1 and 55:1 p roduce an effective foam blanket for vapor
suppression on lo w bo iling po int org an ics and chemicals
that are highly water react ive.
High Expansion
High expansion foams, wh ich have an expansion rat io fro m
200:1 to appro ximately 1000:1, are used for a variety of con -
fined space firefighting situations. The synthetic, detergent
type foam is used in basements, ships, aircraft hangars, and
mines.
Foam Concentrates
Foam concentrates are divided into six categories commonly
used in the fire service:
• Protein foam
• Fluo roprotein foam
• Film-fo rming fluoroprotein foam (FFFP)
• Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF)
• Alcohol-resistant aqueous film-forming foam (AR-AFFF)
• Synthetic detergent foam
Protein Foa m
Protein foams are limited to use on hydrocarbon fires only.
They form a tough stable foam blanket with excellent heat
and burnback resistance as well as good drainage rate
charact erist ics. A lthough p rotein foams p rov ide slo wer
knockdo wn than other concentrates, they provide a
long-lasting foam b lanket after the fire is ext inguished.
Protein foams can be used with salt water or fresh water. These
foams require good air aspiration through a foam nozzle; they
cannot be properly aspirated through a structural fog no zzle.
Mechanical protein foams were first developed between the
late 1930s and mid 1940s , and came into non milit ary
 528
use after World War II. These foams are p roduced fro m
hydrolyzed kerat in protein (such as hoof and horn meal o r
chicken feathers) with stabilizing addit ives and inhibitors to
prevent co rrosion and contro l viscosity.
Fluoroprotein Foam
Fluorop rotein foams contain fl uorochemical surfactants .
wh ich imp rove th e performan ce with bett er resistance to
fuel p ickup, faster knockdown, and co mpatib ility with dry
chemical agents. These foams are used on hydrocarbon fuels
and some oxygenated fuel addit ives. Fluorop rotein foams
have excellent heat and burnback resistance, and maintain a
good foam b lanket after ext inguishment. The add ition o f
surfactants makes the foam more flu id, wh ich increases the
knockdown rate and provides better fuel tolerance than pro-
tein foam.
Film-Forming Fluoroprotein Foam (FFFP)
A derivat ive of fluoroprotein and A FFF, this foam has per-
formance characterist ics similar to protein and fluorop ro tein
foams. Knockdo wn perfo rmance is imp roved because this
foam releases an aqueous film on the surface of the
hydrocarbon fuel. The overall performance of FFFP lies
between fluoroprotein foam and AFFF The foam does not
have the qu ick knockdown of A FFF on a spill fire. When
used on a fuel in depth fire, FFFP does not have the bu rn back
resistance of fluoroprotein foam.
Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF)
Co mmonly referred to as AFFF, this foam has the fastest
kno ckdo wn on hyd ro carbo n fuels . Since A FFF is very
fluid , it qu ickly flo ws around obstacles and across the fuel
surface ( T Figure 17-3 ). AFFF can be used as a premixed
solut ion; it is co mp at ib le with d ry chemical ag ents and
can b e used with fresh o r salt water. A lthough AFFF can be
used th rough no n-aspirat ing no zzles, ma xi mu m p er-
formance can be ach ieved on ly th rough aspirat ing foam
nozzles.
AFFF is composed of synthetic foaming agents and flu -
orochemical surfactants. A FFF ext inguishes fire by form ing
an aqueous film on the fuel surface. The film is a thin lay er
of foam so lut ion, wh ich q u ickly spreads across the
( Figure 17-3) Aqueous Film -Forming Foam (AFFF).
( Figure 17-4) Alcohol-Resistant Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AR-AFFF).
surface of a hyd rocarbon fuel, creat ing an extremely fast
fire knockdo wn. Surfactants reduce the surface t ension o f
the fo am so lu t ion , wh ich allo ws it to remain on the su r face
of the hydrocarbon fuel. The aqueous film is fo rmed by the
action o f the foam so lution drain ing fro m the foam blanket .
Alcohol-Resistant Aqueous Film-Forming
Foam (AR-AFFF)
Alcohol-resistant AFFFs are a combination of synthetic deter-
gents, fluorochemicals, and h igh mo lecular weight polymers (
A Figure 17-4). Polar solvents (water miscible fuels) are not
compatible with non-alcohol-resistant foams. Common polar
solvents include alcohols (isopropyl, methano l, ethano l),
esters (butyl acetate) amines, ketones (methyl ethyl ketone),
and aldehydes. When non-alcohol-resistant foam is applied to
the surface of a polar solvent, the foam blanket quickly breaks
down into a liquid and mixes with the fuel. A R-AFFF per-
forms as a conventional AFFF on hydrocarbon fuels, forming
an aqueous film on the fuel surface. When applied to polar
solvents, the foam solution forms a poly meric memb rane on
the fuel surface. This tough membrane separates the fuel from
the foam and reduces destruction of the foam b lanket .
AR-AFFF is one of the most versatile types of foam. It
provides good knockdown and burnback resistance, and has
a high fuel tolerance on polar solvent and hydrocarbon fires.
Synthetic Detergent Foam (High Expansion)
This foam g roup is most co mmonly used on Class A fires.
High expansion foam is highly effective in confined space
firefighting or in areas where access is limited or entry is dan-
gerous to brigade members. These areas include basements,
shipboard compart ments, warehouses, aircraft hangars, and
mine shafts. High expansion foams can be used in fixed gen -
erating systems and portable foam generators.
Rapid s mothering and cooling ach ieve fire control and
extinguish ment. High expansion foams have a tremendous
smothering and steam generation effect because the water is
divided into such fine particles (bubbles), which enhance the
heat absorption quality of the water. Care must be taken with

Brigade Member Safety Tips
It is important to rem ember that foam is mostly wat er and presents the
same electric al shock hazard potential to brigade members as wat er
application.
regard to electrical power sources in the area when foam is
applied.
Foam Characteristics
Good foam must contain the right comb ination of physical
characteristics to be effect ive. Knockdown speed and flo w
are the time required for a foam blan ket to spread out across a
fuel surface. The foam must also be able to flow around
obstacles in order to ach ieve co mplete ext inguish ment and
vapor suppression.
Foam must hav e good heat resistance to avo id b reak -
down from the effects of direct flame contact of burning fuel
vapors or heat generated from metal ob jects. Fuel resistance
is foam's ability to minimize fuel pickup. Th is oleophobic
quality reduces the amount o f fuel saturat ion in the foam.
Foam must produce a good vapor-suppressing blanket. A
vapor-tight foam b lanket reduces the generation o f flamma ble
or combustible vapors above the fuel surface and min imizes
reign ition.
When used on polar solvent fuels, foam must be alcohol
resistant. Because alcohol readily mixes with water and since
foam is most ly water, a foam b lan ket that is not alcohol
resistant will quickly d issolve into the fuel and be destroyed.
A co mparison of the p roperties of the various foam types
is shown in ( Table 17-1 ).
Foam Percentages
Foam concentrates are designed to be mixed with water at
specific ratios. Foam concentrate ratios vary from 1% to 6%.
The amount o f concent rate varies depend ing on the manu -
facturer, the type of applicat ion, and the type o f fuel.
Table 17-1 Comparison of the Properties of Various Foam Types
Property Protein
Knockdown Fair
Heat resistance Excellent
Fuel resistance Fair
Vapor suppression Excellent
Alcohol resistance None
Foam 529
A 3% concentrate is mixed at a rat io of 97 parts water to 3
parts foam concentrate. For examp le, each 100 gallons of foam
solution would contain 97 gallons of water and 3 gallons of
foam concentrate. A 6% solution would require 6 gallons of
concentrate mixed with 94 gallons of water to produce the
same 100 gallons of foam solution. When mixed with water
(proportioned), the 100 gallons of solution have virtually the
same performance characteristics. A 3% concentrate is twice
as concentrated as a 6% concentrate.
It is imp ort ant to und erstan d that foam con cent rates
must be proport ioned at the percentage listed by the manu -
facturer. If you want to produce a 3% foam solut ion, you
cannot use half the amount of a 6% concentrate, you must
use the concentrate at the percentage listed on the container.
Foam concentrates are manufactured at different percentages
for a variety of reasons. The chemical make-up of the con-
centrate, freeze protection additives, military use specifica-
tions (Mil-Specs), and cost are some of the basic factors that
determine the percentage.
The t rend in industry is to reduce foam concent rate
percentages as low as possible. Lower p roportion ing rates
mean less bulk storage for the user. Lower percentage rates
also means that you can increase your firefighting capacity
by carry ing the same vo lu me of foam concent rat e o r you
can red uce you r foam supp ly witho ut redu cing you r
suppression capabilities. Lo wer proportioning rates can also
reduce th e cost of fixed foam system co mponents and
concentrate transportation costs. Historically , foam concen-
trates were manufactured at 3% and 6%. Today , foam
concentrates are produced for use at rates as lo w as 1% and
as h igh as 6%, depend ing on the liqu id fuel and ho w the
foam is to be used.
AR-AFFFs are effective on both hydrocarbon and polar
solvent fuel. The most common concentrate in use is labeled
"AR-AFFF 3%-3%". This means that the foam can be used
at 3% concentrat ion on hydrocarbons and po lar solvents.
There are also concentrates on the market that are used at
d ifferent p ropo rt ion ing p ercen tag e rates d epend in g on
the type of fuel. Concentrates labeled as 3% -6% are still
common and have been used for many years. Concentrates
labeled as l% -3% are seeing increased use as the chemical
technology improves.
F luoroprot ein AFFF FFFP AR-AFFF
Good Excellent Good Excellent
Excellent Fair Good Good
Excellent Moderate Good Good
Excellent Good Good Good
None None None Excellent
530 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
The lo wer p ercentage rate is used for most hydrocar -
bons. It is important to rev iew manufactu rers' data sheets
wh en d et ermin in g wh ich fo am b es t meets yo u r n eeds . A
concentrate that is labeled 1% for hydro carbons may
require proport ioning at 3% for so me b lended gasoline; th is
info rmation should be contained in the product data sheet.
Th e h ig her p ercen tage rate is used fo r p o lar so lv ents .
The h igher propo rt ion ing p ercen tage must be used to
produce the polymeric memb rane on the fuel surface. If the
lo wer percentage rate is used on a po lar so lvent fuel, the
foam will qu ickly be destroyed. An impo rtant consideration
when using foams at 1% concentrat ion is that the foam
proport ioner must be ext remely accu rate in order to ensure
t hat a t rue 1% so lut ion is being d elivered t o th e fu el
surface.
Because so many types of foam concentrates are available,
selecting the right concentrate can be a challenge. The key is
to identify the type of exposure that is to be protected and the
type of foam delivery s ystem that will be used. A foam con-
centrate that provides excellent perfo rmance characteristics
for hyd rocarbon storag e tan k and contain ment d ike fires
using monitors may not be as effective for warehouse protec-
tion utilizing a foam sprin kler system. Good hazard evaluation
as a part of the overall prep lanning process will ensure that
the correct foam concentrate is selected.
Foam Production
Fin ished foam is a co mbinat ion of water, foam concentrate,
air, and mechanical ag itation. When these four elemen ts are
brought together in the correct propo rtions, foam is p ro -
duced. The simplified diagram in (▼ Figure 17^T) shows how
foam is produ ced through a typ ical p ropo rt ion ing system.
(Figure 17-5) Foam proportioning syst em.
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
Foam Proportioned
Foam p roport ioners are designed to supply the co rrect per -
centage of foam concentrate into the water stream. A variety
of p roportion ing devices and systems are availab le to the
industrial fire service today. Proportioning equipment ranges
fro m s imp le in -lin e eductors used in hose systems to
"around-the-pump" and "balanced pressure" systems, found
on mob ile fire app aratus. Th is equ ip ment is d iscussed in
detail later in the chapter.
Foam Guidelines
Proper storage is critical to foam shelf life. Foam concen -
trates have temperature limitat ions that prevent degradation.
The concentrates are stored in sealed containers to prevent
air cont act that causes ev aporat ion and chemical break -
down. Manufacturers' guidelines will list the storage require-
ments to ensu re concentrates are ready fo r serv ice after
many years of storage.
Foam concent rat es in general tend to be more stab le
when used with mod erate water temperatures. A lthough
foam liqu ids will p erfo rm with water temperatu res th at
exceed 100°F, p referred water temperatu res are 35°F to
80°F Foam concentrates can be used with either fresh water
or seawater. Water that contains contaminants such as deter-
gents, certain co rrosion inh ib itors , or o il res idues may
adversely affect foam quality.
Ideal nozzle pressures range between 50 and 200 pounds
per square inch (psi). When a proport ioner is used, propor -
tioner pressure should not exceed 200 psi. Higher p ressures
will cause foam quality to deteriorate, while lower pressures
will reduce the reach of foam streams.
 Foa m 531

When flammab le o r co mbust ib le liq u ids have b een

spilled, pro mpt coverage with a foam blan ket can p revent
ignit ion. Additional foam app licat ion may be requ ired peri-
odically to maintain the b lan ket fo r extended periods until
the spill has been cleaned up.
Foam should be considered the same as water when used
on or near electrical fires and is not generally reco mmended
in those circu mstances. Elect rical systems should be
de-energized before apply ing foam.
Foam is not reco mmended for use on products that are
stored as liqu ids but are normally vapor o r gas at amb ient
condit ions, such as propane, butane, and v iny l ch lo ride.
Foam is not reco mmended on water-reactive materials such
as magnesium, t itaniu m, lithiu m, potassium, and other co m-
bustible metals.

Foam Equipment
A basic foam equip ment system consists of a water supply
hose, a foam p roportioner to mix foam concentrate into the
water stream, a foam source, and a hose line with either a
standard fog stream no zzle o r an air aspirating foam no zzle
(Figure 17-6 ). There are a variety of proportioning systems;
the appropriate type and size of the system required is
determined by the ant icipated s ize of the exposure o r fire
risk and the capacity of the water supply. Small volu me, low
flo w portab le equ ip ment is suitable for s mall Class B spill
fires or for Class A fires in relatively s mall structures. Large
spill fires, tank fires, and large structures are more effectively
protected by fixed systems o r p roportion ing systems inte-
grated into industrial fire apparatus.

Foam Proportioning Syste ms

A foam proporti oner is the dev ice that mi xes foam con -
cent rate in to a water st ream in t he co rrect percentage.
Foam edu ctors and in jectors are the t wo types o f
(Figure 17 -6) Fog stream nozzle and air as pirating foam nozzle.
propor-t ion ers . Propo rt io ners are man ufactu red in a rang e
of p ro p o rt ion in g p ercent ages fro m 0. 5% t o 6% and
v ary in delivery capacity fro m as litt le as 60 gp m to over
14,000 gpm ( Figure 17-7) .

Foa m Eductors
A foam educto r funct ions by flo wing water through a
v ent u ri, wh ich causes an in crease in th e velocity o f th e

Brigade Member Safety Tips

Extinguishing flamm able or combustible liquid fires is not list ed as an
Incipient Industrial Fire Brigade M em ber job performance requirem ent
in NFPA1081. A liquid fire that cannot be extinguished wit h either
portable fire ext inguishers or I 1/22" f oam hand lines is bey ond
incipient-stage firefight ing.
(Figure 17-7)4,000 to 14, 000 gpm variable gallonage foam proportioner
and master stream nozzle.
 VOICES OF EXPERIENCE
"I quickly completed the calculations for
the required foam extinguishment and noted
there were insufficient water supplies to sup port
both exposure protection and firefighting
operations. "

O ur refinery's emergency dispatch center was

contacted by the assistant chief of the municipal
department, who stated that his department was
fighting a fire in a
120-foot asphalt tank in a terminal facility on the outskirts of the city. The municipal
department was requesting additional foam resources. The assistant chief informed me
that they had used all available on-site foam resources (numerous 5-gallon buckets) but
that the fire was continuing to grow. Our refinery agreed to respond with a foam engine,
a foam tender, and two quick-attack vehicles. Each vehicle was staffed with a full crew.
Upon our arrival at the incident, we noted that the tank was fully involved and that only
exposure protection operations were being conducted. I quickly completed the
calculations for the required foam e xtinguishment and noted there were insufficient
water supplies to support both exposure protection and firefighting operations. This
information was relayed to the command staff; they informed our crews that the tactical
units would remain in a defensive operation and that they planned to allow the tank to
burn out.
Our apparatus was released from staging and returned to the refinery. Approximately 8
hours later, the municipal department again contacted the refinery and requested that our
resources return to the scene. The department staff had decided they would attempt
ext inguishment of the fire before daybreak. We contacted the command post and
informed personnel there of the water supply we would require to complete ext in -
guishment. The command staff informed us they had contacted additional resources and
that they would have additional large-diameter hose lays in place by the time the refinery
apparatus arrived on the scene.
A refinery quick-attack truck with a 2000-gp m monitor was set up on the northwest
corner of the tank, and dual 5-inch supply lines for the monitor were stretched to Foam
Engine 3 (a 3000-gpm foam pu mper with a 1850-gallon tank). Engine 3 was set up 150
feet north of Quick Attack 1. Two 5-inch supply lines and one 4-inch supply line were
redirected from other operations to supply Engine 3. Foam Tender 1 (a 4000-gallon
tender) was set up adjacent to Engine 3, and a foam resupply system was established
using a portable foam-transfer pump.
Foam ext inguishment operations were started using a 3 percent foam application from a rapidly sweeping
stream from the 2000-gpm deck gun on Quick Attack 1. Within 15 minutes of the application, significant
fire and smoke knockdown could be seen. The west side of the tank area could not be rea ched owing to an
overhang from the failed sidewall. A portable monitor (1250 gpm) with a foam tube was fed with two
3-inch supply lines to supplement extinguishment in the western portion of the tank. After 45 minutes, no
visible flame or smoke could be seen. Foam operations were slowed, such that they used intermittent flows
fro m the 2000-gp m and 1250-gp m monitors. The fire was deemed secure, and cooling operations were
turned back over to the municipal depart ment.
This incident highlighted the importance of proper foam-application rates and techniques. Ironically, this
same tank caught fire approximately one month later as the terminal staff was trying to de-inventory the
tank. The refinery resources were again requested, and they extinguished the fire in an even shorter time
frame using the same tactical plan.

Rick Haase
ConocoPhillips Wood River Refinery
Roxana, Illinois
534 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
(Figure 17-8) Portable in -line eductor.
water, creat ing a low-pressure area on the d ischarge side of
the venturi. The lo w p ressure creates a v acuu m, d rawing
foam concent rate through the pickup tube into the water
stream. Eductors are manufactured with either fixed per -
centage or adjustable percentage.
A common ly used portable eductor is the in-line eductor
(also referred to as a line proportioner, inductor, or rat io
controller) ( Figure 17-8). Portable eductors are a common
choice when limited use is expected, when flammable liquid
fires are relatively small in size, or when it is difficult to justify
the expense o f high capacity p roport ioning systems. Because
in-line proport ioners are portable, they are easy to set up and
can be operated so me distance fro m the appara tus or fixed
water source.
Most eductor systems have operating requ irements and
limitat ions. The flo w rate o f the eductor must be matched
with a nozzle of the same flow rate. A 95-gp m eductor must
be operated with a 95-gp m no zzle in o rder to deliver an
effect ive foam stream. Mis matching nozzles and eductors is a
co mmon cause of propo rt ion ing p roblems. M is matches can
cause a poor quality foam solution or cause the foam
concentrate p ickup to shut do wn.
Educto rs typically require a fairly high inlet p ressure.
Most eductors develop their rated flow at 200-psi inlet pres-
sure, although so me edu ctors are designed to operate at
lower pressures. In-line eductors will not operate properly if
there is excessive back pressure. Total back pressure cannot
exceed 65% of the in let press ure. An eductor operat ing at
200 ps i is limit ed to a tot al o f 130-ps i back p ressure.
Excessive back pressure may be caused by:
• No zzle flo w that is rated lower than the eductor.
• Too much hose (frict ion loss) or hose kin ks between
the eductor and the no zzle.
P R I N C I P L E S AND P R A C T I C E
Brigade Member Safety Tips
It is important to verify the manufacturer's rec ommendation for the
length of time t hat a foam concentrate can remain premixed with water.
• No zzle elevat ion that is too h igh above the eductor.
• A nozzle shutoff valve that is not fu lly open.
Foam Injectors
Foam in jectors, which are typically found on apparatus, pro -
vide foam to the water stream under pressure. A metering
system senses the pressure and flow rate o f the water and
adjusts the inject ion rate to ensure the correct percentage of
foam concentrate is supplied to the water stream. In jection
proportioners are effective over a broad range of water flow
rates and pressures.
To p lace a foam line in service, use the follo wing steps (
Skill Drill 17-1 ):
1. Ensure all foam system co mponents are availab le. This
includes the water supply hose, the foam eductor,
foam concentrate, attack hose line, and an air aspirat
ing nozzle o r foam nozzle.
2. Connect the water supply line to the water source and
to the in let side of the eductor.
3. Connect the attack line to the d ischarge side of the
eductor.
4. Place the foam concentrate container(s) next to the
eductor.
5. Set the metering dev ice on the eductor to match the
concentrate percentage on the container.
6. Place the eductor pickup tube into the foam concen
trate container.
7. Charge the hose line with water, ensuring the min i
mu m requ ired in let p ressure at the eductor.
8. Flo w water through the hose line until foam solution
begins to flow fro m the no zzle.
9. Apply foam fro m the upwind side using the appropri
ate application technique (bank in, bounce off, o r
rain down).
Batch Mixing
Foam concentrate can be pou red d irect ly into th e booster
tank on apparatus that is not equipped with a foam propor -
tioning system. Batch mixi ng can be used either with foam
concent rates t hat are d esign ed for p remi xed systems o r
when the manufactu rer states that the concentrate can be
batch mixed for a short period o f time. A booster tan k with a
v o lu me o f 1,000 gallo ns wo u ld requ ire 30 gallo ns o f 3%
concentrate or 60 gallons of 6% concentrate. Once the
concent rate has b een added , th e so lut ion should be mi xed

(Figure 17-9) Trailer-mounted twin agent system.
( Figure 17 -10 ) Vehic le-m ount ed twin agent syst em.
by circu lat ing it th rough the wat er pu mp. The so lu t ion
should be circulated at lo w pu mp speed and pressure to pre-
vent excessive foaming of the solution.
Premixing
Premi xed foam is a so lut ion o f either AFFF o r FFFP.
Premi xed fo am is co mmo n ly used in 272-g allon h and
portab le ext ingu ishers and 33-gallon wheeled ext ingu ish-
ers. These po rtab le e xt ingu ishers are effect ive on s mall
spill fires. A 272-gallon ext inguisher is rated for a spill fire
area up to 40 square feet , wh ile the 33-gallon ext inguisher
is rated fo r up to 160 sq uare feet . Larg e vo lu me mo b il
foam systems are used on s kid - o r t railer-mounted t win
agent systems (foam and dry chemical) and on
vehicle -mounted systems ( Figure 17-9 and 17-10).
Foam 535
Premixed systems are d ischarged fro m stored pressure in
the ext inguisher or fro m an inert gas source, wh ich p res -
surizes a p ressure-rated tan k. The systems are easy to use
and provide quick delivery of the agent on the fire. They are
limited to a sing le use and must be empt ied and recharged
afterward.
Foam Tactics
Successful foam operations require an effective size-up before
firefighting starts. It is not enough to arrive on scene and start
applying foam on a flammab le o r co mbustible liquids fire.
You have to know the type of fuel you are dealing with, the
size of the area invo lved, the required app lication rate, and
the requ ired app licat ion durat ion. Once you beg in foam
operat ions, you must be ab le to sustain foam app lication
until the fire is out.
Spill Fir es
Sp ill fires are those where the average depth of the fuel is 1"
or less. NFPA 11 defines a spill fire as "nondiked spill areas
where a flammable o r co mbustible liquid spill might occur,
uncontained by curb ing, d ike walls , o r walls o f a roo m or
building. A spill fire is bounded only by the contour of the
surface on which it is ly ing."
Spill Fire Tactical Elements
Because a spill fire is not contained, an important tactical
consideration is the topography of the spill area. You must
take into considerat ion the path that the liqu id will fo llo w
and any add it ional h azards caused by mig rat ing fuel.
Additional firefighting resources may be needed to protect
exposu res fro m potent ial spill mig rat ion. A ll sp ill fires
should be fought fro m th e uph ill, up wind s ide. Th is pro -
vides safety for personnel and helps carry the foam across
the fuel surface.
The type o f fuel involved is another tact ical considera -
t ion . Po lar so lvent fu els cannot be ext ing u ished with
protein, fluoroprotein, or AFFE A lcohol-resistant foam must
be used. The foam concentrate must be matched to the liq uid
fuel involved.
The next tact ical considerat ion is spill size. The s ize o f
the spill area must be calculated to ensure an adequate foam
supply. Estimate the length and width of the spill to deter -
mine the square footage ( Figure 17-11 ). Spills tend to be
irregular in shape, so it is easier to estimate the area at its
largest point . Th is allo ws fo r qu icker calculat ions, and
although the actu al sp ill area is s maller t han wh at is
calculated, it provides a marg in of safety and ensures an ade-
quate foam app licat ion rate.
The min imu m app lication rate will vary depend ing on
the type o f foam concentrate used. In all cases, the min imu m
applicat ion t ime fo r a sp ill fire is 15 minutes. The min imu m
applicat ion rates and d ischarge t imes for
 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S
( Figure 17-11") Determine a spill area by estim ating the length and width at
the largest points.
portable foam nozzles and monitors are shown in
(Table17-2).
Based on the table, a 1,000 square foot hydrocarbon spill
using AFFF requires an applicat ion rate of 0.1 gallons per
minute (gpm)/square foot (sq ft), which equates to a 100-gpm
foam solution flow. The 15-minute application time requires a
total solut ion flo w o f 1,500 gallons. Foam p roport ioned at
3% would require a total of 45 gallons o f concentrate and
1,455 gallons of water.
It is impo rtant to remember that befo re flammab le o r
combustib le liqu id firefighting begins, adequate foam con -
centrate supply, a sustained water supply, and adequate per-
sonnel and equip ment must be staged at the scene. If foam
firefighting cannot be sustained, it should be delayed until
the requ ired resources are availab le. If foam operat io ns
begin on a spill fire and must be shut down befo re the fire is
ext ingu ished, the fire will break down and consu me the
foam that has been applied. Much o f the fire area that was
ext inguished before the operat ion was shut down will have to
be extingu ished again when operat ions are resu med. The end
result is that foam concentrate is wasted, add it ional
firefight ing time is required, and little was gained by starting
the operat ion without ad equate resources.
Table 17-2 Minimum Application Rates and Discharge Times for Nondiked Spills Using Portable
Foam Nozzles or Monitors
Mini mu m
Ap plication Rate
2
F oa m T y p e g p m/tt
Prot ein and 0. 16
fluoroprotein
AFFF, FFF P, AR-AFFF, 0.10
and AR-FFFP
Alc ohol-resist ant f oams Consult m anuf act urer
(typically 0.2)
AN D P R A C T I C E
Three-Dimensional Fires
Three-d imensional fires involve liquid fuel d ripp ing, pour-
ing, or running fro m one or more horizontal surfaces . These
fires can be challenging because the vertical burn ing liqu id
provid es a constant ign it ion source to the liqu ids on each
level belo w. Successful extinguishment requires proper foam
applicat ion in the correct sequence. Three-dimensional fires
can be relatively s mall, such as those involving with pip ing
that operat es at lo w p ressure, o r they can be large and
difficu lt to fight , such as when a bu rn ing storage tank is
pouring fuel into a ground fire. The fuel source supply must
be shut off as soon as possible to limit the surface area and
depth of the fuel.
Three-Dimensional Fire Tactical Elements
A key tactic is to ext inguish the fire at the lo west level first. If
the fire at th is lo wer level is not ext inguished, it prov ides a
continuous ign it ion source, in the form o f heat and flame to
the fuel at the upper level. Even when the fire at the lower
level has been co mp letely ext inguished, there is the strong
probability that a small fire will persist where the burn ing
liquid falls fro m above and breaks up the foam blan ket. The
size of the fire at the lo wer level and the rate at which that
size increases over t ime will determine when and if addi-
tional foam app licat ion is requ ired to keep the fire area to a
min imu m wh ile the fire at the upper lev el is being
extinguished.
After the fire is ext inguished at th e lo west level, foam
can be app lied to the next horizontal liquid fire. The foam
flo w should reach the fuel surface as gent ly as possible.
Gentle applicat ion will min imize the amount of fuel that
splashes onto the areas below. If the foam flow vo lu me is
excessive and the contain ment volu me is minimal, a large
amount of burn ing fuel may be pushed over the side of the
contain ment and increase the size o f the fire on the lower
level.
Mini mu m
Discharge Ti me Anticipated
(mi n) Product Spill
15 Hydrocarbon
15 Hydrocarbon
15 Polar solvent

As each successive horizontal fire is extinguished, the vol-
ume of vertical burning fuel should decrease. A large-volume,
foam-compatible dry chemical ext inguisher may be effective
in extinguishing these vertical fuel fires. Success in extin-
guishment depends on the volume and volat ility of the fuel
and fire fighters' ability to reach the burning fuel with an ade-
quate amount of dry chemical.
When the source of the fuel is fro m a flange, valve, or
piping break, fire fighters can part ially control the fire by
"capturing" it with a po wer cone o r mod ified fog water
stream. The water stream pattern should be adjusted so that
the fire and fuel are contained inside the water pattern .
Capturing will reduce both the amount of fire at the source
and the amount of ground fire below it . Th is technique also
allows crews to keep the fire away fro m pip ing, tanks, and
vessels that might otherwise create an exposure hazard .
Small leaks near the ground can be contro lled by
hand-lines when such an approach does not put b rigade
members in danger o f operat ing fro m a posit ion in the fuel
on the g round o r under an elevated leak source. Ground
mon ito rs or aerial mon itors can be used to control large leaks
that cannot be controlled by handlines or that are too far away
for handline streams to be effective. A spotter with a clear
view of the leak and fire stream may be needed to direct the
position ing and shape of the stream so as to prov ide optimal
control and captu re.
When fo am and water op erat ions are conducted in the
same locat ion, the streams must be closely coo rd inated to
min imize the destru ction o r distu rbance of the foam b lan ket
that is p ro tect ing unbu rn ed fuel. Reduct ion of t he ground
fire to a manageab le size may allo w foam opera tions to be
run intermittent ly. Th is strategy saves foam sup plies,
extends the amount of t ime crews can operate foam lines,
and facilitates the log istics required to rep len ish the foam
concentrate.
Diked Fire s
Diked or contained fires are defined by NFPA 11 as "areas
bounded by contours of land o r physical barriers that retain
a depth of fuel greater than 1 inch." Diked fires, also referred to
as spill fires in depth, require greater resources and present
potential tactical challenges that may not exist in spill fires.
Fixed discharge outlets and fixed or portable monitors
commonly protect large diked areas. Diked areas can also be
protected by foam hose lines, but this is often imp ract ical
due to the h igh app licat ion rates and extended discharge
times that are required.
Diked Fire Tactical Elements
Successful ext inguishment o f a d iked fire depends on good
preplanning, apply ing the correct amount of foam for the
required t ime, and proper applicat ion techn ique. The area o f
a dike can vary g reatly depending on the volu me of the tan k
or tanks inside the d ike. A properly designed dike will hold
Foam 537
the volume of the largest tank plus 10%. Because a dike has a
known area, prep lanning will ensure that the requ ired
resources, app licat ion rate, and app licat ion durat ion are
identified. The wo rst possible t ime to start making calcu la-
tions is when your world is on fire.
Preplanning
Prep lanning provides the opportun ity to identify exposures
and potential problems that are un ique to the area. Exposed
piping, flanges, fittings, pumps, and meters can create addi-
tional problems that must be addressed before an event if the
tactical p lan is to be successful.
Protection of these exposures should be an early tactical
consideration. Heat from a fire can quickly cause flanges and
fittings to fatigue. Flange gaskets can fail causing additional
fuel to leak into the diked area. Any mechan ical connection
inside the dike has a high potential for failure and is a poten -
tial source o f uncontrolled fuel flowing into the d ike.
In diked areas that provide containment to more than one
tank, multip le failures in pip ing connections may cause the
release of fuel volumes that are in excess of the capacity of the
dike. If the dike overflows, you are faced with the potential of a
running spill fire that could put personnel and equipment in
danger. Fuel burning outside of the dike may also cut off access
routes and prevent personnel from operating foam equipment
from the most effective position. Applying foam to the fuel sur-
face under pipe fitt ings will help to maintain their integ rity
Application Rate and Duration
Application rates and discharge times for fixed foam applica-
tion on hydrocarbon liquids are shown in (Table 17-3). Class I
hydrocarbons are those fuels with a flash point of less than
100ºF; class II hydrocarbons are fuels with a flash point greater
than 100°F Application rates and discharge times are not
shown fo r fu els (po lar so lvent g roup) that requ ire
alcohol-resistant foams. The characteristics of the fuels within
this group vary widely. The manufacturers' recommendations
should be followed. These recommendations are based on
listings or approvals for specific p roducts and foam-making
d ev ices . In all cas es , th e min imu m ap p licat io n t ime is
30 minutes.
Application Techniques
The min imu m application rates and discharge times assume
that the foam d ischarge is reaching the fuel's surface. The
key to successful foam firefighting is putting foam on the
fuel surface in the most efficient and effect ive mann er.
Gentle foam app licat ion is very important. One of the rea sons
that foam application rates are h igher for handline and
mon itor app licat ion is the potential for foam being plunged
into the fuel, wh ich reduces its effectiveness. Foam app lied
fro m handlines and mon itors can also be carried away by
wind and thermal col umns fro m the fire. Foam that does
not reach the fuel surface cannot ext ingu ish the fire. It is
538 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S A ND P R A C T I C E

Table 17-3 Minimum Application Rates and Discharge Times for Fixed Foam Application on Diked
Areas Involvina Hydrocarbon Liauids
M ini m um M ini m um
T y pe of F oam M inim u m Applic at ion D is c harge T im e m in) D is c harge T im e (m in)
Dis c harg e Out let s R at e C las s I H y droc ar bo n C las s II H y droc arb on
2
Low -lev el 0. gpm
1 / ft 30 20
f oam
discharge
Foutlets
oam m onit ors 0. 16 30 20

impo rtant to understand that the min imu m discharge t imes
may not be adequate because wind, thermal updraft, or
plunging into the fuel will reduce the amount of foam reach ing
the fire. Foam not only extinguishes the fire but also pre vents
or reduces reign it ion by suppressing fuel vapors.
Water streams that are used for cooling operat ions must
be coord inated to prev ent d isrupt ing the foam b lan ket.
Personnel should avoid walking in areas where foam has
been applied. This breaks up the foam b lanket, creat ing the
potential fo r reignit ion, and puts fire crews at ris k. Small
areas of fuel may continue to burn where the foam stream
breaks up the foam b lanket. This can be corrected by moving
the foam stream away and allowing the blanket to reseal, thus
ext inguishing the remaining fire. Foam should be reapp lied
as necessary to maintain an effect ive foam b lan ket depth .
Three methods of apply ing foam to the fuel surface are
roll on. bounce off, and rain down. Their effectiveness
depends on the size o f the area obstructions and the amount
of t ime that the fuel has been bu rn ing.
Roll On
Roll on, also referred to as bank in and sweep, is most effective
on spill fires and small dike fires (Figure 17-12). In th is
technique the foam is app lied to the ground in front o f the
spill, allo wing it to bu ild up at the edge o f the spill. The
energy of the stream pushes the foam blan ket out across the
fuel surface. Gentle sweeping of the nozzle fro m side to side
in a horizontal mot ion will cause the foam blan ket to spread
out across the fuel surface. It may be necessary to change
location to ensure the entire area is covered.
To p erfo rm t h e ro ll-o n met h o d , fo llo w t h e s t eps in (
Skill Drill 17-2)
1. Open the no zzle away fro m the spill until foam is
flowing.
2. Move into a safe d istance on the upwind side o f the
spill and open the nozzle.
3. Direct the foam stream onto the ground just in front
of the edge of the spill.
4. Allo w the foam to p ile up and ro ll out across the top
of the fuel until the area is co mpletely covered.
5. Change position as necessary to ensure the foam has
covered the entire area.
Bounce Off
Bounce o ff, also referred to as ban k shot and ban k do wn , is
an effect iv e method of gent ly app ly ing foam when an
o b ject s uch as p ip ing , a v ess el, o r a wall is av ailab le
(Figure 17-13). The bounce-off method allows foam to strike
the ob ject and run do wn onto the fuel surface and spread
out. Th is method is especially effect ive when us ing

( Figure 17-12) R oll-on m ethod. ( Figure 17-13 ) Bounc e-off m ethod.


a straigh t stream to app ly foam. It may be necessary to
bo unce t he foam o ff s ev eral po in ts to ensu re co mp lete
foam coverage.
To perfo rm the boun ce -off method , fo llo w the steps in (
Skill Drill 17-3^:
1. Open the no zzle away fro m the spill until foam is
flowing.
2. Move into a safe d istance on the upwind side o f the
spill and open the nozzle.
3. Direct the foam stream onto an object such as a wall
or tank so that the foam is directed o ff the object and
onto the fuel surface.
4. Allo w the foam to flow across the fuel surface until
the area is comp letely covered. The foam stream may
have to be bounced off several areas of the ob ject to
ensure comp lete coverage and ext inguish ment.
Rai n Down
In the rain do wn method the no zzle is raised up at a sharp
an g le s o t hat th e foam s t ream is d irect ed in t o t he air
(▼ Figure 17-14). This allows the foam stream to reach a
height where the stream will b reak into s maller drops and
fall gently back onto the fuel surface. The nozzle angle may
have to be adjusted to ensure that the foam pattern effec -
tively reaches the fuel area. The rain-down method can pro-
vide an effect ive and fast knockdown. However, the foam
stream may be carried away fro m the fuel surface in high
wind conditions or if the fuel has had an extended p reburn,
creat ing a strong thermal co lu mn . When these condit ions
exist, th is technique may be ineffect ive.
To p erfo rm the rain -do wn method , fo llo w the steps in (
Skill Drill 17-4 >
1. Open the no zzle away fro m the spill until foam is
flowing.
2. Move into a safe d istance on the upwind side o f the
spill and open the nozzle.
3. Direct the foam stream into the air so that the foam
stream breaks up and falls onto the fuel surface.
( Figure 17 -14 ) R ain-down m ethod
Foam 539
4. Allo w the foam to flo w across the fuel surface until
the area is comp letely covered.
5. Adjust your position and the elevat ion of the nozzle as
necessary to ensure comp lete coverage of the fuel
surface.
Tank Fires
Tank fires are so me of the most dramat ic and intense inci-
dents that can occur. Tank fires also require a great amount
of prep lann ing and resource man agement . A tho rough
knowledge of tank construction and the fire effects on dif-
ferent construction types will help reduce the nu mber of
surprises during an incident. Effective protection systems,
resources, and proper strategy and tactics will result in more
efficient and effect ive fire ground operations. The foam
requirements fo r tan ks vary depend ing on the type o f tan k,
the size o f the area involved, and the type of product in the
tank. Typical application rates are:
• 0.10 gp m/sq ft fo r hydrocarbon fixed systems
• 0.30 gp m/sq ft fo r fixed system seal protect ion
• 0.10 gp m/sq ft fo r subsurface in jection
• 0.10 to 0.16 gp m/sq ft fo r hyd rocarbon
spills—portab le equ ip ment
• 0.16 gp m/sq ft hydrocarbon storage tan ks —portable
equip ment
• 0.20 gp m/sq ft polar solvent storage tan ks —portable
equip ment
NOTE: Industry recommends an applicat ion rate of 0.18 to
0.20 gp m/sq ft fo r tan ks larger than 140'.
Preplanning
Tank emergencies and fires requ ire a level of p rep lanning
that exceeds the elements of spill fires and smaller d ike fires
because of the volume of fuel, the size of tanks, and the vol-
ume o f foam and water resources required to bring the inci-
dent under cont ro l.
There are different issues and challenges to be addressed.
Fires in diesel tanks, gasoline tanks, and crude o il tanks are
not the same. Ext ingu ishing t imes are d ifferent , and they
pose different hazards to responding personnel.
The geography o f the area is a crit ical element of the
prep lan . Access and eg ress po ints d etermine ho w and if
you can get close enough to a tank to operate effectively.
Eg ress add resses the qu est ion , can I ev acu ate qu ickly
enough if the incident gets wo rse and puts personnel in
danger? Dirt roads that will support the weight o f fire
equip ment may be inadequate after heavy rains. Facility
drainage is another facto r to be considered. It is important
to evaluate not only drainage capacity for the dike system
around the tan ks, but also d rainage d irect ion if the d ike
should overflo w and the flo w d irection of the tank contents if
the tan k shou ld fail.
How is the facility staffed? If the brigade is fully staffed dur-
ing the day shift, but on ly a skeleton crew is in the p lant at
540 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
other times, the response is going to be delayed until adequate
personnel are on scene. Delays in starting firefighting opera-
tions could result in a longer firefight.
Tank data in the p rep lan is essential. Crit ical questions
can be addressed if the in format ion is in the prep lan . The
type of tan k construct ion, tan k capacity, height, d iameter,
and the capacity o f p iping systems should not be left to
memo ry at 2 o 'clock in the mo rn ing.
Knowing the characterist ics o f the d ike will prevent
unwanted surprises. Having the capacity of the dike, d rain
valve locations, and the drain volu me rates readily available
in the preplan will reduce the chance of overfilling the dike
when foam and water are added to the volu me released by
the tank or process pip ing .
The exposures at the scene will determine the type and
capacity of support activities and personnel required. Tanks,
piping, process units, and structures pose different challenges.
These exposures require different strategies and tactics and
affect the priority order of the incident.
Tank fires are large and co mp lex. Water requirements
may exceed the capacity of a plant water system. Water is
needed for ext inguishment and exposure protect ion. If the
water requirements can't be met , and addit ional water can not
be brought to the scene, the tan k will burn out o r expo sures
will be lost, possibly both.
Large tan ks or mu lt ip le tan ks can requ ire tremendous
volu mes of foam. Fo am flo w calcu lat ions fo r every tan k
and the associated d ike should be calculated and eas ily
ret rievab le fro m the p rep lan . The quest ion "do I h ave
enough foam on hand?" is answered by hav ing this in for -
mat ion before the incid ent. Prep lann ing o f foam require -
ments will also ident ify the need fo r mutual aid or reg ional
foam supplies.
Application Rate and Duration
The firefight ing tact ics det ermine app licat ion rates and
applicat ion du rat ion . Over-the-top foam app licat ion re-
q u ires h igh er rates an d lo ng er app licat ion t imes t han
fixed systems. Foam app licat ion fro m g round monitors and
apparatus also requ ires more personnel. A 120' cone roof
diesel storage tank has a total surface area of 11,500 sq ft.
Over-th e-top o r topsid e foam st ream o perat ions requ ire
0.16 g p m/ s q ft o r 1,850 g p m ap p licat io n rat e fo r a
min imu m o f 50 minutes. The same tank protected by a sub -
surface system requires an application rate of 0.10 gp m/sq ft
or 1,150 gp m for a min imu m of 30 minutes. Detailed listings
for foam applicat ion rates and durat ions for variou s tank
designs, fuel p roducts, and d ischarge types can be found in
NFPA 11.
To calculate the application rate for storage tanks, use the
following steps in ( Skill Drill 17-5 ):
1. Determine the area: 3.14 X rad ius squared (for quick
field calcu lat ions use 0.8 X diameter squared).
2. Determine the foam app licat ion rate: area X rate.
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
3. Determine the required foam solution: rate X duration.
4. Determine the foam concentrate quantity : solution X
foam percentage.
General Tank Fire Foam Tactics
Extinguish dike fires first. If the tank is extinguished before
the dike fire, there is a very good chance that the dike fire
will reign it e th e t an k. Ext ingu ish ing the d ike fire also
reduces the chance of damage to process piping and their
fitt ings located within the dike.
Apply coo ling streams to tan k shells above the liqu id
level. The p roduct in the tan k will prov ide coo ling and act
as a heat sink. Cooling streams applied above the liquid level
will help reduce d istortion and help prevent reign ition. Be
aware of the volume of cooling water and foam co llect ing in
the dike and make p rovisions to pump out the dike to pre vent
overflow.
Apply foam in the most effect ive manner. Foam that
doesn't reach the fuel surface can 't ext ingu ish th e fire.
Whenev er poss ib le, fo am s hou ld be app lied fro m th e
up wind s ide o f the tan k. A llo w th e wind t o h elp carry
foam to the tan k's surface rather than b lo wing it away .
Foam should be app lied fro m outs ide o f th e d ike. It is
dangerous t o put personn el ins id e th e d ike o f a sto rag e
tank. A sufficient vo lu me o f foam must be applied to over -
co me th e effects o f the thermal co lu mn that is g enerat ed
by the bu rn in g liqu id . The int ense heat at and above th e
fuel surface will destroy so me o f the in it ial foam. In it ial
foam application must overco me th is heat befo re the foam
can sp read o ut across th e fuel s u rface an d ext in g u ish the
fire.
Adequate foam supp lies and an un interrupted wat er
source must be available before operations begin. The mini-
mu m app licat ion rate and applicat ion du rat ion assume that
all the foam is reaching the fuel surface continuously. The
actual extinguishing t ime for a tank fire can vary greatly.
Although tanks have been ext inguished in under an hour,
other tanks have required days to extinguish because of their
size, inadequat e water o r foam su pp lies, and the t ime
required to establish enough delivery capability.
Crude Oil Tanks
Crude oil storage tanks present unique challenges and haz-
ards that are not present in other flammab le or co mbustible
liquid storage tanks. One of the major differences between
crude o il and other p roducts is water. Crude storage tanks
contain a layer of water in the tank bottom, and some crude
oils may contain small and fairly thin stratified areas of water
at various levels.
Crude o il is a mixture of light and heavy hydrocarbons
that burn off and separate as the fire progresses. As the crude
oil con t inues to bu rn , the co ld cru de o il belo w the fire
warms up; this causes more of the light product to rise to the
surface and feed the fire. The heavier p roducts in the crude

oil start to bu ild up and beg in to fall do wn th rough the
crude oil below. This heavy layer, called a heat wave , warms
up the crude oil and sends more light fuel to the surface. As
this process continues, more fuel is warmed up, creating a
layer of superheated fuel just below the surface. The heat
wave gets thicker and heavier as it moves toward the bottom
of the tank. Three different events can occur during crude oil
firefighting.
As the crude oil burns, the layer of p reheated fuel below
the surface is hot enough to boil water and can cause water
droplets to flash to steam. Th is causes a frothover of hot
burning crude oil. If foam is properly applied , the froth will
usually stay in the tank. If foam or cooling water is not prop -
erly applied, the froth may float burning fuel over the top of
the tank. The bu rn ing crude o il will spread out in the d ike
and down ditches. Th is is another reason to avoid p lunging
foam into the fuel, to stay out of dike areas and, whenever
possible, to operate uphill.
As the heat wave continues to fall and contacts small lay ers
or pockets of water, a s mall, steam exp losion creates a
slopover. Slopovers tend to be relatively small in intensity.
The steam explosion creates a burp of burning crude o il. The
frequency and size of slopovers are determined by the vol-
u me and nu mber o f water lay ers in the crud e o il co lu mn .
Foa m 541
There could be many of these water pockets or none at all,
depending on the crude o il.
A boil over is the most serious and potentially dead ly
incident at a crude tan k fire. Du rin g th e bu rn ing o f the
crud e o il, the heat wave cont inu es to bu ild up , g ett ing
thicker and heav ier. During this process the fire and smo ke
on the fuel surface show litt le or no change in appearance. If
the fire has not been extingu ished o r if it has not been
possible to d rain the water botto m in the tan k, a bo ilover
will occu r. When the h eat wave co mes in contact with the
water botto m, the water is immed iately heated well above
212°F Th e water flashes to steam with an expansion rat io of
1,700 to 1 and the result ing steam explosion ejects the ent ire
contents of the tan k in seconds. W ithou t kno wing ho w
mu ch water is in the botto m o f the tank, it's not pos sible to
determine how b ig the fireball will be. The fireball can easily
be up to 10 times the tank's diameter. A relatively s mall
120-ft d iamet er tan k cou ld create a fireball over 1,000 ft.
Play ing a water stream up and down the side of the tank
can indicate the level of the heat wave because the water will
either change to steam or rapid ly evaporate. Proper tactics,
adequate resources, and properly trained personnel can help
avert a crude tank fire disaster.

• Foam is a fundam ental flam m able and c om bustible liquids fire -
fight ing t ool.
• Underst anding the c hemistry of foam helps ens ure brigade mem
ber s afety and fire c ont rol.
• Foam is an eff ectiv e tool f or v apor suppression and fire control of
hy drocarbon and polar s olv ent liquids.
• Effect ive firef ighting foam requires the c orrect mix of conc entrate,
water, air, and m ec hanic al agit ation.
• The correct foam type m ust be matc hed t o the haz ard.
• Foam charact eristics differ with the type of foam concentrate and
the perform anc e required.
• Correct foam proportioning m ust be matc hed to the ty pe of
hazard.
• Correct f oam applic ation and duration is necess ary t o extinguis h
a fire or suppress v apors.
• Safety m ust be t he top priority; equipment and tanks c an be
replac ed.
Batc h mixi ng Pouring f oam c onc ent rat e directly int o t he
booster tank of an apparatus.
Boilover Violent ejection of fuel f rom a t ank w hen hot heav y
hydroc arbons contact wat er in a tank bottom, c aus ing a steam
ex plosion.
Bo unce off F oam applic at ion ut ilizing an object to bounc e f oam off of
to gently flow ont o the fuel surface.
B ur nba ck re sistan ce T he abilit y of a f oam blank et t o resist direct
flame im pingem ent.
Drai na ge rate T he rat e at w hic h s olution drains from t he f oam
blank et. For foam qualit y test purposes, it is the time it t ak es for 25% of
the s olution t o drain from t he foam blank et.
Eductor A foam proportioner t hat operat es as a venturi t o draw foam
concentrat e int o the w ater stream.
Fin ishe d f oa m T he hom ogeneous blank et obt ained by mixing w ater,
foam concentrate, and air.
Fl u o r oc h e mic al su rf acta nt A c hem ic al c om p ou nd c ont ain ing
fluorine t hat is us ed t o reduc e s urfac e t ension when diss olv ed in a
solution.
Fo a m c o nce ntrate T he f oaming agent t hat is m ix ed w it h t he
appropriat e am ounts of wat er and air t o produc e m ec hanic al f oam.
Fo a m pr o p orti one r T he devic e t hat m ix es f oam c onc ent rat e int o
a w ater stream in the correct perc entage.
Foa m s oluti o n A hom ogeneous m ixt ure of w at er and f oam
conc entrate in t he correct proportions.
Frot hover A frot hing of burning crude oil c aus ed w hen w at er
contacts s uperheated fuel and flas hes to steam.
Heat wave A build-up of heav y hy droc arbons t hat c ollect as crude
oil burns.
Hy dro lyze d D ec om pos ition of a c hem ic al c om pound by react ion
with wat er.
Misc ib le R eadily m ix es w it h w at er.
Oleo ph o bic Oil hating; hav ing t he abilit y t o s hed hy droc arbon
liquids.
Ox yge nated T o t reat, c om bine, or inf us e w it h oxy gen.
Poly me r A nat urally oc c urring or sy nt het ic c om pound c ons ist ing of
large molec ules m ade up of a link ed s eries of repeat ed s im ple
monom ers.
Pre mixe d foa m M ix ed f oam and w at er us ed in port able ex tin -
guis hers and dual agent systems.
Rain do wn F oam applic ation m et hod t o apply a rais ed f oam stream
to allow t he f oam to gently fall ont o the f uel surf ac e.
Roll o n F oam applic ation m et hod of apply ing f oam at t he f ront
edge of the f uel and allow ing t he foam to flow ac ross the f uel
surface.
Slop over Burps of c rude oil c aus ed by st eam ex plosions w hen
the heat w av e c ont acts sm all areas of wat er in the fuel c olum n below
the surf ace.
Surface tensio n T he attractiv e f orc e ex ert ed upon t he s urf ac e
m olec ules of a liquid by th e m olec ules beneath.
Th er mal c ol u mn H eat ed air t hat ris es abov e a burning f uel.
Vap or press ure T he pres s ure ex ert ed by a v apor.
Venturi A t ube wit h a c onstrict ed throat t hat c aus es an inc reas e in
the v elocity of wat er, creating a low-pres sure area.
Viscosity T he degree t o w hic h a fluid resists flow under an
applied forc e. T he low er t he v isc osity, the easier a fluid will flow.
 Yo u ar rive at the s cen e of a c ontai ne d metha n ol s pil l fire. An oth er e n gi ne has
alrea dy beg u n t o a ppl y foa m t o th e fire. Y ou o bser ve th at the fi re cr e w i s n ot
maki ng a ny pr og ress i n k n ocki n g th e fire d o wn ev en t h ou g h y ou see a g o od
foa m disc har ge. T he b ri gade l ead er o rd ers y ou r cre w to start a ppl yi ng f oa m a n d
sh uts do wn th e othe r e n gi ne c re w's o pe rati on s. After a fe w mi n utes t he s ize of
the fire i s re du ced an d y o ur f oa m bla nket i s flo wi ng o ut acr oss t he fu el su rface,
exting uis hin g t he fire.

1. W hat is t he likely caus e of t he other engine's lack of 3. W hat is t he proportioning percent age required f or
success? this f ir e using AR -AF FF 3% -6% c onc entrat e?
A. The wrong type of foam c onc entrate w as being A. 1%
used. B. 3%
B. The w ater pres sure was too low. C. 6%
C. The proportioning percent age w as too high. D. You c an use either; AR-AF FF is effectiv e at any
D. The chief didn't giv e the ot her crew enough percentage.
time.
4. W hat ty pe of foam c oncentrat e is m ost com m only
2. W hen applied to polar solvents, w hat type of foam us ed on Class A fires?
forms a polym eric m embrane on t he f uel s urfac e? A. Protein foam
A. Sy nthetic foam B. Sy nthetic det ergent f oam
B. Alc ohol-resist ant Aqueous Film -F orming F oam C. Fluoroprotein f oam
(AR-AFFF)
D. Film-F orm ing F luoroprotein Foam (FFF P)
C. Aqueous F ilm-F orm ing F oam (AF FF )
D. Fluoroprotein F oam