Index
A BEopt approaches. See Building energy
Absorption chillers, 485, 497
Active TES systems, 176
Actual mean vote model, 65
Actuators, 119
Adaptive coefficient, 63
Adaptive predicted mean vote (aPMV), 62
Advanced building energy efficiency systems
building loads, 48
design team members, 53
dynamic insulation materials. See Dynamic
insulation materials (DIMs)
energy consumption end-uses, 48
envelope systems, 46
heating and cooling systems, 46, 56
implementation costs, 53
integrated design approach, 54
LED integrated controls. See Light-emitting
diodes (LEDs) integrated controls
lighting systems and appliances, 46
national energy policies, 47
systems approach, 54
thermal comfort. See Thermal comfort
thermo-active foundations. See Thermo-
active foundations (TAF)
whole-building approach. See Whole-
building energy models
Apartment building model, 96
aPMV. See Adaptive predicted mean vote
(aPMV)
Artificial neural networks, 129
ASHRAE Standard 55, 63
B zero energy buildings, 316, 317
Back-pressure turbines, 424
BACnet device, 135
Base bill, 212
Baseload, 237, 238
BCA. See Building and Construction Authority
(BCA)
BEECs. See Building energy efficiency codes
(BEECs)
Benchmarking tools, 35
Benefit-cost ratio (BCR) method, 264
optimization (BEopt) approaches
Billing demand, 200
Biot numbers, 325
BLC. See Building load coefficient (BLC)
Block pricing rates, electric utilities, 206
Bottoming cycle cogeneration system, 423,
424
Breathing walls, 76
Brute force optimization approach, 318
Building and Construction Authority (BCA),
30
Building energy efficiency codes (BEECs),
24, 25
accuracy, 28
affordability, 28
beneficial impact, 28
building rating systems, 29
development process, 27
enforcement phase, 29
implementation approach, 28
mandatory design requirements, 25
performance-based approach, 26, 27
phases and duration, 28
prescriptive-based approach, 26
simplicity and flexibility, 28
Building energy optimization (BEopt)
approaches
brute force optimization approach, 318
energy efficiency measures, 318
genetic algorithm, 319
GenOpt, 318
particle swarm optimization, 320
sequential search technique, 318
Building envelope systems
comparative analysis, 147
cooling season analysis, 145
dynamic insulation materials, 140
GA-based optimizer, 141
heating season analysis, 144
optimization objective function, 140, 141
sensitivity analysis, 149, 150
swing season analysis, 142
thermal conductivity values, 141
611
612 Index
Building load coefficient (BLC), 326
Building Research Establishment’s
Environmental Assessment Method
(UK BREEAM), 29
Building sector
energy consumption, 10
energy efficiency policies
barriers, 22
benefits, 20
building energy codes. See Building
energy efficiency codes (BEECs)
employment creation impacts, 20, 21
energy subsidies levels, 23
holistic design approach, 30
standards and codes, 24
Buy-back rates, 211
C direct normal irradiation levels, 414, 415
Campus microgrids, 223
Capacitor banks, 234
Carbon-neutral residential communities,
Kuwait
building design specifications, 435
electricity production cost, 431
fossil fuel production, 431
Gulf Cooperation Council region, 432
optimization analysis
community size and design, 441
CSP plants, 445
generation technologies, 438
grid electricity price, 441
PV installation costs, 444
recommendations, 449
renewable energy resources, 434
renewable generation systems, 436
CASBEE. See Comprehensive Assessment
System for Building Environmental
Efficiency (CASBEE)
Cash flows, 252
CBL. See Customer baseline load (CBL)
CDD. See Cooling degree days (CDD)
Central communications controller (CCC), 131
Central control unit (CCU), 131
Charrettes, 32
Chilled water
storage systems, 502
utility rate, 221
Chiller-priority control, TES systems, 507
Chillers
absorption chillers, 485
electric chillers, 484
energy performance analysis, 499
engine-driven chillers, 497
multiple chillers, 498
Closed loop system, 119
Coal, 198
Code-required static insulation, 89
Combined heat and power (CHP), 386, 484
Commercial microgrids, 223
Commissioning, 37
Community microgrids, 223
Composite interest rate, 251
Comprehensive Assessment System for
Building Environmental Efficiency
(CASBEE), 30
Compression ignition, 425
Concentrated solar power (CSP) plants
comparative characteristics, 411
components, 406
concentration ratio, 411
efficiency, 420
installation costs, 411
linear Fresnel reflectors, 410
operation and maintenance costs, 413
operation modes, 418
parabolic dish reflector, 409
parabolic trough collector, 407
receiver and heat engine, 419
site selection for, 415
solar irradiance, 420
solar power tower systems, 408
solar radiation requirements, 414
thermal performance, 418, 419
working fluid temperature, 406
Condensing turbines, 423
Constant-air-volume (CAV) control strategy,
165
Constant-proportion control, TES systems, 507
Containerized ice storage systems, 503
Control systems
building envelope systems. See Building
envelope systems
closed loop system, 119
derivative control mode, 127
elements, 118
energy sources, 129
heating coil control system, 120
HVAC systems. See Heating, ventilating,
and air conditioning (HVAC) systems
intelligent control systems, 129
load anticipation, 118
load tracking, 118
model-based controls, 136
open loop system, 119

proportional control effect, 125
proportional-plus-integral control, 127
supervisory controllers. See Energy
monitoring and control systems (EMCS)
transfer function analysis, 120
two-position control, 124
Cooling degree days (CDD), 82, 84
Cooling season analysis, 145
Cool roofs
colored cool roofing materials, 519
dynamic, 524
economic analysis, 530
energy savings potential
building insulation level, 526
building mass, 527
climate, 529
roof reflectance, 528
energy standards, 521
mitigation techniques, 517
negative radiative forcing, 518
properties, 519
reflective coatings, 519
selection guidelines and benefits, 534
static, 522
urban heat island effects, 517
Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE)
program, 478
Corrected PMV model, 62
Crude oil utility rate, 221
CSP plants. See Concentrated solar power
(CSP) plants
Custom budget approach, 27
Customer baseline load (CBL), 212
D energy efficiency, 482
Data transmission medium, 132
Day-type rates, 212
DCRs. See Dynamic cool roofs (DCRs)
DCS. See District cooling system (DCS)
DDC systems, 130
DDS. See Digital data streams (DDS)
Deep renovation programs, 47
Demand shedding, 139
Demand-side management (DSM), 36
electric load profiles, 237
incentive-based programs, 240
load shifting, 239
peak clipping, 238
price-based incentives, 240
strategic conservation, 240
strategic load growth, 240
valley filling management, 239
Index 613
Demand ventilation controls, 166
Derivative control mode, 127
DES. See District energy systems (DES)
Deterministic engineering modeling methods,
550
DHS. See District heating systems (DHS)
Digital data streams (DDS), 537
Dimming controls, 103
Dimming controls for daylighting systems, 154
DIMs. See Dynamic insulation materials
(DIMs)
Diode representation of solar cell, 397
Direct evaporative cooler, 329, 330
Direct-fired absorption chillers, 497
Direct normal irradiation (DNI) levels, 414,
415
Direct steam generation mode, CSP plants, 418
Discounted payback period (DPP), 265
District cooling system (DCS)
absorption chillers, 497
components, 480
cooling demand, 482
cooling load profile, 481
electrical chillers, 484
free cooling, 485
underground piping systems, 513
District energy systems (DES)
components, 479
cost analysis, 488
district cooling system. See District cooling
system (DCS)
district heating systems. See District heating
systems (DHS)
economic benefits, 483
end-user systems for, 487
energy security and resiliency, 483
environmental benefits, 483
load requirements, 481
piping distribution systems, 485
single energy production facility, 482
District heating systems (DHS)
combined heat and power systems, 484
fossil fuel-fired boilers, 484
geothermal energy, 483
heat pumps, 484
solar collectors, 484
underground piping systems, 514
waste-generated thermal energy, 483
waste heat recovery systems, 484
DNI levels. See Direct normal irradiation
(DNI) levels
DPP. See Discounted payback period (DPP)
614 Index
DSM. See Demand-side management (DSM)
Dual-axis trackers, 399
Duty cycling, 139
DX air conditioner and gas furnace, 58
Dynamic cool roofs (DCRs), 524
Dynamic forward models, 70
Dynamic insulation materials (DIMs), 140
breathing walls, 76
climate impact
cooling degree days, 82, 84
heating degree days, 82, 83
insulation levels, 84
economic analysis
annual energy cost savings, 85
payback period, 87, 88
potential energy savings, 85
site energy cost savings, 86, 87
source energy savings, 86
electrochromic widows, 76
high thermal resistance materials and
assemblies, 77
internal heat gains, 74
low thermal conductivity values, 74
occupancy sensors, 76
operating principle, 77, 78
phase-change materials, 76
RC modeling approach
annual heating and cooling energy, 80, 95
cost function, 82
internal loads, 82
multilayer exterior wall, 80
3R2C thermal network model, 78
single layer exterior wall, 79
transient heat balance analysis, 79
two-step R-value control strategy, 80
recommendations, 89
solar heat gain heat, 74
space heating and cooling, 74
static R-value, 74, 75
thermal insulation materials, 77
window-opening behavior, 74
Dynamic inverse models, 68
Dynamic models, 66
E price-based incentives, 240
Earth tube, 57
air temperature variation, 333, 336
cooling effect variation, 336, 337
ground surface temperature, 333
soil surface temperature variation, 333, 334
ECMs. See Energy conservation measures
(ECMs)
Economic analysis
basic criteria, 266
benefit-cost ratio method, 264
boiler retrofit, 252
cash flows, 252
compounding factors
single payments, 253
uniform gradient series payments, 257
uniform-series payments, 254
cost of energy, 265
discounted payback period, 265
energy productivity analysis. See Energy
productivity (EP) analysis
inflation rate, 250
interest rate, 249
life-cycle cost analysis method
annual cash flow, 269
burner–boiler system, 269
cool roof coatings, 270
multiple annualized costs, 268
one single present value, 268
procedure, 268
net present worth, 263
parameters and concepts, 248
rate of return, 264
simple payback period, 265
systematic approach, 272
tax rate, 251
EEMs. See Energy efficiency measures (EEMs)
Effective temperature, 60
EIA. See US Energy Information Agency (EIA)
Electrical and lighting systems
daylighting controls
conventional control strategies, 154
energy savings from, 153
for indoor space, 154
motor duty cycling controls, 151
Electrical chillers, 484
Electric chillers, 496
Electricity. See also Microgrids
demand-side management
electric load profiles, 237
incentive-based programs, 240
load shifting, 239
peak clipping, 238
strategic conservation, 240
strategic load growth, 240
valley filling management, 239
overall consumption and price, 192
power quality disturbances
codes and standards, 235
harmonic distortions, 230

interruptions, 228
mitigation options, 232
transients, 228
voltage fluctuations, 230
voltage sags, 227
voltage swells, 228
voltage unbalances, 230
US electricity generation, 194
utility cost
administrative costs, 199
billing demand, 200
block pricing rates, 206
customer types, 200
fuel cost adjustment, 204
fuel costs, 199
generation plant, 199
innovative rates, 209
monthly billing structure, 202
power factor clause, 201, 202
ratchet clause, 203
rate structures, 200
real-time pricing rates, 211
riders and discounts, 200
seasonal pricing rates, 206
service level, 205
transmission/distribution systems, 199
utility deregulation impact, 194
Electrochromic (EC) coatings, 525
Electrochromic widows, 76
Electronic thermal anemometry, 165
Electronic-to-pneumatic (E/P) transducers, 130
EMCS. See Energy monitoring and control
systems (EMCS)
End-use rates, 210
Energy building stock modeling
bottom–up methods
deterministic engineering modeling
methods, 550
statistical modeling methods, 550
stochastic engineering modeling methods,
552
top–down approaches, 548
Energy conservation measures (ECMs), 576,
577
Energy consumption
building sector, 10
energy productivity trends, 14
final energy consumption, 6
primary energy supply, 2
Energy efficiency measures (EEMs), 55, 355
characteristics, 363
incremental costs, 364
Energy efficiency policies
Index 615
administrative procedures, 19
building sector
barriers, 22
benefits, 20
building energy codes. See Building
energy efficiency codes (BEECs)
employment creation impacts, 20, 21
energy subsidies levels, 23
holistic design approach, 30
standards and codes, 24
criteria, 19
electricity accessibility, 20
Energy efficient cities design
carbon emissions, 471
cooling systems. See Chillers
cool roofs. See Cool roofs
data collection systems, 536
densely populated Asian cities, 471
district energy systems
components, 479, 480
cost analysis, 488
district cooling system, 484
district heating systems, 483
economic benefits, 483
end-user systems for, 487
energy efficiency, 482
energy security and resiliency, 483
environmental benefits, 483
load requirements, 481
piping distribution systems, 485
single energy production facility, 482
electricity consumption, 472
European cities, 471
fossil fuel-fired boilers
energy performance analysis, 492
fire-tube boilers, 491
water-tube boilers, 491
individual building design, 474
smart grids, 537
sustainability, 475, 477
sustainability rating systems, 475
sustainable urban transport, 476
thermal energy storage systems.
See Thermal energy storage
(TES) systems
underground piping systems
district cooling system, 513
district heating system, 514
insulation materials, 512, 516
steady-state analysis, 510
thermal resistance, 511
urban heat island effects, 474
US cities, 472, 473
616 Index
Energy intensive buildings
commissioning and retro-commissioning,
37, 38
demand-side management, 36
energy auditing, 39, 40
energy performance contracting, 36
measurement and verification analysis, 38
utility data analysis, 39
Energy monitoring and control systems
(EMCS)
building envelope systems, 140
central communications controller, 131
central control unit, 131
communication protocol, 135
components and configuration, 132
data transmission medium, 132
demand shedding, 139
design considerations, 133
duty cycling, 139
field interface devices, 131
functions, 140
functions of, 132
multiplexer, 132
partial space conditioning, 140
size categories, 131
Energy performance contracting (EPC), 36
Energy productivity (EP) analysis
building energy efficiency, 276
change in value added, 291
economic indicators, 275
economy-wide, 274
energy efficiency interventions
change in EP, 283
energy use savings and change, 284
threshold of energy consumption, 284
total final consumption, 283
framework, 273
improved designs for villas, 290
macroeconomic analysis, 274, 278
microeconomic analysis, 285
total primary energy supply, 274
uncertainty analysis, 293
Energy productivity analysis approach, 602
Energy purchase rates, 211
Energy resources
annual US energy consumption, 191
coal, 198
consumer price estimates, 191, 192
electricity. See Electricity
natural gas
annual US consumption, 195, 196, 199
average retail prices, 196
commercial general service, 220
monthly utility bills, 207, 208
residential general service, 219
nuclear power, 190
petroleum products, 197
Energy Star Home Performance program, 553
Energy use intensity (EUI), 34, 279, 282
Engine-driven chillers, 497
EPC. See Energy performance contracting (EPC)
ePMV. See Extended predicted mean vote
(ePMV)
Error transfer function, 124
EUI. See Energy use intensity (EUI)
Eutectic salts, 503
Evaporative coolers, 329
Expanded and extruded polystyrene (XPS), 77
Expert controls, 129
Extended predicted mean vote (ePMV), 64
External melt ice-on-coil storage systems, 503
Extraction turbines, 424
F
Fanger’s predicted mean value, 61
Feedback control system, 119
Feedforward control system, 119
Field interface devices (FIDs), 131
Fill factor (FF), 399
Financial incentive rates, 210
Fire-tube boilers, 491
Fixed budget approach, 26
Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS)
controllers, 195
Forward models, 138
Fossil fuel-fired boilers
energy performance analysis, 492
fire-tube boilers, 491
water-tube boilers, 491
Fossil fuels, 5
Fuel-based generation systems
conventional cogeneration systems
bottoming cycle, 423
gas turbines, 426
generator, 423
heat recovery system, 423
prime mover, 423
reciprocating engines, 425
steam turbines, 423
topping cycle, 423
distributed generation technologies
characteristics, 427, 429
energy input/output, 430
fuel cell, 428
overall thermodynamic efficiency, 428
 Index 617

PURPA efficiency, 430 ASHRAE Standard, 162

small and modular generators, 427
technical and the economic feasibility, 428
packaged cogeneration systems, 426
Fuel cost adjustment, 204
Fuel oil utility rate, 221
Full storage, TES systems, 506
Future cost (FC), 250
Fuzzy controls, 129
G passive and active TES systems, 176
Gas-fired boilers, 491
Gas turbines, 426
Genetic algorithm (GA), 319
GenOpt, 318
Geothermal energy, 483
G-function methodology, 93
Global solar radiation resources, 402
Government agencies, 29
Green Building Tool (GBTool), 30
Green Globes, 30
Green Mark Rating, 30
Grid-connected photovoltaic systems, 350
Gross domestic product (GDP), 3, 4
Ground source heat pumps (GSHPs), 90
H HVAC systems. See Heating, ventilating, and
Harmonic distortions, 230
Harmonic filters, 233
Harmonic mitigation transformers, 234
Heating coil control system, 120
Heating degree days (HDD), 82, 83
Heating season analysis, 144
Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
(HVAC) systems
building recovery time
daily average reduction, 161, 162
initial zone temperature, 161
outdoor ambient temperatures, 160
weighting function, 161
cooling/heating central plant optimization
multiple boilers controls, 174
multiple chillers, 173
single chiller control improvement, 172
DDC systems, 130
demand ventilation controls, 166
electric devices, 129
electronic devices, 129
hydraulic systems, 130
indoor temperature, 158
intelligent control environments, 129
outdoor air intake controls
comparative analysis, 162, 163
economizer systems, 162
validity, 165
VAV systems, 162, 165
pneumatic device, 129, 130
radiant slab heating systems, 167
self-generated energy, 130
sensors used for, 119
thermal storage
neural network controls, 181
precooling, 174
Heat pumps, 484
Heat recovery factor, 324
Holistic design approach
computer-aided drafting, 30
conventional design process, 30, 31
electrical engineer, 31
geotechnical/civil engineer, 31
integrated design process, 32
interior designer, 31
landscape designer, 31
mechanical engineer, 31
shell and material requirements, 30
HOMER simulations, 455, 456
Household energy productivity, 286, 287
air conditioning (HVAC) systems
Hybrid power systems
designing phases, 389
economic and environmental benefits, 389
Hybrid system mode, CSP plants, 418
Hybrid ventilation, 322
Hydraulic systems, 130
I
Ice harvesters, 503
Ice storage systems, 503
IDP. See Integrated design procedure (IDP)
Incentive-based programs, 240
Incremental energy charge, 212
Index-type rates, 213
Indirect/direct evaporative cooler, 330, 332
Indirect evaporative cooler, 329, 331
Indirect-fired absorption chillers, 497
Indoor environmental quality (IEQ), occupant
productivity
economic advantages, 577
indoor air quality, 582
indoor thermal comfort, 578
work productivity and maintenance cost, 578
618 Index
Industrial microgrids, 223
Inflation rate, 250
Innovative rates
end-use rates, 210
energy purchase rates, 211
financial incentive rates, 210
nonfirm rates, 211
real-time-pricing rates, 210
specialty rates, 210
time-of-use rates, 209
Input data module, 136
Integrated building automation system (IBAS),
117
Integrated design procedure (IDP), 32, 54
Intelligent control systems, 129
data collection systems, 536
smart grids, 537
Interest rate, 249
Intermediate load, 237, 238
Internal melt ice-on-soil storage systems, 503
Inverse models, 138
Isolated operation, 224
K building type and floor area, 575
KSU two-node model, 62
L research studies and policy assessments, 558
Laplace transform function, 121
Large-scale building retrofit program
annual electrical consumption and peal
demand, 294, 295
cost-effectiveness analysis, 302
economic and environmental benefits, 300,
301
energy efficiency programs, 297
energy productivity analysis, 304
energy retrofit programs, 298, 299
EP analysis approach, 296
implementation considerations, 300
job creation and market potential, 304
Omani construction stakeholders, 295
Large-scale energy efficiency programs
energy building stock modeling
deterministic engineering modeling
methods, 550
statistical modeling methods, 550
stochastic engineering modeling methods,
552
top–down approaches, 548
energy intensive buildings
commissioning and retro-commissioning,
37, 38
demand-side management, 36
energy auditing, 39, 40
energy performance contracting, 36
measurement and verification analysis, 38
utility data analysis, 39
energy productivity-based analysis, 602–604
energy retrofit programs, 605
foundational strategies, 33
housing energy consumption, GCC region,
584
individual energy efficiency strategies, 586
mandatory strategies, 36
nonenergy benefits
real estate asset value, 599
work productivity, 598
occupant productivity
indoor air quality, 582
indoor thermal comfort, 578
work productivity and maintenance cost,
578
residential buildings. See US residential
buildings
retrofit programs, 589
roof-PV installation program, 603, 604
US commercial reference building models
energy conservation measures, 576, 577
renderings for, 576
voluntary strategies, 35
Latent energy storage, 502
Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Design (LEED), 29
Levelized cost of energy (LCOE), 265
Life-cycle cost (LCC) analysis
annual cash flow, 269
burner–boiler system, 269
cool roof coatings
annual cooling electricity savings, 270
NPW analysis, 271
relative energy use savings, 270
simulation-based analysis, 270
multiple annualized costs, 268
office building designs, 365
one single present value, 268
procedure, 268
Life-cycle net zero energy (LC-NZE), 315
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) integrated controls
advantages, 99
daylighting controls, 100
dimming controls, 103
field study analysis, 107, 108
fixtures, 99
iso-illuminance distribution, 100, 101
lighting controllers, 99

modified daylighting factors, 101, 102
ON/OFF electrical lighting control, 102
recommendations, 105
two-stepped control, 102
working area close to windows, 104
working area perpendicular to the window
wall, 105
Linear differential functions, 121
Linear Fresnel mirror-based CSP
system, 410
Low-energy systems
breathing wall systems
building load coefficient, 326
building thermal load reduction, 325
efficiency of breathing walls, 326, 327
heat recovery efficiency, 326
heat recovery factor, 324, 325
simplified house model, 324, 327
thermal load, 323, 324
earth tubes, 333
evaporative coolers, 329
heating and cooling system, 341
natural ventilation
hybrid ventilation, 322
mechanical space conditioning, 321
mixing layer theory, 322
pulsation theory, 322
Sick Building Syndrome, 321
single-sided ventilation, 323
thermal comfort range, 321
volume flow rate, 323
radiant cooling systems, 339
radiant heating systems, 336
M Motor duty cycling controls, 151
Macroeconomic energy productivity analysis
annual variation, 279, 280
building sector, 279, 282
energy efficiency interventions, 283
energy-intensive sectors, 278
energy use intensity, 279, 282
GCC countries, 278, 279
GDP and TPEC, 278
sectorial EP values, 278
Mass flowrate, 391, 392
Maximum adoption scenario, ECM, 577
Maximum power output, 404
Mean radiant temperature, 60
Measurement and verification (M&V) analysis,
38
MEPS. See Minimum energy performance
standards (MEPS)
Microeconomic energy productivity
Index 619
definition, 285
energy affordability, 286
household energy productivity, 286, 287
individual building system, 287
for small retail store, 288, 289
Microgrids
benefits of, 222
components and structure, 222
distributed generation resources, 221
electrical loads, 221
main grid interconnection
advantages, 223
challenges, 226
directly through switchgear, 224
modes of operation, 224
power electronic interfaces, 226
standards, 226
static switches, 224
types, 223
Military base microgrids, 223
Minimum energy performance standards
(MEPS), 24
Mixing layer theory, 322
Model-based controls (MPCs)
applications, 136
building energy systems models, 138
constraints, 136
external and internal disturbances, 136
implementation, 136, 138
optimization cost function, 136
optimization techniques, 139
predictor models, 138
real-time predictive optimal model-based
control, 136, 137
simulation environment, 136, 137
Multifamily residential building, 96
Multiplexer, 132
Multipulse rectifiers, 232
M&V analysis. See Measurement and
verification (M&V) analysis
N
National Energy Modeling System (NEMS),
549
Natural gas
annual US consumption, 195, 196
average retail prices, 196
utility rate
commercial general service, 220
monthly utility bills, 207, 208
residential general service, 219
Natural ventilation, 57
620 Index
Near-optimal analysis methodology
sequential search process, 353
validation, 355
Negative radiative forcing, 518
NEMS. See National Energy Modeling System
(NEMS)
Net present worth (NPW), 263
Net-zero energy buildings, 50
Neural network controls, 181
New predicted mean vote (nPMV) model, 64
Noncondensing turbines, 424
Nonenergy benefits (NEBs), 276, 277
Nonfirm rates, 211
nPMV model. See New predicted mean vote
(nPMV) model
Nuclear power, 190
O Parabolic dish reflector, 409
Occupancy sensors, 76
Office building designs
for Albuquerque, 375
basic features, 359, 360
for Boulder, 376
3-D rendering, 361
energy efficiency measures, 362, 363, 371
France, 358
internal loads, 360
life-cycle cost analysis, 365
for Marseille, 373
optimization analysis approach, 366
for Paris, 367, 370
performance metrics for, 371
representative climatic zones, 359
RT 2012 requirements, 377, 378
for Seattle, 368, 369
sensitivity analysis, 374
for Strasbourg, 374
temperature settings, 360
United States, 358
ventilation rates, 360
ZNE building, 358
Oil-fired boilers, 491
ON/OFF electrical lighting control, 102
Open circuit voltage, 398, 403
Open loop system, 119
Operative temperature, 60
Optimal controls, TES systems, 507
Optimal hybrid distributed generation systems,
Alaska
electrical and thermal loads, 453
electricity and fuel prices, 454
optimization analysis, 455
optimization design approach, 452
renewable energy sources, 451
transmission system, 451
wind–diesel–battery hybrid system
CO2 emissions reduction, 458, 459
mountain village simulation results, 456
recommendations, 460
Outdoor air intake controls
ASHRAE Standard, 162
comparative analysis, 162, 163
economizer systems, 162
validity, 165
VAV systems, 162, 165
P
Packaged cogeneration systems, 426
Parabolic trough collector (PTC), 407
Parallel operation, 224
Partial space conditioning, 140
Partial storage, TES systems, 507
Particle swarm optimization (PSO), 320
Passive solar heating systems, 344
Passive TES systems, 176
Payback period, 87, 88
Payment factors
single payments, 253
uniform gradient series payments, 257
uniform-series payments, 254
PCMs. See Phase-change materials (PCMs)
Peak clipping, 238
Peak load, 237, 238
Peclet number, 324
Petroleum products, 197
Phase-change materials (PCMs), 76
Photovoltaic solar cell
characteristics, 398
concentrated
basic characteristics, 406
concentration levels, 402
efficiency, 404
Fresnel lens, 403
maximum power output, 404
open circuit voltage, 403
optimal concentration ratio, 405
short-circuit current, 403
current–voltage curve, 397, 398
diode representation, 397
dual-axis trackers, 399
electric power, 399

equivalent current, 397
fill factor, 399
global solar radiation resources, 402
maximum power, 399
monthly electricity generated, 399–401
open circuit voltage, 398
short-circuit current, 398
single-axis trackers, 399
Photovoltaic/thermal collectors, 352
Physics-based models, 138
Pierce two-node model, 61
Piping distribution systems, 485
Pitot-tube array, 165
PMV. See Predicted mean value (PMV)
Pneumatic device, 129
Points system, 27
Power coefficient, 394
Power Cost Equalization (PCE) program, 454
Power factor clause, 201, 202
Power quality disturbances
codes and standards, 235
harmonic distortions, 230
interruptions, 228
mitigation options
capacitor banks, 234
harmonic filters, 233
harmonic mitigation transformers, 234
multipulse rectifiers, 232
uninterruptible power supply, 235
voltage compensators, 234
transients, 228
voltage fluctuations, 230
voltage sags, 227
voltage swells, 228
voltage unbalances, 230
Precooling control strategy
energy savings potential, 175, 177
long-term simulation analysis, 175
storage capabilities, 174
typical indoor air temperature set points,
174, 175
Predicted mean value (PMV), 61
Present cost (PC), 250
Price-based incentives, 240
Private agencies, 29
Proportional control effect, 125
Proportional-plus-integral control, 127
Proportional-plus-integral-plus derivative
(PID) control, 127
Prototypical multifamily residential building, 96
PTC. See Parabolic trough collector (PTC)
Pulsation theory, 322
Index 621
R
Radiant cooling systems, 339
Radiant heating systems, 167, 336
Radiative floors, 58
Radiative walls, 57, 342
with cooling tower, 58
with evaporative cooler, 58
Ratchet clause, 203
Rate of return (ROR), 264
3R2C thermal network model, 78
Real-time pricing (RTP) rates, 210
base bill and incremental energy
charge, 212
case study, 213
cost savings, 213
day-type rates, 212
hourly energy cost, 217, 218
index-type rates, 213
total energy charge rates, 212
Reciprocating internal combustion engines,
425
Remote microgrids, 223
Renewable energy systems
grid-connected photovoltaic systems, 350
passive solar heating systems, 344
photovoltaic/thermal collectors, 352
solar combi-systems, 349
solar domestic hot water systems, 348
solar thermal collectors, 345
Renewable generation systems
CSP plants. See Concentrated solar power
(CSP) plants
photovoltaic solar cell. See Photovoltaic
solar cell
wind turbines. See Wind turbines
Residential Energy Consumption Survey
(RECS), 553
Retro-commissioning, 37
Roll-over operation, 224
Rule-based expert systems, 129
S
SCRs. See Static cool roofs (SCRs)
Seasonal pricing rates, 206
Self-certification to owners, 29
Self-generated energy, 130
Sensible energy storage, 502
Sequential search technique, 318
Service level utility cost, 205
Short-circuit current, 398
Short-term weather forecast models, 138
622 Index
Sick Building Syndrome (SBS), 321
Simple payback period (SPP), 265
Single-axis trackers, 399
Single chiller control improvement, 172
Single payment compound-amount factor
(SPCA), 253
Single payment present worth (SPPW) factor,
254, 255
Single payments, 253
Site energy cost savings, 86, 87
Smart grids, 537
advantages, 538
digital data streams, 537
electrical grids, 538
electricity and information flows, 538
vs. traditional grids, 539
two-way communication interactions, 538
Solar collectors, 484
Solar combi-systems, 349
Solar domestic hot water (SDHW)
systems, 348
Solar only mode, CSP plants, 418
Solar power tower systems, 408
Solar Reflectance Index (SRI), 520
Solar thermal collectors, 345
Spark ignition engines, 425
SPP. See Simple payback period (SPP)
SRI. See Solar Reflectance Index (SRI)
Static cool roofs (SCRs), 522
Statistical modeling methods, 550
Steady-state forward model, 69
Steady-state inverse model, 66
Steady-state models, 66
Steam turbines
condensing turbines, 423
cost and performance characteristics, 425
electrical generating efficiency, 424
extraction turbines, 424
noncondensing turbines, 424
Stepped control strategies for daylighting
systems, 154
Stochastic engineering modeling methods, 552
Storage-priority control, TES systems, 507
Strategic load growth, 240
Stricter minimum performance energy standards,
47
Stringent and more rigorous building codes, 47
Super-conducting transmission cables, 195
Sustainable and low-energy communities
combined heat and power production, 386
general design approach, 389
sustainable energy for all initiative, 386
US generating power plants
capacity factors for, 386, 388
capital and O&M cost estimates, 386, 387
LCOE values, 386, 388
Sustainable energy for all (SE4All) initiative,
386
Sustainable urban transport, 476
Swing season analysis, 142
Systems approach, 54
T
TAF. See Thermo-active foundations (TAF)
Tax rate, 251
Technical potential adoption scenario,
ECM, 577
TES systems. See Thermal energy storage
(TES) systems
TFC. See Total final energy consumption
(TFC)
Thermal comfort
actual mean vote model, 65
adaptive predicted mean vote, 62
ASHRAE Standard 55, 62, 63
definition, 60
effective temperature, 60
extended predicted mean vote, 64
Fanger’s predicted mean value, 61
indicators, 60
KSU two-node model, 62
mean radiant temperature, 60
metabolic activities, 60
new predicted mean vote model, 64
operative temperature, 60
Pierce two-node model, 61
Thermal comfort models, 171
Thermal energy storage (TES) systems
charging/discharging, 505
control strategies, 506
cooling applications, 501, 502
cost-effectiveness, 509
heating applications, 501
mechanisms, 502
performance analysis, 508
principles, 504
Thermal insulation materials, 77
Thermal sensation (TSENS) scale, 61
Thermo-active foundations (TAF)
G-function methodology, 93
ground source heat pumps, 90
office building
annual average thermal energy
consumptions, 94, 95
chiller and boiler capacities, 95

cooling and heating energy reduction,
94, 95
EnregyPlus, 93
foundation piles, 93
model input data, 94
variable air volume, 93
recommendations, 98
residential buildings
apartment building, 96
EnergyPlus, 97
G-function approach, 97
multifamily residential building, 96
thermal interactions, 93
thermal performance, 92
three-dimensional numerical model, 92
Thermochromic (TC) coatings, 525
Time-of-use (TOU) rates, 209
Top–down modeling approaches, 548
Topping cycle cogeneration system,
423, 424
Total energy charge rates, 212
Total final energy consumption ( TFCB), 279
Total final energy consumption (TFC)
annual variation, 6, 7
building sector, 6
commercial and public services, 9
energy mix of, 7
residential buildings, 9
resource decomposition, 6
simple linear regression model, 9
TPES/TFC ratio, 8
Total primary energy supply (TPES), 274
average energy use per capita, 4
economic output change, 3, 4
EIA projections, 5
fossil fuels, 5
OECD and non-OECD countries, 5
resource composition, 2
from 1990 to 2015, 2
Total usable useful area ( TUFAB), 279
TPES. See Total primary energy supply
(TPES)
Transfer function analysis
error transfer function, 123, 124
Laplace transform function, 121, 122
linear differential functions, 121
output function, 121
response function, 121
time domain input–output relation, 120
transform domain input–output relation, 122
Transform domain input–output relation, 122
Transient heat balance analysis, 79
Transients, 228
Index 623
Two-position control, 124
Two-step R-value control strategy, 80
U
UK BREEAM. See Building Research
Establishment’s Environmental
Assessment Method (UK BREEAM)
Ultracoolers, 330
Underground piping systems
district cooling system, 513
district heating system, 514
insulation materials, 512, 516
steady-state analysis, 510
thermal resistance, 511
Uniform-gradient present worth (UGPW)
factor, 257, 261
Uniform gradient series payments
energy cost savings, 257
present value for, 257, 260
uniform-gradient future worth factor, 257,
263
uniform-gradient present worth factor, 257,
261
Uniform-series capital recovery (USCR), 254
Uniform-series payments
cash flow diagram, 254, 257
uniform-series capital recovery factor, 254
uniform-series present worth factor, 257, 258
Uniform-series present worth factor (USPW),
257, 258
Uninterruptible power supply, 235
Urban heat island (UHI) effects, 474
US Census Bureau’s American Housing
Survey (AHS) database, 553
US commercial reference building models
building type and floor area, 575
energy conservation measures, 576, 577
renderings for, 576
research studies and policy assessments, 558
USCR. See Uniform-series capital recovery
(USCR)
US Energy Information Agency (EIA), 5
US residential buildings
AHS database, 553
cities and climate zones, 556, 558
Department of Energy
US climate zones, 555
US regions, 555
Energy Star Home Performance program, 553
housing archetypes
East North (Chicago), 561
Middle Atlantic (New York), 560
624 Index
US residential buildings (cont.)
Mountain (Albuquerque), 570
Mountain (Denver), 569
Mountain (Phoenix), 571
New England (Boston), 559
Pacific North (Seattle), 572
Pacific South (Los Angeles), 574
Pacific South (San Francisco), 573
South Atlantic (Atlanta), 565
South Atlantic (Miami), 566
Washington, 564
West North Central (Kansas City), 563
West North Central (Minneapolis), 562
West South Central (Fort Worth), 567
West South Central (New Orleans), 568
housing characteristics, 556, 557
housing stock distribution, 554, 556
new housing sector, 552
RECS database, 553
regional and national retrofit programs, 553
single family detached houses, 554
Utility cost
chilled water and steam, 221
crude oil, 221
electricity
administrative costs, 199
billing demand, 200
block pricing rates, 206
customer types, 200
fuel cost adjustment, 204
fuel costs, 199
generation plant, 199
innovative rates, 209
monthly billing structure, 202
power factor clause, 201, 202
ratchet clause, 203
rate structures, 200
real-time pricing rates, 211
riders and discounts, 200
seasonal pricing rates, 206
service level, 205
transmission/distribution systems, 199
fuel oil, 221
natural gas
commercial general service, 220
monthly utility bills, 207, 208
residential general service, 219
Utility data analysis, 39
Utility microgrids, 223
V
Vacuum insulation panels (VIPs), 77
Valley filling management, 239
Variable air volume (VAV) system, 93, 94
VAV system. See Variable air volume (VAV)
system
VIPs. See Vacuum insulation panels (VIPs)
Voltage compensators, 234
Voltage fluctuations, 230
Voltage sags, 227
Voltage swells, 228
Voltage unbalances, 230
Volume flow rate, 323
W
Waste-generated thermal energy, 483
Waste heat recovery systems, 484
Water-tube boilers, 491
Weibull cumulative distributions, 395, 396
Weibull probability distribution, 395
Wet-bulb efficiency, 331, 333
Whole-building energy models, 55
dynamic models, 66
forward energy analysis model
basic approach, 65
dynamic models, 70
energy simulation tools, 65
steady-state energy analysis, 69
inverse energy analysis model
basic approach, 65
dynamic models, 68
flexibility, 65
regression analysis, 65
steady-state inverse model, 66
uses, 66
steady-state models, 66
Wind–diesel–battery (W–D–B) hybrid
system
CO2 emissions reduction, 458, 459
mountain village simulation results, 456
recommendations, 460
Wind power density, 392
Wind turbines
air mass flowrate, 391–393
components, 391
configurations, 391
power coefficient, 394
power curve and operation regions, 395, 396
 Index 625

turbine power, 393 Z

Weibull cumulative distributions, 395, 396 Zero energy buildings (ZEB), 47
Weibull probability distribution, 395 BEopt tool, 316
wind power density, 392 for energy balance, 315
wind resources, 392, 393 life-cycle net zero energy, 315
wind speed variation, 393, 394 office building designs
in Paris, 368
X in Seattle, 368
XPS. See Expanded and extruded polystyrene site energy, 314
(XPS) source energy, 314