Electrical Power and Energy Systems 43 (2012) 262–279

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Electrical Power and Energy Systems

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijepes

GA based frequency controller for solar thermal–diesel–wind hybrid energy

generation/energy storage system
Dulal Ch. Das ⇑, A.K. Roy, N. Sinha
Electrical Engineering Department, NIT Silchar, Assam, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Wind, Solar photovoltaic and solar thermal power systems are emerging renewable energy technologies
Received 19 July 2011 and can be developed as viable options for electricity generation in future. In this paper, autonomous
Received in revised form 11 May 2012 hybrid generation systems consisting of wind turbine generators (WTGs), solar thermal power system
Accepted 14 May 2012
(STPS), solar photovoltaic (PV), diesel engine generators (DEGs), fuel cells (FCs), battery energy storage
Available online 23 June 2012
system (BESS), flywheel (FW), ultra capacitors (UCs) and aqua electrolyzer (AE) have been considered
for simulation studies. The power system frequency deviates for sudden changes in load or generation
Keywords:
or the both. The comparative performance of the controllers installed to alleviate this frequency deviation
Genetic algorithm
Aqua electrolyzer
for different hybrid systems, is carried out using time domain simulation. In practice, controllers (PI or
Fuel cell PID) are tuned manually which is difficult and time consuming. The computational intelligence has
Diesel engine generator opened paths to a new generation of advanced process control. Here, GA is used for optimization of con-
Battery energy storage system trollers’ gains of the proposed hybrid systems. The simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of
Wind turbine generator the GA based controllers in terms of reduced settling time, overshoot and oscillations. The results are
compared with conventional controllers.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In recent years the increasing concerns about the limited fossil
fuel resources led to the awareness that the amount of energy im-
port should be decreased so as to become less dependent of oil
exporting countries. Further, the impact of fossil fuel on the envi-
ronment, especially the global warming and the harmful effects
of carbon emissions have created a new demand for clean and sus-
tainable energy sources. Wind, sea, solar, biomass, geothermal
powers are sustainable energy sources. Among these, wind and so-
lar have the potential to make significant contribution and hence
assume great importance. Fuel cell (FC) also has the potential [1]
to be considered as one of the green power sources of the future.
Off-grid electricity can be generated by single source system
such as using solar photovoltaic panels, wind turbine generators,
micro-hydro plants, or fuel-powered combustion engine generator
sets, or by combining two or more of these electricity generating
sources in a so called hybrid system. The systems often include
Abbreviations: GA, genetic algorithm; AE, aqua electrolyzer; DEG, diesel engine
generator; WTG, wind turbine generators; FC, fuel cells; FW, flywheel; BESS, battery
energy storage system; PS, power system; PV, solar photovoltaic; STPS, solar
thermal power system.
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9435172774; fax: +91 3842 233797.
E-mail addresses: dulal_nit@yahoo.co.in (D.Ch. Das), anjan_kumarroy@
rediffmail.com (A.K. Roy), nidulsinha@hotmail.com (N. Sinha).
energy storage in the form of batteries. A hybrid system can supply
power AC or DC or both [2]. Component or system control or both
is used to regulate the overall system operation.
Various optimization approaches, such as, genetic algorithm,
particle swam optimization, artificial neural network, are applied
to optimize the gains of the controllers used in automatic genera-
tion control. These techniques have not yet been reported to apply
in the field of hybrid energy systems for optimization of controller
gains. In [3,4] hybrid system studies proportional plus integral (PI)
controller is used to regulate the output powers from distributed
generation system to achieve power balance condition due to sud-
den variations in generation and load. The gain values of PI control-
ler are chosen by trial and error method. In [5] the conventional PI
controller has traditionally been tuned by the method described in
Ziegler and Nichols. The controller gains once tuned for a given
operating point are only suitable for limited operating point
changes. Therefore, the use of the conventional PI controller does
not meet the requirements of the robust performance [5]. More-
over, when the number of parameters to be optimized is large, con-
ventional technique for optimization is certainly not preferred one.
In this article, the genetic PI, PID controllers are tuned using GA
technique. The GA is finding widespread applications in systems
optimizations. As an intelligent control technology the GA can give
robust adaptive response with nonlinearity, parameter variation
and load disturbance effect [6–8]. Basics of genetic algorithm are

0142-0615/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2012.05.025
 D.Ch. Das et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 43 (2012) 262–279 263

Nomenclature

Df system frequency deviation TUC time constant of ultra capacitors

Ksys frequency characteristic constant of hybrid power GAE(S) transfer function of aqua electrolyzers
system PAE aqua electrolyzers power
GSYS(s) transfer function of hybrid power system KAE gain of the aqua electrolyzer
PDEG output power of diesel generators TAE time constant of the aqua elctrolyzer
GDEG(S) transfer function of diesel generator PS total power generation to the system
KDEG gain of diesel generator PL Average power absorbed by loads.
TDEG time constant of diesel generator DPe error in power supply and demand
PFC output power of fuel-cell generators M inertia constant of the hybrid power system
KFC gain of fuel cell D damping constant of the hybrid power system
TFC time constant of fuel cell PWTG power output of wind generator
GFC(S) transfer function of fuel-cell generators GWTG(S) transfer function of wind generator
PBESS power of battery energy storage system KWTG gain of wind generator
PSTPS output power to solar thermal power system TWTG time constant of wind generator
GSTPS (S) transfer function of solar thermal power system PPV output power of solar photovoltaic system
Ts time constant of solar collector(s) GPV(S) transfer function of solar photovoltaic
TT charging time constant of the thermal turbine TPV time constant of solar photovoltaic
KS gain of the solar collector GFW(S) transfer function of flywheel
KT gain of the thermal turbine PFW power of flywheel
GBESS(S) transfer function of battery energy storage system TFW time constant of flywheel
KBESS gain of battery energy storage system
TBESS time constant of battery energy storage system
GUC (S) transfer function of ultra capacitors

illustrated in [9]. The results of applying the genetic PI, PID control-
lers to the hybrid-power system are compared to those obtained
by the application of a conventional PI, PID controllers respectively.
Simulated results show that the GA based controllers provide
improved dynamic performance than fixed gain conventional con-
trollers. The genetic controllers also show better transient perfor-
mance for load disturbances.
2. Proposed hybrid system
The general block diagram of the proposed hybrid system is
shown in Fig. 1. Table 1 shows the parameters [3] of the proposed
hybrid system. The system consists of wind turbine generators,
diesel generator, fuel cell, aqua electrolyzer, solar thermal and bat-
tery energy storage system. The power supplied to the load is the
sum of output powers from wind turbine generators, diesel gener-
ator, fuel cell and battery energy storage system. The aqua electro-
lyzer is used to absorb the fluctuations of wind turbine generator
and produce the hydrogen gas which is used as input to fuel cell
generator. The mathematical models with first order transfer func-
Φ included in study case2.
tions for wind turbine system, fuel cell, aqua electrolyzer, PV sys-
tem, diesel engine generator are shown in this section [10].
2.1. Wind turbine model
The output of wind turbine generator depends on the wind
speed at that instant. The characteristic of wind turbine generator
is illustrated in [3].
The wind turbine system contains several nonlinearities. When
a wind turbine uses its pitch controller to counteract utility grid
frequency oscillations, its output power varies between maximum,
or rated power, and zero power. Hence, the pitch angle setpoint is
nonlinearly limited by these boundaries. The pitch system, which
turns the pitch angle according to wind speed, introduces a nonlin-
earity. The wind turbine can be simplified to a first order system.
The transfer function of the WTG is represented by a first-order
lag [10] as
K WTG
GWTGðSÞ ¼ ð1Þ
sT WTG þ 1
Fig. 2a illustrates the wind farm model; it produces randomly
variable wind power. Random output fluctuation is derived from
white noise block with a low pass filter [11]. This model has been

2.2. Solar thermal power system

Recently, trough solar power and solar power tower are two so-
lar thermal power systems (STPS) that are being explored and

Table 1
Parameters of proposed hybrid system.

Gains Time constants (s)

KWTG = 1.0 KUC = 7/10 TWTG = 1.5 TUC = 0.9
KAE = 1/500 KFW = 1/100 TAE = 0.5 TFC = 0.1
KDEG = 1/300 KPV = 1 TDEG = 2 TPV = 1.8
KFC = 1/100 KS = 1.8 TFC = 4 TS = 1.8
KBESS = 1/300 KT = 1 TBESS = 0.1 TT = 0.3
Fig. 1. Block diagram of hybrid system.
264 D.Ch. Das et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 43 (2012) 262–279
Fig. 2a. Wind firm model.
researched all over the world. They can be hybridized with wind,
fossil fuel, etc. Trough solar power plant consists of large fields of
parabolic trough collectors with the bending of single-direction.
Each collector has a linear parabolic-shaped reflector that focuses
the sunlight onto a linear receiver located at the focus of the parab-
ola to heat working fluid (oil or water) in the pipes into some cer-
tain temperature (393 °C) [12]. Then, the steam is created by the
heat transfer equipment and drive the steam turbine to generate
electricity. Solar power tower use high-temperature heat from
concentrated solar radiation by focusing the radiation on a
tower-mounted heat exchanger (receiver). The system consists of
large numbers of sun-tracking mirrors called heliostats to reflect
the incident sunlight onto the receiver. The heat transfer fluids
(water or other fluids) heated by solar thermal energy in the recei-
ver heats water to generate high temperature steam (up to 560 °C)
to drive the turbine to generate electricity. Currently, the total effi-
ciency of the solar power tower that has been built is about 13%,
and the efficiency of the sunlight collection and heat absorption
is approximately 70%, as in [13].
The changing weather and the alternation of the day and night,
demands heat storage technology to supply energy continuously
like fossil boiler. In heat storage technology the heat energy col-
lected by collector heats the working fluid in receiver, and thus
thermal energy in the receiver is passed to the thermal storage
medium in the thermal storage container. There are three main
thermal storage medium, molten salt, high temperature oil and
water. Because of the storage, power output from the turbine gen-
erator remains constant through fluctuations in solar intensity and
until all of the energy stored in the hot tank is depleted. Energy
storage are very important for the success of solar power tower
technology, and molten salt is believed to be the key to cost effec-
tive energy storage [14].
Fig. 2b. Variable solar thermal power model.
1
1800 s + 1
_ + _
Band limited + +
x X
white noise +
+ _ %
Output
300s
300 s + 1
Initial
sqrt gain
load
Fig. 2c. Variable load model.
These plants are best suited for utility-scale applications in the
30–400 MW range [15]. At present, in Italy, Spain, Japan, France,
and the United States experimental facilities are built to prove that
solar power towers can produce electricity and to prove and im-
prove on the individual system components The list of the solar
thermal power stations include the 354 MW Solar Energy Generat-
ing Systems power installation in the USA, Solnova Solar Power
Station (Spain, 150 MW), Andasol solar power station (Spain,
100 MW), Nevada Solar One (USA, 64 MW), PS20 solar power
tower (Spain, 20 MW), and the PS10 solar power tower (Spain,
11 MW). The 968 MW Blythe Solar Power Project, located in Cali-
fornia’s Mojave Desert, is the world’s largest solar thermal power
plant project currently under construction [16].
The solar thermal power industry is growing rapidly, with about
1.17 GW of concentrating solar power (CSP) plants online as of
2011 [17] 582 MW of them are located in Spain, and the United
States has 507 MW of capacity. About 17.54 GW of CSP projects
are under development worldwide, and the United States
leads with about 8.67 GW. Spain ranks second with 4.46 GW in
development, followed by China with 2.5 GW [17]. In this paper,
we consider the transfer function for the solar thermal power mod-
el as
KS KT
GSTPS ðSÞ ¼  ð2Þ
Tss þ 1 TT s þ 1
Fig. 2b illustrates the solar thermal power system model; it pro-
duces randomly variable solar thermal power. Random output fluc-
tuation is derived from white noise block with a low pass filter. This
model has been included in study case2.
 D.Ch. Das et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 43 (2012) 262–279 265

the solar radiation, and Ta is ambient temperature in degree Celsius.

Start The value of PPV depends on Ta and U because g and S are constant.
For low frequency domain analysis it is represented by a first
order lag transfer function model given as [10]
Create initial
K PV
population GPV ðSÞ ¼ ð4Þ
T PV s þ 1

2.4. Diesel generator

Generation=1
Diesel engine produces the torque, driving the synchronous ma-
chine generating the electrical power output. Because of sudden
changes in load demands by the consumers, it is important that
the diesel prime mover has a fast dynamic response and good
Evaluate fitness capabilities of disturbance rejection.
value A diesel generator is a nonlinear system because of presence of
a nonlinear, time-varying dead time between the injection and
production of the mechanical torque. Engine model gives the
description of the fuel consumption rate as a function of speed
Perform Selection
and mechanical power at the output of the engine. The transfer
Crossover and
Mutation process function describes relation between fuel consumption and engine
mechanical power [21]. In this paper, diesel generator is modeled
by a simple first order transfer function given by [10]
K DEG
GDEG ðSÞ ¼ ð5Þ
T DEG s þ 1
No
Generation=Gen Generation> max.
2.5. Aqua electrolyzer
eration+1 Generation

Aqua electrolyzers are used to absorb the rapidly fluctuating

Yes output power from wind turbine generators and solar thermal
power system and generate hydrogen. The generated hydrogen is
Repalce with new stored in the hydrogen tank and used as fuel for fuel. The decom-
parameter position of water into hydrogen and oxygen can be achieved by
passing the electric current between the two electrodes separated
by aqueous electrolyte. The transfer function model of aqua elec-
trolyzer can be expressed by [10]
K AE
GAE ðSÞ ¼ ð6Þ
End T AE s þ 1
Since a typical AE consists of several power converters, time con-
Fig. 3. Flowchart of GA algorithm. stant of the AE is very small [10].

2.6. Fuel cell

2.3. Photovoltaic power system
PV power supplied to the utility grid is gaining more and more
visibility, while the world’s energy demand is steadily increasing.
With reduction in the system cost (PV modules, dc/ac inverters,
cables, fittings and manpower), the PV technology has the poten-
tial to become one of the main renewable energy sources for the
future electricity supply [18]. The characteristic of PV system is
illustrated in [19]. Large PV system generates dc voltage that is
converted into ac using dc–ac converter. For extracting maximum
power, under a given irradiance and cell-surface temperature, a PV
array should operate near at the peak point of the VP curve. Var-
ious maximum power point tracker (MPPT) techniques have been
discussed in [20]. Power output (in Watts) of a PV array which var-
Fuel cell generates power through the electrochemical reaction
between hydrogen and oxygen. Fuel cell offer alternatives to con-
ventional generators, such as diesel generators, that would allow
power to be produced without noise or on-site pollutants. A typical
fuel cell produces a small dc voltage that is converted into ac using
dc–ac converter. To create enough voltage, the cells are layered and
combined in series and parallel circuits to form a fuel-cell stack.
Fuel-cell developers claim a higher efficiency than traditional com-
bustion technologies. The only drawback, as fuel-cell proponents
Table 2
Parameters of GA.

ies with irradiance and cell-surface temperature, of a PV system is Parameter Value

given by [10] Selection method Roulette
Population size 20
PPV ¼ gSUf1  0:005ðT a þ 25Þg ð3Þ Crossover probability 0.8
Mutation probability 0.01
Maximum no of generation 100
where g is the conversion efficiency of the PV array (9% to 12%), S
Time limit 400 s
(=4084 m2) is the measured area of the PV array, U (kW/m2) is
266 D.Ch. Das et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 43 (2012) 262–279

Table 3
Simulation conditions for each case.

Case Subsystems Simulation time (s) Operating conditions

1. WTG, STPS, AE, FC, DEG, BESS and Load 120 PWTG = 0.5 p.u at 0 < t < 40 s
=0.4 p.u at t > 40 s
PSTP = 0.36 p.u at 0 < t < 40 s
=0.18 p.u at t > 40 s
PL = 1 p.u at 0 < t < 40 s
=1.1 p.u at t > 80 s
2. WTG, STPS, AE, FC, DEG, BESS and Load 400 Randomly variable WTG, STPS and load (Figs. 2a, 2b and 2c
3. WTG, AE, FC, DEG,BESS, FW, PV and Load 120 PWTG = 0.5 p.u at 0 < t < 40 s
=0.4 p.u at t > 40 s
PSPV = 0.2 p.u at 0 < t < 40 s
=0.1 p.u at t > 40 s
PL = 1 p.u at 0 < t < 40 s
=1.3 p.u at t > 80 s
4. WTG, PV, AE,FC, DEG, BESS, UC and Load 120 PWTG = 0.5 p.u at 0 < t < 40 s
=0.4 p.u at t > 40 s
PSPV = 0.2 p.u at 0 < t < 40 s
=0.1 p.u at t > 40 s
PL = 1 p.u at0 < t < 40 s
=1.3 p.u at t > 80 s

0 PID GA

-1
PID

-2

PI GA (dotted line)
-3 PI
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Frequency deviation (Hz)

At t=40s wind power changes from .5 p.u to .4 p.u and

0.4 solar thermal power changes from .36 p.u to .18p.u
0.2
0
-0.2
Load demand at t=80s increased by 10%
-0.4
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (s)
0 PID GA

-0.1
PID
-0.2 PI GA (dotted line)

-0.3 PI
80 80.5 81 81.5 82 82.5 83 83.5 84 84.5 85

Fig. 4a. Frequency deviation.

concede, is that hydrogen is still more expensive than other energy
sources such as coal, oil and natural gas. Fuel cell generator is a
higher order model and has non linearity. For low frequency do-
main analysis it is represented by a first order lag transfer function
model given as [10]
K FC
GFC ðSÞ ¼
T FC s þ 1
2.7. Load model
To examine effects of loading power demand variation a vari-
able load model is developed as shown in Fig. 2c. The random
fluctuation is generated from white noise block, using low-pass
and high-pass filters respectively [11]. This model has been in-
cluded in study case2.
2.8. Battery energy storage system
ð7Þ The short time power fluctuation from wind, solar or solar ther-
mal causes large problems for power systems operation. A possible
solution is storage of wind energy. Due to very good technical char-
acteristics (large energy density, fast access time) the battery en-
ergy storage system has been an effective energy storage
technology to store large amount of wind energy [22]. They can
supply the system with a large amount of the power in a short
 D.Ch. Das et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 43 (2012) 262–279 267

1.2

PS (p.u)
Load demand at t=80s increased by 10%
0.8
At t=40s wind power changes from .5 p.u to .4 p.u and
0.6
solar thermal power changes from .36 p.u to .18p.u
0.4

Error in supply and demand 0.2

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0.2
Load demand at t=80s increased by 10%
0
(p.u)

-0.2
At t=40s wind power changes from .5 p.u to .4 p.u and
-0.4 solar thermal power changes from .36 p.u to .18p.u

-0.6

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (s)

Fig. 4b. Total power generation, error between supply and demand.

-3
x 10
0
PAE (p.u)

-5 PID GA PI GA
PI
-10
PID
-15
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

0.4 PI PID
(p.u)

0.3
DEG

0.2 PI PI GA
P

0.1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0.4
(p.u)

PID (broken line)

0.3
PID GA (solid line) PI GA (dotted line) PI
BESS

0.2
P

0.1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
(p.u)

0.3
PI
0.2 PI
FC

PID
P

0.1 PI
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (s)

Fig. 4c. Power outputs of DEG, BESS, FC and input power to AE.

time, or large amount of energy for a longer period. The battery
energy storage system (BESS) consists of a battery bank and a
power converter [23] that interfaces the battery bank to the auton-
omous utility grid. A higher power capacity can be achieved by
connecting more modules. The transfer function model of battery
energy storage system expressed by first order as [10]
K BESS
GBESS ¼
T BESS s þ 1
2.9. Ultra capacitor
Ultra capacitor or super capacitor also called double layer
capacitor, is an emerging device for energy storage. It stores charge
in a double layer formed on a large surface area of micro-porous
material such as activated carbon [24]. It has specific energy in
the range of 1–10 W h/Kg and high specific power in the range of
1000–5000 W/Kg. The charge/discharge efficiency (85–98%) and
ð8Þ
rate of discharge (0.3–30 s) very high. It offers large capacitances
268 D.Ch. Das et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 43 (2012) 262–279

1.2
1

Power (p.u)
0.8 Load demand

0.6 Wind power

0.4
0.2
Sola thermal power
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (s)

Fig. 4d. Output power of WTG, STPS and load demand.

Table 4
Gains of PI/PID controllers.

Gains Conventional values GA Values

Initial values Final values
Case Case1 Case2 Case1 Case2 Case1 Case2
PI controllers
KpAE 37.765 4.523 0.72973 82.75 43.13781 9.29387
KiAE 78.728 7.632 0.59154 53.50 95.61633 14.6409
KpFC 42.32 13.4087 0.51306 19.3669 49.1506 14.86331
KiFC 31.22 3.22 1.42127 64.892 64.8009 7.9815
KpDG 0.924 18.2187 0.07901 1.799 1.10444 23.16815
KiDG 12.12 51.1674 2.72918 27.336 12.16335 77.22128
KpBESS 68.3613 25.245 0.27692 60.112 80.98984 49.1466
KiBESS 51.8013 22.89 0.49676 23.839 81.40701 56.2557
PID controller
KpAE 38.25 3.25 0.97616 8.78383 51.5119 5.3743
KiAE 13.32 1.32 0.89971 7.49308 30.5922 29.0454
KdAE 3.23 3.23 0.1819 8.21164 5.5998 4.12819
KpFC 26.4087 26.4087 0.1880 3.9685 44.06883 26.94917
KiFC 1.22 2.3063 0.40789 11.7998 13.82331 1.22521
KdFC 48.33 25.2087 0.76931 4.65816 69.06256 39.79462
KpDG 13.2187 23.2187 1.49502 5.50992 32.86629 36.87804
KiDG 33.2187 33.1674 1.91876 8.2296 62.9723 58.7816
KdDG 52.4187 22.4187 1.45962 11.7168 93.25501 48.85845
KpBESS 12.45 12.45 2.98137 4.5548 .30806 47.9564
KiBESS 15.89 15.89 1.1906 10.673 96.3875 35.4999
KdBESS 8.4187 4.33 1.37537 4.1531 17.4479 13.0584

in the order of thousands of farads but at a low voltage of about rotation [28]. When the machine works as generator, the electrical
2.5 V [25]. The combination of ultra capacitors and batteries can energy is delivered to the load. The rotor of a flywheel made of
take the advantage of each kind of device to yield a power source composite materials instead of steel because of the composite’s
of high power capability and longer run time. Neglecting all the
non-linearities, the transfer function of ultra capacitor is given by
Best: 0.076383 Mean: 0.076491
first order lag: 10
Best fitness
K UC 9 Mean fitness
GUC ðSÞ ¼ ð9Þ
T CU s þ 1 8

7
2.10. Flywheel energy storage system
Fitness value

6
The few day power variation can be balanced by hydrogen 5 PI
based energy storage, while the short time turbulent power pulsa-
tion produced by wind turbine generator or solar thermal power 4
system can be balanced by flywheel energy storage drive [26]. It 3
is more suitable for repetitively absorbing and releasing electric Best fitness
2
energy for a short period of time than a battery energy storage sys-
tem [27]. The flywheel energy storage is rediscovered nowadays 1 Mean fitness
for wide range of powers due to its advantages over the other en-
0
ergy storage systems: reliability, long-life, cost, fast response [26]. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Flywheel energy storage systems operate by storing energy Generation
mechanically in a rotating flywheel. The generating motor is used
to rotate the flywheel and to generate electricity from flywheel Fig. 4e. Plot of fitness function value versus generation of PI controller.
 D.Ch. Das et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 43 (2012) 262–279 269

Table 5
Gains of PI/PID controllers.

Gains Conventional values GA values

Initial values Final values
Case Case3 Case4 Case3 Case4 Case3 Case4
PI controllers
KpAE 128.458 454.99 6.139 0.82912 199.724 1151.078
KiAE 165.030 165.03 6.04287 6.0699 14.2427 200.1604
KpFC 346.161 756.594 0.79194 60.6407 1093.392 1459.82157
KiFC 125.781 890.493 12.5062 21.1007 235.783 2475.596
KpDG 438.806 18.806 13.6039 101.603 761.7839 33.633
KiDG 249.846 149.846 6.1856 36.9765 307.2137 179.718
KpBESS 883.791 143.394 15.290 45.3288 1233.473 179.72
KiBESS 222.807 78.134 6.27937 59.7032 299.7437 113.031
KpFW 212.577 12.9208 275.9768 
KiFW 20.804 14.1064 87.8673 
KpUC  45.95  26.3288 223.53
KiUC  120.84 – 59.7032 402.184
PID controller
KpAE 127.354 93.234 0.74396 0.86331 32.4048 116.36
KiAE 124.337 79.234 1.6877 1.7363 7.48314 83.9926
KdAE 111.232 80.234 0.90822 0.46776 73.4854 90.0618
KpFC 121.383 189.234 0.61832 0.74395 301.32 292.9134
KiFC 72.514 60.836 0.59072 0.6490 6.4479 74.1479
KdFC 227.43 115.236 0.27792 0.30614 327.0205 224.6159
KpDG 132.383 187.072 0.66389 1.23508 435.38163 340.888
KiDG 102.332 129.524 1.7228 1.676 235.8074 182.8237
KdDG 261.321 215.437 0.31928 1.9795 415.6806 331.591
KpBESS 42.163 92.543 1.4110 0.62173 80.3064 148.2045
KiBESS 29.343 61.301 0.39014 1.09345 50.289 81.8494
KdBESS 34.312 21.592 1.26201 1.54876 41.0712 23.0866
KpFW 73.263 – 0.18747  36.468 
KiFW 53.343 – 0.01812 – 87.343 –
KdFW 21.982 – 0.77666 – 172.119 –
KpUC – 23.05 – 1.07492 – 27.33
KiUC – 35.259 – 0.57599 – 55.357
KdUC – 37.27 – 1.13049 – 64.025

Z
ability to withstand the rotating forces exerted on the flywheel. In
I¼ X 2 dmx ð11Þ
order to store energy the flywheel is placed in a sealed container
which is then placed in a vacuum to reduce air resistance. The
The solution for a cylindrical flywheel of mass ‘m’ and radius ‘r’ is
amount of energy stored by flywheel may be given by
1 2 1
E¼ Ix ð10Þ I ¼ m  r 2 and E ¼ m  r 2  x2 ð12Þ
2 2
The amount of energy stored varies linearly with the moment of
where I is the moment of inertia and x is the angular velocity.
inertia of the flywheel and the square of its angular velocity. Fly-
The moment of inertia is the integral of the square of the dis-
wheels can be designed for low-speed or high-speed operation. A
tance ‘x’ from the axis of rotation to the differential mass ‘dmx’.
low-speed flywheel has the advantages of lower cost and the use
of proven technologies when compared to a high-speed flywheel
Best: 0.073716 Mean: 0.073822 system. The main disadvantages are less stored energy per volume,
10 higher losses, and increased volume and mass [29]. Since the en-
Best fitness
9 Mean fitness ergy stored is proportional to the square of angular velocity,
increasing the angular speed increases stored energy more effec-
8 tively than increasing mass. But increasing angular speeds results
7 in increased frictional losses and hence thermal problems. With
the help of magnetic bearing technology, the frictional losses due
Fitness value

6 to bearings can be overcome, but at the expense of reliability.

5 The transfer function of flywheel energy storage system can be ex-
pressed as first order lag [10]
PID
4
K FW
3 GFW ðSÞ ¼ ð13Þ
Mean fitness T FW s þ 1
2

1 Best fitness 2.11. Power and frequency deviations

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 In order to provide good quality of supply to the consumers it is
Generation very important maintain the scheduled frequency under varying
demand and supply conditions. Frequency can be maintained at
Fig. 4f. Plot of fitness function value versus generation of PID controller. desired level by maintaining the active power balance between
270 D.Ch. Das et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 43 (2012) 262–279

Load demand (p.u)

1.01
1.005

0.995

0.99
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
0.2
(p.u)

0.18
STPS
P

0.16

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

PWTG (p.u)

0.36
0.34
0.32
0.3
0.28
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time (s)

Fig. 5a. Load demand, output power of STPS and WTG under. Randomly varying conditions.

Df 1 1
Gsys ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ ð16Þ
DPe K sys ð1 þ sT sys Þ Ms þ D
PI GA
0
PID GA 2.12. Genetic algorithm
-1 PI

-2 PID The GA is an optimization technique inspired by the principles

Frequency deviation

of Darwinian Theory of natural selection, a biological process in

-3
which stronger individual is likely to be the winners in a compet-
-4 ing environment. It was first proposed by Holland in 1975 [9].
Since then it has been useful in solving a wide variety of optimiza-
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 tion problem including problems in which the objective function is
1
discontinuous, non-differentiable, stochastic, highly nonlinear, or
0 highly complex problems [30]. Fig. 3 presents an illustrative flow-
chart of the GA algorithm implementation.
-1 The algorithm begins by creating a random initial population.
Then it creates a sequence of new generations. At each step, the
-2 algorithm uses the individuals in the current generation to create
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
the next generation. In order to create new generation, the algo-
Time (s)
rithm computes the fitness value each member of the current pop-
Fig. 5b. Frequency deviation. ulation. Selects parents based on their fitness. Highly fit individuals
have a higher probability of being selected and producing children
the generation and demand. A hybrid system with wind/solar/solar for next generation. The selected individuals are then improved
thermal as one of the generating unit requires special control strat- through application of three basic operators i.e., Selection, Cross-
egies because of highly fluctuating nature of wind. The strategies to over and Mutation. The algorithm is repeated for many generations
be adopted to alleviate mismatch between generation and demand and stops when one of the stopping criteria is met.
can either be by controlling the fuel to diesel electric power-gener- The steps of the genetic PID controllers are summarized as
ating unit or by rescheduling. The conventional approach normally follows:
uses a PI or PID controller. The use of GA based frequency control is
more efficient method. In this paper power control strategy is ob- Step 1: Create a population of initial solution of parameters (Kp,
tained by difference between the power demand reference PL and Ki, Kd). Each parameter in the problem is called as a gene. A
total power generation PS. Chromosome consists of the genes and thus each chromosome
DP e ¼ P S  P L ð14Þ represents a solution to the problem.
Step 2: Evaluation of objective function. In the present problem,
Because system frequency is changed with net power variation, the
Integral Square of the frequency deviation is to be minimized.
system frequency variation Df is calculated by [10]
For each chromosome, the MATLAB model is simulated and J
DPe is computed.
Df ¼ ð15Þ
K sys þ D Step 3: Evaluation of fitness function. The degree of fitness of a
Since an inherent time delay exists between system frequency var- solution is qualified by assigning a value to it. This is done by
iation and power deviation, the transfer function for system defining a proper fitness function to the problem. Since GA is
frequency variation to per unit power deviation can be expressed used for minimization problems, the objective function is the
by [10] fitness function.
 D.Ch. Das et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 43 (2012) 262–279 271

1.004
PI with gains optimized under varying
wind, solar thermal and load (broken line)
1.002

1
PI GA with gains optimized under varying
wind, solar thermal and load (solid line)
0.998

200 205 210 215 220 225 230 235 240 245 250
2
P (p.u)

1
S

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time (s)
1.004 PID with gains optimized under varying
wind, solar thermal and load (dotted line)
1.002

1
PID GA with gains optimized under varying
0.998 wind, solar thermal and load (solid line)

0.996
200 205 210 215 220 225 230 235 240 245 250

Fig. 5c. Total power generation.

-3
x 10
0
PAE (p.u)

-10 PID PID GA, PI GA, PI

-20
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
0.5
PID
(p.u)

PID GA (solid line) PI (dotted line)

0.45
DEG

0.4
PI GA
P

0.35
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

PI GA
(p.u)

0.1
0.08
BESS

0.06
P

0.04 PID GA PI
PID
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
(p.u)

0.04

0.02 PID GA PI
FC

PID PI GA
P

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time (s)

Fig. 5d. Output power of DEG, BESS, FC and input power of AE.

Step 4: Generation of offspring: Offspring is a new chromosome of the fittest mechanism in nature. Following the selection of
obtained through the steps of selection, crossover and muta- parent population, crossover and mutation are performed to
tion. After fitness of each chromosome is computed, parent generate offspring population. The crossover and mutation are
solutions are selected for reproduction. It emulates the survival performed based on the probability of crossover and mutation.
272 D.Ch. Das et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 43 (2012) 262–279

Step 5: Replace the current population with the new Best: 0.056832 Mean: 0.057107
10
population. Best fitness
Step 6: Terminate the program if termination criterion is 9 Mean fitness
reached; else go to step2.
8
In PID controller design methods, the most common objective
7
function are integrated absolute error (IAE), the integrated of time

Fitness value
weight square error (ITSE) and integrated of squared error (ISE), 6 PID
etc. These three integral performance criteria have their own
5
advantages and disadvantages. In this paper, integral of the square
of frequency deviation is chosen as the objective function. 4
Z a
J¼ ðDf Þ2 dt ð17Þ 3 Mean fitness
0
2
Minimize J
1 Best fitness
Subject to
ð18Þ 0
K min
p  K p  K max
p
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Generation
K min
i  K i  K max
i ð19Þ
Fig. 5e. Plot of fitness function value versus generation of PID.

K min
d  K d  K max
d ð20Þ

Typical range selected for each of Kp, Ki, Kd is [2000 to 2000]. Best: 0.09982 Mean: 0.10009
10
The minimization of the objective function or the fitness func- Best fitness
tion is implemented to determine the optimal parameters of PID 9 Mean fitness
controllers. The gains of PI controllers are optimized in the similar
manner. 8
Genetic algorithm (GA) is a computationally simple and power- 7
ful algorithm and has been employed successfully in the field of
Fitness value

sociology, science and technology. However, it has some limita- 6

tions. GA may require long processing time to get a near-optimum
5
solution. Moreover, there is a degradation in efficiency when ap-
plied to highly epistatic objective functions (i.e., where the param- 4 PI
eters being optimized are highly correlated), the crossover and
mutation operations cannot ensure better fitness of offspring be- 3
Mean fitness
cause chromosomes in the population have similar structure and
2
their average fitness are high toward the end of the evolutionary
process [31–33]. However, the scope of the present work is to com- 1
Best fitness
pare the competence of GA with conventional one. This has been
performed using GA Toolbox in MATLAB/SIMULINK considering 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
the following parameters as shown in Table 2. Generation

3. Simulation results and analysis Fig. 5f. Plot of fitness function value versus generation of PI.

In this section, dynamic performances of the proposed hybrid
generation systems are analyzed using time-domain simulation.
The responses of different combinations under various operating
points and disturbance conditions are presented with optimum
gain settings of conventional and GA based PI and PID controllers
respectively. In the conventional optimization approach, a sequen-
tial optimization method is used where one parameter is opti-
mized at a time using ISE criterion keeping the other parameters
fixed. Then this operation repeats for every other parameters in-
tern to complete one iteration of optimization. The following four
cases, as shown in Table 3 are considered for case studies.
3.1. Time-domain analysis:case1
In this case, during 0 < t 6 40 s, the average wind power and so-
lar thermal power is kept 0.5 p.u and 0.36 p.u respectively. Load
demand is 1 p.u during 0 < t 6 80 s. After 40 s wind power and so-
lar thermal power is suddenly decreased to 0.36 p.u and 0.18 p.u
respectively. At t = 80 s load is suddenly increased from 1 p.u to
1.1 p.u. The deviation in generation and load is automatically ad-
justed by fuel cell, battery energy storage device and diesel
generator through the controllers since the wind and solar thermal
generator generate constant power. The power generation in this
case can be expressed by
PS ¼ P DEG þ PWTG þ PSTPS þ P FC  P AE  PBESS ð21Þ
The power system frequency fluctuates due to these sudden
changes in power generation by wind and solar thermal and load
demand. This deviation in frequency is controlled by the control-
lers (PI/PID) and the outputs of system components are automati-
cally adjusted to corresponding values such that the error in supply
demand and the deviation in frequency are minimum. Fig. 4d
shows the step changes in wind, solar thermal power and load de-
mand. When wind power decreased from 0.5 p.u to 0.4 p.u, solar
thermal power reduced from 0.36 p.u to 0.18 p.u after 40 s, and
the load increased from 1 p.u to 1.1 p.u suddenly at 40 s, the power
outputs of the fuel cell, battery energy storage, and diesel genera-
tors are increased to different values for different controllers. Thus,
the mismatch in generation and demand is alleviated. Finally the
frequency settles to a steady state value. The gain values of the
 D.Ch. Das et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 43 (2012) 262–279 273

-3
x 10
6
PI-GA with gains optimized using
4 step change in wind, solar thermal and load
X: 86.69
2 Y: 0.003928
X: 86.53
Y: 0.002428
0

-2

Frequency deviation (Hz) -4 PI-GA with gains optimized undervarying wind, solar thermal and load

80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120

5

-5
0 -3
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
x 10 Time (s)
10
X: 89.27 PID-GA with gains optimized under
Y: 0.006324 varying wind, solar thermal and load
5 PID-GA with gains optimized using step
X: 89.12 change in wind, solar thermal and load
Y: 0.004954

-5
80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120

Fig. 5g. Frequency deviation.

0.4
0.2 PI GA

0
-0.2
-0.4 PID GA
-0.6
-0.8
-1
Frequency deviation (Hz)

-1.2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
1

-1

-2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (s)
PI GA(dotted line)
0

PID GA (solid line) PID

-0.5 PID PI
PI GA
-1 PI
PID GA

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Fig. 6a. Frequency deviation.

controllers obtained through conventional and GA technique and load demand. Input to this AE for the remaining period is zero.
are given in Tables 4 and 5. The power outputs of the fuel cell, bat- Fig. 4a shows the frequency deviation of the hybrid power system.
tery energy storage, diesel generators and input power to AE are It may be observed that that the response of PID controller is the
presented in Fig. 4c. During 4–8 s, AE, which uses GA based PID best amongst PI and PID controllers considered for study in terms
or PID controller, absorbs some power as generation is higher than of peak transient deviation and settling time. Further, it is observed
274 D.Ch. Das et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 43 (2012) 262–279

1.5

0.5

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (s)
PS (p.u)

1.4 PID GA (solid line)

PID (broken line line)
1.3

1.2
PI
1.1 PI GA

1
79.9 80 80.1 80.2 80.3 80.4 80.5 80.6 80.7 80.8 80.9

Fig. 6b. Total power generation.

0.4
(p.u)

0.3
PID (broken line) PI PI GA
0.2
BESS

PID GA (solid line)

0.1
P

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
-3
x 10
0
PAE (p.u)

-2
-4 PI GA PID, PI
-6 PID GA
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

0.5 PID GA
(p.u)

PI
0.4
DEG

0.3
PI GA
0.2
P

0.1 PID (broken line)

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0.4
PID
(p.u)

PI PID GA
PI GA
0.2
FW
P

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

PI GA
(p.u)

0.2
PI PID
FC

0.1
PID GA
P

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (s)

Fig. 6c. Output power of BESS, DEG, FW, FC and input power of AE.

that the performance of all the GA optimized controllers is better supply demand. The plots of fitness function value versus genera-
than their respective counterparts optimized using conventional tion for PI and PID are shown in Figs. 4e and 4f respectively. In all
method. Fig. 4b represents total power generation and error in the cases PID represents conventional PID.
 D.Ch. Das et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 43 (2012) 262–279 275

1.2 X: 81
Load demand Y: 1.3

Power (p.u)
0.8

X: 39.96
0.6 Y: 0.5
Wind X: 77.28
Y: 0.4002
0.4
X: 39.96
Y: 0.2 Solar
X: 47.67
0.2 Y: 0.1014

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (s)

Fig. 6d. Load demand, output power of WTG and PV.

Best: 0.2703 Mean: 0.27141 Best: 0.27895 Mean: 0.27963

10 10
Best fitness Best fitness
9 Mean fitness 9 Mean fitness

8 8
7 7
Fitness value

Fitness value

6 6
5 5 PI

4 Mean fitness PID 4

3 Mean fitness
3
2 Best fitness 2
Best fitness
1 1
0 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Generation Generation
Fig. 6e. Plot of fitness value versus generation of PID controller. Fig. 6f. Plot of fitness value versus generation of PI controller.

3.2. Time-domain analysis: case2
In this study, simulation time considered is 400 s. In order to
examine the effects of practically variable wind, solar thermal
and load power on dynamic performance of the hybrid system,
randomly variable wind, solar thermal power and load model are
considered. These models are shown in Figs. 2a, 2b and 2c respec-
tively. The net power generation in this case also may be expressed
by
PS ¼ PDEG þ PWTG þ PSTPS þ PFC  PAE  PBESS
Fig. 5a shows the load demand, output power of solar thermal sys-
tem and output power of wind generators under randomly varying
conditions. In order to eliminate the mismatch between generation
and load demand, the output power of the battery energy storage
system, diesel generators and the fuel cells are altered by installing
controllers. The power outputs of these generating systems are
changed to different values for different controllers. This in turn
alleviates the frequency fluctuation of system. The output powers
and input power to the AE are presented in Fig. 5d. It is observed
that AE, which uses PID controller, absorbs a small amount of power
as generation is higher than load demand. Input power to AE, which
uses any of the other controllers, remains zero. The plots of fitness
function value versus generation for PID and PI are shown in Figs. 5e
and 5f respectively. Figs. 5b, and 5c shows the frequency deviation,
and total power generation for conventionally optimization
technique as well as GA optimization technique. It is observed that
the performance of all the GA optimized controllers is better than
their respective counterparts optimized conventional method.
However, the GA based PID controller out-performed the conven-
tionally optimized PI, and PID and the GA optimized PI controllers.
The gain values of the controllers obtained through conventional
and GA technique and are presented in Table 4. The initial and final
values of GA optimized parameters are also presented in this table.
Further, in order to examine the robustness of the GA optimized
ð22Þ controllers, their performance with their gains optimized using
step change load, wind power, solar thermal power are compared
with the controllers with their gains optimized under varying load,
wind and solar thermal power. Comparative performance of these
controllers may be observed from the responses of frequency devi-
ation as shown in Fig. 5g. It may be observed that there is a negli-
gible frequency and power difference between the two. This shows
the robustness of the controllers.
3.3. Time-domain analysis: case3
In this case, the hybrid system comprises of wind turbine gen-
erator, solar photovoltaic, aqua electrolyzer, diesel engine genera-
tor, battery energy storage system and flywheel energy storage
system. The combination of photovoltaic power system, wind gen-
erator, diesel engine and energy storage systems increases the
276 D.Ch. Das et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 43 (2012) 262–279

1
PI (broken line)
0.5
PID GA(solid line)
0

PID
-0.5
PI GA (dotted line)
Frequency deviation (Hz) -1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
0.2

-0.2

-0.4
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (s)
0.2
PI GA (dotted line) PID GA(solid line)

-0.2 PID
PI (broken line)
-0.4
80 80.5 81 81.5 82 82.5

Fig. 7a. Frequency deviation.

the power outputs of the fuel cell, battery energy storage system,
flywheel, diesel generators and input power to AE are also in-
2 creased to different values for different controllers respectively.
This in turn, alleviates the mismatch in generation and demand. Fi-
1.5
nally the frequency settles to a steady state value. Figs. 6a and 6b,
1 represents respectively, the frequency deviation of system and to-
tal generation. The plots of fitness function value versus generation
0.5 for PID and PI are shown in Figs. 6e and 6f respectively. The power
P (p.u)

outputs of the fuel cell, battery energy storage system, flywheel,

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 diesel generators and input power to AE are shown in Fig. 6c.
S

Time (s) PI
1.5 PI GA
PID 3.4. P. Time-domain analysis: case4
1.4 PID GA

1.3
1.2
1.1
1 brid system. The net power generation in this case may be ex-
80 80.2 80.4
Fig. 7b. Total power generation.
reliability [34]. The flywheel energy storage system is incorporated
because it is capable of mitigating the short time power fluctuation
due to intermittent generation of wind generator and PV system.
The net power generation in this case may be expressed as
PS ¼ PDEG þ P WTG þ PPV þ PFC  PAE  PBESS  PFW
The power system frequency fluctuates due to these sudden
changes in power generation by wind and solar photovoltaic and
load demand. This deviation in frequency is controlled by the con-
trollers (PI/PID) and the outputs of system components are auto-
matically adjusted to corresponding values such that the error in
supply demand and the deviation in frequency are minimum.
Fig. 6d shows the step changes, solar photo voltaic, wind power
and load. When wind power decreased from 0.5 p.u to 0.4 p.u at
40 s, solar photo voltaic power reduced from 0.2 p.u to 0.1 p.u at
40 s and the load increased from 1 p.u to 1.8 p.u suddenly at 80 s,
In this case the hybrid system considered is same as case3 ex-
cept that flywheel is replaced by ultra-capacitor. In order to exam-
ine the fact that ultra capacitor delivers high power within a short
duration of time during peak load demand it is incorporated in hy-
80.6 80.8 81
pressed as
PS ¼ P DEG þ PWTG þ PPV þ PFC  PAE  PBESS  PFW ð24Þ
The power system frequency fluctuates due to these sudden
changes in power generation by wind and solar photovoltaic and
load demand. This deviation in frequency is controlled by the con-
trollers (PI/PID) and the outputs of system components are auto-
matically adjusted to corresponding values such that the error in
supply demand and the deviation in frequency are minimum.
ð23Þ
Simulation results are shown in Figs. 7a–7f. Fig. 7d shows the
step changes in solar photo voltaic, wind power and load. When
wind power decreased from 0.5 p.u to 0.4 p.u at 40 s, solar photo
voltaic power reduced from 0.2 p.u to 0.1 p.u at 40 s and the load
increased from 1 p.u to 1.3 p.u suddenly at 80 s, the power outputs
of the fuel cell, battery energy storage system, ultra capacitor, and
diesel generators are increased to different values for different con-
trollers respectively. This in turn, alleviates the mismatch in gener-
ation and demand. Finally the frequency settles to a steady state
value. Figs. 7a, and 7b, represents respectively, the frequency devi-
ation of system, total generation. The plots of fitness function value
 D.Ch. Das et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 43 (2012) 262–279 277

1
PI GA (dotted line)

(p.u)
PID GA (solid line)
0.5

UC
P
PI (broken line) PID
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
-4
x 10
(p.u) 0
PI (solid line)
-10 PID GA, PID
AE
P

PI GA
-20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0.06

PID
(p.u)

0.04
PI (dotted line)
BESS

0.02 PID GA
P

0
PI GA(solid line)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

0.1 PI (broken line) PID

(p.u)

PI GA (solid line)
0.05 PID GA
FC
P

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
(p.u)

0.2 PI (broken line) PID

PID GA
DEG

0.1
PI GA (dotted line)
P

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (s)

Fig. 7c. Output power of UC, BESS, FC, DEG and input power of AE.

1.4

1.2 X: 81
Y: 1.3
Load demand
1
Power (p.u)

0.8

X: 11.2
0.6 Y: 0.4993
X: 45.98
Y: 0.4021 Wind
0.4
X: 10.39
Y: 0.1994 Solar photovoltaic X: 96.91
0.2 Y: 0.1

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (s)

Fig. 7d. Load demand, output power of WTG and PV.

versus generation for PID and PI are shown in Figs. 7e and 7f 4. Conclusion
respectively. The power outputs of the fuel cell, battery energy
storage system, ultra capacitor, diesel generators and input power The autonomous hybrid generation/energy storage system re-
to AE are shown in Fig. 7c. quires an automatic generation control system to eliminate the
278 D.Ch. Das et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 43 (2012) 262–279

Best: 0.08786 Mean: 0.088605 method. However, in all cases, the GA based PID controller out-per-
10
Best fitness
formed the conventionally optimized PI, and PID and the GA opti-
9 Mean fitness mized PI controllers. It can be concluded from the simulation
results that GA-based optimization technique is much better to en-
8 able automatic generation control.
7
Fitness value

6 Acknowledgement
5 PID
Authors wish to thank Electrical Engineering Department, NIT
4
Best fitness Silchar, for providing the necessary facilities for completing this
work.
3

2
Best fitness References
1
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6
5
4 PI
3 hybrid renewable energy power generation/ energy storage system – Part I:
Best fitness
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1 Best fitness
0 our planet. UK: Elsevier; 2009.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Generation
Fig. 7f. Plot of fitness value versus generation of PI Controller.
mismatch in supply and demand under varying condition of load
and generation. This paper presents models of an autonomous hy-
brid generation/energy storage system. The studied hybrid system
consists of wind turbine generators, diesel generators, aqua elec-
trolyzers, solar thermal power system, photovoltaic, battery energy
storage system, flywheel, ultra-capacitors and fuel cells. The gener-
ated hydrogen from the aqua electrolyzer is used as fuel for the
fuel cell. The models for wind power, solar thermal and load are
also properly selected to simulate the important performance of
the studied hybrid system.
In order to reduce the frequency deviation i.e., eliminate the
mismatch in supply and demand under varying condition of load
and generation, the output power from the sources is regulated
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