Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

An Overview of Renewable Energy Scenario in India and its Impact on Grid

Inertia and Frequency Response
Mukherjee Debanjan a, Kalita Karuna b, *
a
School of Energy Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Renewables around the globe, provide fuel diversification, energy security and produce little or no emissions
Grid Inertia during the electricity generation. The unavailability of rotating masses prohibits on-grid renewable energy
Energy Storage generation systems from providing inertia during a frequency disruption. This would be extremely unsettling and
Frequency Response
impactful when the proportion of energy in the grid due to renewables is high. India currently, has a 28.04%
Pumped Hydro Energy Storage
Flywheel Energy Storage
share of on-grid renewable energy. The grid infrastructure systems of India would face severe challenges when
Compressed Air Energy Storage the share of on-grid renewables leaps past 50% in the future. Thus, this paper primarily addresses the re­
Battery Energy Storage percussions of increasing share of on-grid renewables in terms of inertia and frequency response in India. The
Ultracapacitors energy scenario of 2040 in India under 80% proliferation of on-grid renewables has been well reviewed in this
Grid Code paper. The novelty of this paper is the narrative literature review of the Indian Electricity Grid Code (IEGC) on
De-loading frequency response which is unique and exclusive to this manuscript. It demonstrates the current strategies
Solar Photovoltaics prevalent in the grid system of India towards frequency response and inertia support. This paper also explains the
Wind Energy
diverse control strategies and energy storage technologies required for adoption with the on-grid renewables in
Renewable Energy
India for frequency response. The other novelty in this paper is the insight about the inertia lost due to an on-grid
Inertia Emulation
Virtual Synchronous Generator 100-kWp solar photovoltaic system to explain the readers about the impact when the integration is hundreds to
Fast Power Reserve thousands of kilowatts.
Synchro-Converter
Primary Control
Secondary Control
Tertiary Control

1. Introduction
All the traditional power systems of the world use fossil fuels to
generate electricity. The environmental concerns related to power plants
involve severe discharge of contaminants such as nitrous oxide, carbon
and sulfur dioxide [1], increase in the acid rain and global warming.
These concerns [2,3] have compelled the countries all over the world to
increase the spawning from renewable energy sources and decrease the
consumption of fossil fuels thereby, mitigating the possible environ­
mental concerns involved with it [4]. Countries like China have set a
target to achieve 35% of its energy requirement from renewables by
2030 [5]. India on the other hand, has an ambition to achieve 175 GW of
installed generation capacity from renewable energy sources out of
which 150 GW is focused exclusively on solar energy generation systems
by 2022. United States of America and Europe has additional targets set
for their renewable energy generation systems [6]. Fig. 1 highlights the
share of renewable energy in 2017 for several countries and their targets
by 2050. The renewable energy sources mostly include solar, wind,
tidal, wave and geothermal energy [7]. Solar and wind energy happen to
be the most feasible and optimistic ones due to their smaller generation
cost and maximum power point tracking ability over a widespread
generation [8,9].
1.1. World Energy Generation Mix
The advancements in technology around the globe and increase in
climate concerns have led to a rise in renewable energy allocation in the
global energy generation blend. Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 indicate how the en­
ergy mix has shifted from conventional generator-based systems to

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: karuna.kalita@iitg.ac.in (K. Karuna).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112842
Received 15 June 2021; Received in revised form 25 July 2022; Accepted 3 August 2022
Available online 25 August 2022
1364-0321/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Debanjan and K. Karuna Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842

Abbreviations Fs Schedule System Frequency in Hz

Offset Provision for Compensating Measurement Error
DC Direct Current FRCE Frequency Restoration Control Error
GW Gigawatt ENTSO-E European Network of Transmission System Operators for
MW Megawatt Electricity
kWp Kilowatt-peak AGC Automatic Generation Control
TWh Terawatt-hour Jsystem System Inertia
GWh Gigawatt-hour Jgenerator Inertia of Single Generator
MWh Megawatt-hour W Weight of Single Generator
KVA Kilo-Volt Ampere R Radius of Gyration
IEA International Energy Agency ωe Electrical Angular Frequency
Mtoe Million tons of oil equivalent ωe,0 Rated System Frequency
OGC Optimization Generation Capacity ωe,1 Initial System Frequency
CEA Central Electricity Authority ωhigh High Frequency
ESS Energy Storage System ωlow Low Frequency
SMESS Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage System Sgenerator Rated Apparent Power of Single Generator
PHESS Pumped Hydro Energy Storage System Ssystem Base Apparent Power of Entire Power System
CAESS Compressed Air Energy Storage System p Number of Pole Pairs
FESS Flywheel Energy Storage System Hconstant Inertia Constant of Single Generator
IESA India Energy Storage Alliance Hsystem Inertia Constant of Entire Power System
PCC Point of Common Coupling Hvirtual Virtual Inertia Constant
ROCOF Rate of Change of Frequency D Damping Factor
UFLS Under- Frequency Load Shedding MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking
IEGC Indian Electricity Grid Code MPP Maximum Power Point
PV Photovoltaic Δf Frequency Deviation
NITI National Institution for Transforming India Vreserve Voltage Reserve
MNRE Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Pg Generated Power
UFR Under-Frequency Relay Pl Power Demand
NR Northern Region Pe Load Independent of the Frequency Deviations
ER Eastern region Preserve Active Power Reserve
WR Western region Pset Set Active Power
SR Southern Region Pmax Maximum Power
NER North-Eastern Region PMPP Maximum Power at MPP
NLDC National Load Dispatch Center ΔPfoutput Frequency Controller Output
SLDC State Load Dispatch Center Phigh High Power
RLDC Regional Load Dispatch Center Plow Low Power
BESS Battery Energy Storage System Kdroop Droop Constant/Droop Gain
ATRS Automatic Turbine Run- Up System Kp Proportional Controller Gain
MCR Maximum Capacity Rating PID Proportional–Integral–Derivative
VWO Valve Wide Open PI Proportional–Integral
FRP Frequency Response Performance β Pitch Angle
AFRC Actual Frequency Response Characteristic ωover-speed Rotor Over-Speed
FRO Frequency Response Obligation ωunder-speed Rotor Under-Speed
ACE Area Control Error ωmax-speed Rotor Maximum Speed at MPP
Ia Actual Net Interchange in MW (positive value for export) DFIG Doubly Fed Induction Generator
Is Scheduled Net Interchange in MW (positive value for PMSG Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator
export) PLL Phased Locked Loop (VSC)
Bf Frequency Bias Coefficient in MW/0.1 Hz (negative value) VSC Voltage Source Converter
Fa Actual System Frequency in Hz

inverter dominated grid systems between late 1990s and late 2010s. The
motive towards achieving clean energy among the various countries
have led in significant renewable energy expansion with considerable
decrease in the inertia constants of these countries.
Fig. 4 below represents the corresponding loss in inertia of different
continents around the globe (except Africa) due to an increase de­
pendency in renewable energy sources between late 1990s and late
2010s [10]. The loss of inertia is depicted by low inertia constant values
in between this twenty-year period. Inertia constant signifies the avail­
ability of active power support in a specified time duration [11].
1.2. Growth of Energy Sector in India (since 1947)
The growth of the energy sector since 1947 in India has been steady
and properly planned. Priorities on developing and strengthening the
grid infrastructure was the primary focus in the initial phases rather than
developing and integrating a large amount of installed capacities of
generation sources of energy. The plan-wise growth of the installed
generation capacities since, 1947 till 2020 has been depicted in Fig. 5
[12].
1.3. Change in Energy Demand for India (2019–2040)

India is presently at the center of the world’s energy mix (Fig. 6). A

2
M. Debanjan and K. Karuna
Fig. 1. Share of renewable energy and target of countries in 2017 and 2050
respectively [159–161].
Fig. 2. World energy generation mix in late 1990s [10].
recent report from IEA suggests that India would incur a change in en­
ergy demand by 644 Mtoe (7.5 GWh) under Stated Policies Scenario
between 2019 and 2040, making it the highest among all the other
countries of the world [13,14]. Moreover, India is likely to achieve more
than 50% of renewable, hydro and nuclear installed power capacity
combined and, 33–35% emissions reductions over 2005 by 2030 [15].
3
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842
Fig. 3. World energy generation mix in late 2010s [10].
1.4. Comparison of Current and Projected Installed Generation Capacity
of India
The installed energy capacity of India is best explained with its grid
capacity of 403.759 GW as of 30th June 2022. The total renewable
energy installation capacity is 113.226 GW as of 31st May, 2022 where
wind and solar have installation capacities amounting to 40.706 GW and
56.951 GW respectively (Fig. 7) [16]. The Draft Report on OGC for
2029–30 from CEA projects a whopping 54% share of renewables in the
total energy generation of India by 2030. The details of the projected
energy capacity are described in Fig. 7 above. The projected total
installed capacity (renewables and non-renewables combined) by 2030
is expected to be 831.50 GW [17]. Coal would have a lower share (32%)
in the India’s generation mix by 2030.
1.5. Energy Storage Distribution of India (2019–2025)
The intermittency and volatility of wind energy and solar photo­
voltaic generation systems is dealt in today’s era with energy storage
solutions. The importance of energy storage is very much crucial for
developing the roadmap towards achieving the ambitious targets of
India.
Moreover, the rising advent of electric vehicles in the transportation
sector of India has confirmed further increase in the demand for
different ESSs in India [18].
In 2018, the demand for energy storage was 23 GWh. IESA estimated
a cumulative potential of 190 GWh between 2019 and 2025 in grid side
applications. The forecast from IESA suggests that the majority of this
energy storage would be dominated by renewable energy integration
with the grid, fast response ancillary services and transmission & dis­
tribution deferral (Fig. 8). The electric vehicle industry is likely to
consume over 110 GWh by 2025 [19]. The segregation of India’s energy
storage in the solar photovoltaic sector for the upcoming years till 2025
has been sharp and confident. India plans to install a 9.1 GWh of energy
storage for concentrated solar photovoltaic installations and 22.09 GWh
of energy storage for distributed solar photovoltaic installation
throughout all the states till 2025 [19]. The details of the roadmap for
solar PV and energy storage for different states of India are shown in
Fig. 9.
The renewable energy-based power systems reduce dependency on
fossil fuels and provide emission free generation [20–23]. The tradi­
tional power systems in coal-based power plants or gas-based power
M. Debanjan and K. Karuna
Fig. 4. Change in inertia constants between late 1990s and late 2010s [10].
Fig. 5. Growth of energy sector in India [12].
plants have synchronous machines connected to the grid. The rotational
masses associated with the machines provide necessary kinetic energy
which is instrumental in maintaining frequency stability in the event of a
load imbalance [24]. However, the absence of rotating masses in the
renewable energy generation systems doesn’t allow them to provide the
necessary real power support needed during a frequency disruption
[25]. Moreover, with increasing proliferation of renewable energy
sources in the generation mix of the worlds’ energy production, the
4
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842
present-day power system is dominated largely by inverter influenced
systems instead of traditional generator based systems [26]. The major
technical issues of an inverter dominated power system involves un­
certainties of highest order, stunted fault ride through capability,
elevated fault current, small generation reserve, and poor power quality
[7]. The degradation of power quality and injection of harmonics due to
the renewable energy generation systems occur at the PCC [16]. The two
major drawbacks of an electrical network crowded by harmonics are
power losses and interferences in the communication systems which
happen to be a major concern in such systems [27–29]. It is therefore,
very much imperative to understand that large integrations of renew­
able energy generation systems weaken the grid by compromising its
frequency stability and transient response [30]. The low system inertia
for such grid systems are characterized by a faster ROCOF which leads to
slipping of relays and a larger frequency deviation (high frequency
nadir) in a small period of time which results in unintentional load
shedding [31]. Hence, grid operators around the world are considering
frequency response as an ancillary service because it is necessary to
develop advanced control techniques and commission new technologies
that enhance inertia on renewable energy integrations to the grid
network. There is no fixed penetration limit for renewable energy
sources into a grid network, the critical limits are determined by voltage
droop controller, frequency controller and transients [32–34]. The
shutting down of thermal plants in various states of India by 2030 would
further take its toll on the grid infrastructure thereby, creating problems
of frequency response during a load-generation mismatch. The
large-scale disengagement of synchronous generators around India
would deprive of the necessary inertia reserve during a frequency event.
UFLS and cascading failures would lead to severe desecration to ma­
chineries leading to corresponding grid failures and blackouts [35].
Synchronous generators in similar situations would act as a cushion by
providing inertia to the grid networks for a minimum time duration
thereby allowing the grid operators to restore the conditions of the grid
back to normal [36].
This paper addresses the concern and impact of large penetration of
renewable energy sources into the grid network of India in terms of
inertia and frequency response. Moreover, it further enlightens about
M. Debanjan and K. Karuna Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842

Fig. 6. India with highest change in energy demand between 2019 and 2040 [14].

Fig. 7. Current and projected installed energy generation capacity of India [16,17].

Fig. 8. Percentage share of energy storage applications between 2019 and 2025 in India [18].

5
M. Debanjan and K. Karuna
Fig. 9. Energy storage distribution between 2019 and 2025 in India [19].
the various control strategies and energy storage technologies that can
be adopted along with the renewable energy systems while integrating
to the grid infrastructure. Section 2 describes the energy scenario of
India in the early 2040, assuming 6.5 annual growth rate with 80%
renewable energy penetrating into the grid. Section 3 explains in length
about the IEGC on frequency response and the various types of fre­
quency control measures that are in operation currently in the power
grid system of India. Section 4 provides an extensive review on the
6
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842
various control strategies and technologies that can be adopted with
solar photovoltaic and wind energy generation systems to provide arti­
ficial inertia to the grid during a frequency event. Section 5 highlights
and describes the various energy storage technologies that can
contribute significantly to the Indian renewable energy scenario apropos
frequency response and grid inertia in the upcoming years. Section 6
provides conclusion to the review work in this manuscript and gives a
glimpse of the inertia loss due to an on-grid 100-kWp solar photovoltaic
generation system. Section 7 provides future work to the review done in
this paper.
2. Indian Renewable Energy Scenario: 2040
The Indian renewable energy scenario in 2040 will focus on a greater
share of solar photovoltaic energy systems and, onshore and offshore
wind energy systems into the grid energy mix as predicted in Ref. [37].
The predictions by NITI Aayog in Ref. [12] suggests that coal predom­
inantly would play as a primary energy resource with its share of
42–50% in the fuel mix to provide for an electricity demand of 25–30%
in 2047. The authors in Ref. [37] have adopted clinical approaches to
explain that the potential energy for offshore and onshore wind energy
are gauged at 1546 TWh and 22,200 TWh respectively whereas the solar
PV generation potential is reckoned to be 20,900 TWh. This leads to the
understanding that India would be more than sufficient to displace the
need of fossil fuels for energy generation by then with further benefits of
reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide. The cost-optimization models
for 80% renewable energy model is adopted in Ref. [37] which assumes
the energy demand growth rate of 6.5% per annum in India. The 80%
renewable energy model applies to an 80% renewable energy scenario in
the India’s energy mix of 2040. The model analyses the actual grid
structure and grid divisions of India, northern regional grid,
north-eastern regional grid, eastern regional grid, southern regional
grid, and western regional grid. Northern, north-eastern and eastern
regional power grids would have a dominant solar photovoltaic gener­
ation capacity of 227 GW, 28 GW and 339 GW respectively whereas the
western and the southern regions of India would have 456 GW and 521
GW of wind energy generation capacities respectively in 2040 as per the
model. The details of the energy generation capacities from different
sources are depicted in Fig. 10. Energy storage would play a crucial role
in the energy mix with higher prominence over the solar hybrid energy
storage in the northeastern region and pre-dominance of other hybrid
storage solutions in the other regions of India. The coal generation ca­
pacity although hasn’t been completely taken off account in 2040 but it
can be identified and envisaged that the energy generation from coal has
taken a backseat considerably if compared to the contributions of coal in
the energy generation of 2020 in India. The development of the trans­
mission infrastructure in the grid network by 2040 indicates that a ca­
pacity of 138 GW of power can be transmitted between the southern and
the eastern region, the highest of the transmission capacities as sug­
gested by Ref. [37] in 2040. The details of the transmission capacities
between the regions have been highlighted in Fig. 11. Thus, for an 80%
renewable energy scenario model for 2040 in India, wind is predicted to
contribute 58% of the total national consumption. Solar (23%), coal
(15%), hydro (3%), nuclear (1.5%) and gas (<0.2%) too make signifi­
cant contributions in the generation mix of 2040 [37].
The cost efficiency of the grid system is improved and enhanced with
investments in energy storage and transmission infrastructure.
Assuming the present-day growth rate of 6.5% on the energy demand in
India as on date, the 80% renewable energy scenario model indicates a
capital investment requirement of 6,50,000 crore INR on wind energy,
2,27,000 crore INR on solar energy, 98,000 crore INR on energy storage
and 2,25,000 crore INR on coal and gas fired plants by 2040. The overall
costs under the 80% renewable energy scenario model is 13, 00, 000
crore INR in 2040 only when the fuel involved (solar and wind energy)
are considered to be free of cost. If the renewable energy costs are
considered to be at a higher end, then the 80% renewable energy
M. Debanjan and K. Karuna
Fig. 10. Regional generation capacities of various energy sources in India (2040) [37].
Fig. 11. Transmission capacities between regions in India (2040) [37].
scenario would fetch 20, 00, 000 crore INR as compared to 13, 00, 000
crore INR. Under the standard model developed in Ref. [37], the
carbon-dioxide emissions are also reduced more than 85% with 80%
renewable energy share in the energy mix of 2040, a development which
India would thrive to achieve at any cost then. Moreover, the costs for
the delivery of power in 2040 from these renewable energy sources are
predicted to reduce by 3,66,000 crore INR due to the infrastructural
developments in the grid power system. The carbon-dioxide emissions
are forecasted to reduce by 3.5 Gt per year under the 80% renewable
energy scenario [37].
The important points to be pondered upon are the resiliency and
robustness of the grid infrastructure to sustain such a huge amount of
energy. Practically, an 80% renewable energy scenario would ensure
commissioning of 750 GW of solar power and 1000 GW of wind power in
2040. India is lying at the needle tip in terms of its trajectory towards a
low carbon future, as of now. In order to accommodate such a huge
7
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842
amount of inertia-less energy into the grid power system, India first, has
to develop its frequency response techniques with emphasis on devel­
oping technologies that can provide inertia to these renewable energy
systems when connected to the grid. The policy makers have to consider
the impacts that would create when large number of renewables is in­
tegrated into the grid network. The present share of renewable energy
into the grid network is 28.04%, formidably less impactful to the con­
sequences when the grid network would house 80% of the renewable
energy with priorities on wind and solar energy sources.
3. Indian Electricity Grid Code (IEGC) on Frequency Response
The IEGC was enforced in 1999 with a generation volume of 89 GW
in India by the Power Grid Corporation of India. With a target set to
achieve 175 GW by 2022, the renewable energy penetration is expected
to increase more than 50% in the coming years. During the high
M. Debanjan and K. Karuna
renewable energy generation season, the grid operators manage the
vulnerability of these sources with minor innovations like forecasting
the solar and wind energy output and using thermal power plants as a
backup in these months. The renewable energy growth curve in India
has already reached an accentuation level where it is extremely
important to adopt well-organized approach for larger adaptation of
renewables like solar and wind energy sources [38].
Fig. 12 explains the frequency response and time frames involved
during a frequency event. The two most important aspects on frequency
response that has been described and well explained in IEGC are the UFR
settings (Table 1) and the activation of primary, secondary and tertiary
reserves for frequency control. The primary response of India for a fre­
quency event involving 4500 MW generating station outage capacity of
a power system and grid infrastructure in India, would never allow the
frequency to dip below 49.50 Hz unless the event involves separation of
systems where there is a generation paucity in any one of the systems.
The grid system of India is divided into five regional grid networks
namely, Northern Region (NR), Western Region (WR), Eastern Region
(ER), Southern Region (SR) and North Eastern region (NER) [38].
The UFLS relays of each regional grid system are set in four stages at
49.2 Hz, 49 Hz, 48.8 Hz and 48.6 Hz. The NR, SR and WR grid networks
have additional df/dt relays. These relays in the NR and WR grid system
are armed at 49.9 Hz for shedding of loads automatically if the ROCOF is
faster than 0.1, 0.2 or 0.3 Hz/s [38]. However, the df/dt relays in the SR
grid system is armed for three stages separately with different rates of
fall mainly, 49.5 Hz at 0.2 Hz/s, 49.3 Hz at 0.2 Hz/s and 0.3 Hz/s
respectively. The SR and NER are buying in regions and hence, there is
an odd chance of islanding due to sudden unavailability of power. Thus,
an important aspect which has to be maintained for these two regional
grid networks is additional response units like governor response and
timely switching of shunt reactor and capacitor banks to avoid over
voltages, load shedding and islanding during the occurrence of a fre­
quency event. Automatic UFLS is another important feature for emer­
gency response in grid operations both at regional and national level.
The first stage of under frequency operation is recommended to raise at
49.4 Hz. The amount of load shedding at regional and national levels can
be decided based on the portion of total load at each stage of
under-frequency similar to the protocols followed in Europe. The
SLDC/RLDC has been bestowed upon with the responsibility to monitor
the loads to be shed and working of the UFR and df/dt relays [38].
It is to be noted that all the states further plan their individual UFR
settings for frequencies below 48.8 Hz and different df/dt schemes based
on the local load generation. PHES and ESS will get automatically
Fig. 12. Frequency response and time frames involved during a frequency event [163].
8
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842
Table 1
Under-frequency relay (UFR) settings under IEGC [38].
Sl. Stage of UFR Frequency Load Shedding (% of All India
No. Operation (Hz) Demand)
1 Stage-1 49.40 6%
2 Stage-2 49.20 6%
3 Stage-3 49.00 6%
4 Stage-4 48.80 7%
Total (Cumulative) 25%
disconnected before the first stage of UFR only if PHES and ESS are
operating in pumping and charging mode respectively. The allowable
frequency band has been nipped from 49.0 Hz to 50.5 Hz in February
2000 to 49.95 Hz–50.05 Hz since February 2014 in the IEGC [38].
The primary control, secondary and tertiary control have been
applied throughout India since April 2016. These controls are imple­
mented to guide back the frequency within the band in 15 min or less in
case of any possible deviation from the band during any contingency
event. It is very much necessary to maintain stringent frequency regu­
lations in the Indian system as it is expected to administer a large
quantity of renewable energy sources into the grid network in the
coming future. The solar, wind or hybrid generation systems along with
their ESSs can be used as a primary response unit by providing active
power support and supplying the remaining energy produced during
certain hours of the day to the grid without limiting them to restrict their
output up to the installed capacity. IEGC regulates stringently on the
commissioning of solar, wind or hybrid plants after 31st March 2022. It
mandates that these plants should have the provision to impart primary
response either through an individual BESS or a common BESS installed
at the pooling station [38].
3.1. Primary Control
Primary control is active power support initiated automatically in
the occasion of a frequency disturbance by the turbine speed governors
or frequency controllers of a generating station. These governors are
kept in operation always with droop settings of 3–6% as per re­
quirements for different categories mentioned in Table 2.
IEGC ensures that the action of the governor in primary control will
not be limited in any possible circumstances through load limiter, co­
ordinated control system, turbine supervisory control without time de­
lays and ATRS of any sort. Moreover, voltage limiter, power factor
controller or reactive power limiter or, in case of renewable energy
M. Debanjan and K. Karuna Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842

Table 2 that is being monitored and acted upon by the control center. These
Primary response range of various generating stations [38]. signals are accordingly transmitted to the generating stations for
Sl. Fuel/Source Min. Capacity/ Upper ceiling limit (% response of appropriate magnitude in order to reinstate the frequency
No. Requirement to fall in of MCR) back to the normal [38]. The ACE is calculated from the formula below.
Primary Response
purview ACE = ​ (Ia − ​ Is ) ​ − ​ 10 × Bf × (Fa –Fs ) ​ + ​ Offset ​ [38]
1 Wind/Solar Capacity of Generating 110 (based on The secondary control under IEGC focuses on the estimation of sec­
(commissioned station more than 10 available wind speed ondary reserves which needs to be assigned impartially among all the
between Aug 6, MW and connected at and capacity in case of
2019–31st March 33 kV and above wind plants and solar
control areas. IEGC follows and acknowledges the ENTSOE System
2022) insolation in case of Operation Guidelines which specifically designs the secondary reserve
solar plants) based on 99 percentiles of the FRCE which can be both positive and
2 Wind/Solar/Hybrid Capacity of Generating 105 negative. Weather and such other constraints effect the secondary re­
(commissioned after station more than 10
serves and as such these constraints are taken care of before designing
March 31, 2022) * MW and connected at
33 kV and above the secondary reserves. Secondary control through ESSs is also highly
3 Hydro 25 MW & above & non- 110 recommended in this regard. The SLDCs/RLDCs across India estimates
canal based the secondary reserves and submit it to the NLDC which are to be
4 Coal/Lignite Based 200 MW and above 105 maintained in the control areas at the commencing of every financial
5 Gas based Gas Turbine above 50 105 (corrected for
MW ambient temperature)
year [38].
The AGC is an important strategy under secondary control of the
*All the solar, wind and hybrid generating stations accredited post March 31, IEGC. AGC is activated within 30 s of the ACE of a specific control area,
2022 will have the provision to deliver primary response individually through
going above the minimum threshold limit of ± 10 MW and would be
BESS or through a common BESS positioned at its pooling station.
completely deployed within 15 min. It would remain so for the next 30
min. The un-requisitioned surplus of five power plants, one in each grid
sources, shall not repress the primary frequency response within its regions, has been regulated to be used as AGC during the activation of
purview. The dead band for the frequency controller is not permitted to secondary reserves in the occasion of a frequency deviation. All the
exceed ± 0.03 Hz. The generating stations introduced in Table 2 shall generating resources within the control areas are entitled to be used for
have the capability to ramp up to 105%–110% of the MCR during a AGC. ESSs like BESS and similar technologies can be a good option to
sudden fall in frequency [38]. The generating stations, after providing provide frequency response as AGC where, generation assets are not
sufficient active power support can restore back to primal level at a rate available within the control area. There are certain modes in which the
of 1% per minute incase increased generation is not sustainable. The AGC operates. These modes can be defined below [38].
thermal and hydro power plants are not required to operate in VWO
mode in both full load or part load, and is regulated to provide a fixed • Tie-line Bias Mode: In this mode, the AGC is correcting the area
margin for active power support in terms of governor action. The pri­ control error as per the equation mentioned above, taking in account
mary reserves are set to be activated within few seconds of the deviation the area interchange and frequency deviation.
from the reference frequency of 50 Hz [38]. The maximum steady state • Frequency Sensitive Mode: In this mode, AGC operates by ignoring
frequency is not allowed to go past 0.30 Hz from the reference contin­ the area interchange deviation meaning flat frequency control.
gency. A minimum inertia has to be maintained so that the frequency • Area Interchange Mode: In this mode, AGC operates by ignoring the
nadir remains above the threshold set for UFLS after any kind of a fre­ frequency deviation meaning flat tie-line control.
quency event. This minimum inertia is assessed and estimated by NLDC
in coordination with RLDC/SLDC. The primary response is set to attain 3.3. Tertiary Control
its maximum within 30 sof the contingency event and shall remain so till
5 min [38]. The frequency response performance of a control area is The tertiary control under frequency response is kept as a reserve to
assessed and calculated based on the reportable events in that control be deployed only in response to certain contingencies specified in the
area as per the following formula, IEGC. The tertiary reserve is activated only when the secondary reserve
FRP ​ = ​ AFRC/ ​ FRO[38] is needed to be reinstated fully to its primeval desired level for prepa­
ration of the next fortuity [38]. The tertiary reserve has to be scheduled
The control areas under RLDCs/SLDCs shall evaluate the primary from the generating units, ESS and demand response units at the
frequency response characteristics of the areas as per the median FRP regional and state control area level. The reserve has to be equal or
annually, after considering a minimum of 10 events as per the yardsticks greater than the secondary reserve a per IEGC. It is activated manually
mentioned in Table 3 [38]. within 15 min from the instruction of the operator from the allocated
load dispatch center with provision for delivering inertia for 60 min. The
3.2. Secondary Control instructions for tertiary reserve deployment from any load dispatch
center based on the following criteria [38]:
Secondary control is automatic active power control at control area
level to regulate the power reserved for any frequency event there i. If ACE of more than 100 MW persists in excess of 15 min in one
bringing down the control area error close to zero. The deviation of the direction
control area error from zero produces signals within the control area ii. Generation or load loss surpassing 100 MW in the control area
iii. Continuous deployment of secondary reserve in one direction for
Table 3 more than 15 min beyond 100 MW
FRP criteria [38]. iv. Mitigation of local congestion due to transmission lines
Sl. No. Performance Grading

1 FRP ≥ 1 Excellent
The secondary and tertiary reserve is to be arranged by the RLDC and
2 0.85 ≤ FRP <1 Good SLDC as per IEGC and the performance of the control areas under sec­
3 0.75 ≤ FRP <0.85 Average ondary and tertiary control is evaluated by NLDC.
4 0.5 ≤ FRP <0.75 Below Average
5 FRP <0.5 Poor

9
M. Debanjan and K. Karuna Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842

4. Grid Inertia and Generation Systems: Technological Review From Eqs. (5) and (6), the swing equation can be derived which
represents the motion of the synchronous generator, mathematically.
4.1. Traditional Power Systems Hence, the ROCOF can be described in terms of damping factor below as
[10],
The traditional power systems used non-renewable resources (like
d ωe,1 Pg − Pe
coal and natural gas), nuclear fuels and hydel power to generate energy. = ( ) (7)
dt 2. Hsystem + D
The turbine and the synchronous generator attached together play a
pivotal role in the stability of the power systems. The rotating masses are It is worth noting that the initial frequency response of the syn­
coupled into a single due to two important torques working in opposi­ chronous generator is due to the stored kinetic energy of it at the rated
tion to each other, namely, the electromagnetic and mechanical torque frequency [42]. Table 4 represents the different inertia constant values
of the generator and turbine respectively. The synchronous generator of different traditional power systems and Table 5 represents the
plays an important role in maintaining inertia of the power system. different damping factor values over different analyses of the power
During periods of load and generation mismatch, the synchronous system.
generator either discharge or absorb kinetic energy to maintain the
frequency within its limits thereby, preventing a tentative grid collapse 4.1.1. Grid Inertia in India
or blackout [39]. The synchronous generators usually vary their rota­ The inertia constant of the traditional power plants in India depends
tional speed in order to stabilize the imbalance in the frequency by on the moment of inertia, rated speed and apparent power capacity of
regulating the kinetic energy [40]. The resistance to the change in the rotating masses connected to the regional grid networks in India. The
rotational speed of synchronous generators in traditional power systems moment of inertia is calculated in the Indian grid system as per the
is known as inertia [41]. For a general rule of thumb, it is ascertained following equation [61]:
that an increase in load demand would decrease the frequency and an
increase in load supply would increase the frequency. WR2
Jgenerator = x 1.356 (8)
The variation in frequency after a notable generation-demand 32.2
mismatch is given by Ref. [11]: The value of inertia constant fluctuates for different generators as the
( ) mass of the rotating shaft and speed of the machines vary accordingly.
d 1.Jsystem .ωe 2
Pg − Pl = 2 (1) Steam turbines have more stages thereby contributing more mass of the
dt rotating machine towards providing inertia to the grid. Thus, steam
Jsystem refers to the combined inertia of all the generators in the turbines have relatively higher inertia constants than gas turbines of the
power system. The right-hand side of the equation determines the de­ same capacity. In India, the inertia constants of thermal units vary
rivative of the kinetic energy stored in the generators of the power within the range of 2–9 s. The inertia constant varies between 2.5 and 6 s
system. The kinetic energy of a generator is proportional to its power for thermal units at 3000 rpm, 4–10 s for thermal units running at 1500
rating and is known as the inertia constant, Hconstant defined by [11]. rpm and 2–4 s for hydro generation units. The inertia constant values
(
/
) increase to 10 s if the thermal units use a four-pole generator [61].
Jgenerator 2
p ωe,0 2 In a multimachine system, the combined inertia constant value in
Hconstant = . (2)
2 Sgenerator India is obtained from the equation below [61],
∑( )
Eq. (2) mentioned above clearly indicated that the inertia constant, Hgenerator . Sgenerator
Hsystem = i (9)
Hconstant is inversely proportional to the rated power of the generator and Ssystem
generally lies within 10 s. Now, combining both the above Eqs. (1) and
The load response with respect to variation in frequency involves
(2) [11],
either load inertial response or the variation in actual power
( )
∑Hgenerator .Sgenerator d ωe,1
Pg − Pl = 2. . ωe,1 . (3)
i
S base dt Table 4
Different inertia constant values of different traditional power systems [10].
( ) d ωe,1 Type of Power System Rated Power Inertia Constant Reference Year
=> Pg − Pl = 2. Hsystem . ωe,1 . (4)
dt (MW) (seconds)

In Eq. (4), ωe,1 is assumed to be 1. Thus, the elementary rate of Thermal 500–1500 2–2.3 [43] 2008
Thermal 1000 4–5 [44] 2011
change of frequency (ROCOF) can be simplified from Eq. (4) as [11],
Thermal (steam) 130 4 [11] 2012
d ωe,1 Pg − Pl Thermal (gas) 90–120 5 [11] 2012
= ( ) (5) Thermal (combined 115 4.3 [11] 2012
dt 2. Hsystem
cycle)
Thermal (steam) 60 3.3 [11] 2012
Thus, from Eq. (5) above, it can be inferred that the ROCOF depends
Thermal 10 4 [45] 2007
on the size of the generation and load imbalance and inversely depends Thermal (4 poles) – 4–10 [46] 1994
on the system inertia. Again, the system inertia is the total inertia of all Thermal (2 poles) – 2.5–6 [47] 1994
the generators and is dependent on the total number of generators and Thermal – 4–5 [48] 2012
inertia of each generator in the power system [11]. Synchronous gen­ Hydroelectric 138 < n 10–90 2–3.3 [43] 2008
< 180 rpm
erators in traditional power systems subscribe to this system inertia as
Hydroelectric 80 < n 10–85 1.75–3 [43] 2008
they have tough association between the rotational speed and electrical < 120 rpm
frequency of the synchronous generator [11]. Hydroelectric 200 < n 10–75 2–4 [43] 2008
Loads which are dependent on inverters can be adjusted to work as a < 400 rpm
Hydroelectric 450 < n 10–65 2–4.3 [43] 2008
demand response unit during frequency aberration. This certitude can
< 514 rpm
be designed by including a damping factor, D with Pl as [10], Hydroelectric n > 200 – 2–4 [46] 1994
( ) rpm
d ωe,1
Pl = Pe + D. (6) Hydroelectric n < 200 – 2–3 [46] 1994
dt rpm
Hydroelectric – 4.75 [49] 2013

10
M. Debanjan and K. Karuna Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842

Table 5 inertia-less is crucial and decisive for grid operations and planning
Different damping factor values over different analyses of the power system because during a contingency, grid would then, not only lose its fre­
[10]. quency response capability but would also activate a chain of severe
Analysis Value(PUMW/ Reference Year complications due to it. Hence, it is very much necessary to develop
PUHz) inertia emulation strategies (Fig. 13) that can be integrated with these
One area with nuclear, thermal, wind and 2 [50] 2012 systems during installation so that the grid infrastructure can be
PV strengthened for a reliable and sustainable future. The inertia emulation
Power system stability 1–2 [47] 1994 and frequency response strategies for solar photovoltaic grid connected
Three areas with non-reheat thermal 1–1.8 [51] 2012
systems in India are not in the implementation phase, as of now.
units
Three areas with non-reheat thermal 1–1.8 [52] 2018 Grid connected solar photovoltaic systems, to be in general can
units contribute to frequency response only when generation is more than the
One and three areas with non-reheat 1–1.8 [53] 2017 demand and not vice versa, since, most of the systems operate in
thermal units maximum power point thereby, having no reserves left for to provide
Two areas with thermal units 1.66 [54] 2011
Two areas with non-reheat thermal units 1 [55] 2018
frequency response when the demand is more than the generation. One
Three areas with non-linear thermal units 0.5–0.9 [56] 2013 of the most common techniques to be employable with these systems are
Two areas with non-reheat thermal units 0.83 [57] 2011 the de-loading technique where, the generation is continued at a
Two areas with non-reheat thermal units 0.83 [58] 2013 reduced output in order to create an active power reserve for providing
Two areas with thermal units 0.83 [59] 2013
inertia [63–66], using an energy storage device integrated with the
Two areas with reheat units 0.83 [60] 2015
photovoltaic system [67,68], artificial inertia emulation technique [69]
and computational intelligence technique [70–72]. These techniques are
consumption with respect to change in frequency. Thus, it can be presented in Fig. 16.
concluded that higher number of rotating machines contribute greater
amount of inertia to the power system due to higher total weight of the 4.2.1. De-loading Technique
rotating masses. The photovoltaic systems are recommended to steer at MPP to derive
[61] also describes a survey on the Indian power system where the highest output at the given solar radiation. The main principle of
inertia constants of more than 1175 generating units with combined providing inertia through de-loading technique is to operate the
rating of around 316 GVA have been examined. The survey concludes photovoltaic systems beyond the MPP, thereby creating an active power
that the total kinetic energy available from the rotating masses in India reserve to be used as a frequency response.
is around 1126 GW-sec. The rough estimation carried out in the survey The power-voltage curve in Fig. 14 explains the de-loading technique
proclaims the approximate maximum value of inertia constant to be of a PV. The active power reserve for a PV operating at point B is denoted
3.56 s in India. Table 6 describes the typical inertia constant values for by the shaded region with capacity PMPP – PDe-Load. Now, the PV will be
all rotating mass plants in India. operating at A such that the voltage output from the PV will be,
Voutput = VMPP + VDe− − Voutput .Δf (10)
4.2. Solar Photovoltaic Power Systems
load

The development of a controller based on this principle involves

Solar Photovoltaic Power Systems are the most prominent of all the
present-day generation systems owing to their ability to provide clean
and sustainable energy. The intermittent nature of their generation is a
plausible hindrance but with the availability of energy storage systems,
these generation systems are getting more preferences. Throughout the
world, solar photovoltaic systems have taken large shares from the
traditional power systems especially in Europe, Australia, United
Kingdom and USA. In India, the solar systems are making giant strides
with capacity addition and flexible policies from the government. The
increase in the share of grid connected solar photovoltaic systems
compared to the stand alone and off grid ones is the main concern here,
since the energy generated is directly allowed to embed into the grid
infrastructure that already has a larger share of energy from the tradi­
tional non-renewable energy power systems. India anticipates a total
installation capacity of 150 GW from solar by 2022 [62]. This rising
share of solar energy into the grid would be extremely challenging in the
coming years, exclusively for the Indian grid scenario when this portion
increases beyond 40%–50% of the total generation as solar photovoltaic
generation systems do not provide any inertia during a frequency event.
The inherent property of solar photovoltaic power systems to be
Table 6
Typical inertia constant values for different rotating masses in India [61].
Types of machines Inertia constant (seconds)
Thermal Power Plant Steam Turbine 4–9
Gas Turbine 1.4–4.3
Hydro Power Plant 2–4
Nuclear power Plant 6 the PI controller spawns the output direct current. The design of the P–U
Synchronous Condensers 1–3
Synchronous and Induction Motor Load 0.5–3
Diesel Engine 1–3
various configurations and as such, different literature reviews yield two
basic controller designs which are discussed below. The controller
design described in Fig. 15 is explained in Ref. [73]. It involves PV units
having different reserve power capacity. It strategizes for PV units
having variable distribution of frequency regulations.
The constraint of the above controller design is that for PV units
having less reserve, would reach the MPP quicker than the PV units
having larger reserve thereby, creating hindrance in frequency response
due to their operation at MPP. This problem has been dealt in Ref. [74]
the output power depends on the active power reserve instead of the
equal proportion of power to be delivered from each unit. The controller
output voltage here would correspond to,
( )
Voutput = VMPP + VDe− load − Voutput .Δf − Δf x Vreserve x Kp (11)
The other controller design for PV units performing de-loading is
presented in Ref. [75]. This particular technique is also known as active
power matching control and is ascertained by increasing the DC bus
voltage over the MPP voltage. It has to be noted that if the generation is
low, the PV units are regulated to operate in MPP mode. In order for the
PV units to operate in frequency response, these PV units have to
generate more than the demand to create the necessary active power
reserve. The controller for active power matching technique (Fig. 16)
mainly involves a droop controller block which evaluates the active
power and is included to the Pset. The output is then fed to the P–U block
whose main purpose is to estimate the needed DC bus voltage and given
active power. It is then calculated with the actual DC bus voltage. P–U
block is an active power voltage controller. For the DC bus voltage error,
block is very much essential in developing the controller for de-loading
to occur efficiently in PV units. The other forms of de-loading technique

11
M. Debanjan and K. Karuna Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842

Fig. 13. Frequency response strategies for solar PV power systems [7].

Fig. 14. Power-voltage curve of a PV [7].

Fig. 15. Controller design for PV units [7].

12
M. Debanjan and K. Karuna
Fig. 16. Active power matching controller [159].
are rapid active power control technique [76] and using of wash out
filter for active power control in PV systems which mainly control the
frequency response for DC micro grids [77].
4.2.2. Energy Storage Systems
ESSs can be used as an active power reserve for PV units connected to
the grid thereby, providing necessary inertia and acting as a frequency
response unit by reducing the active power variation [78,79]. The
implementation of droop and step controllers with ESS is explained in
Ref. [79] for two US power grid networks having high penetration of PV
generations. The step controller slightly holds the advantage and has a
better efficiency than droop controller for ESS integrated to PV net­
works. In Ref. [80], the author describes (BESS) to be an efficient
technique for frequency response with PV units. An efficient DC-DC
converter control ensures better fault ride through capability for BESS
acting as a frequency response unit integrated to PV units.
4.2.3. Artificial Inertia Emulation Technique
In [81], the authors describe the inertia emulation technique
implemented with PV units for frequency response. This emulation
technique involves two control loops, inner and outer, for generating
duty circles to design DC-DC converter of PV systems. The inner control
loop adjusts the PV array voltage to the set value while the outer loop
manages the PV power with the set value using either a MPPT or a power
controller. The set power for the outer controller is given by the
following equation,
Pset = (1 − Preserve ). Pmax − ΔPfoutput (12)
ΔPfoutput comprises of a droop and PID controller. The output of the
controller is dependent on the frequency dependent PV power and is
given by,
ΔPfoutput =
Δf
+ 2
Hvirtual
(13)
Kdroop ROCOF
4.2.4. Computational Intelligence Technique
A power output to the grid without fluctuations is the principle for
maintaining a stable frequency in the grid network. The intermittent
nature of PV units due to fluctuations in weather conditions and
geographic constraints result in output power fluctuations thereby,
causing a significant deviation in the frequency from its standard value.
Fuzzy logic controllers are used in Ref. [82] to generate the output
power command depending upon the frequency deviation and average
insolation of the areas for a particular PV system. Moreover, the
advantage of using such a computational intelligence technique is that
the PV units can be operated near the MPP region. A similar technique is
introduced in Ref. [72] where the fuzzy logic controller is combined
with particle swarm optimization technique to produce the required
output power command to enhance the frequency response of the system
[83]. describes a load frequency PI controller design operating on firefly
algorithm developed for two areas consisting of a solar PV system and a
thermal generator. The thermal generator is bridged to a solar PV system
at MPPT. The objective function comprises of the integral time absolute
13
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842
error of frequency variation between the two areas and the tie line. The
resiliency is measured through parameter simulation. The advantage of
using the firefly algorithm in the controllers is that the load frequency
problem is solved rapidly as compared to the genetic algorithm. Further,
the load frequency PI controller design can adopt a different algorithm
for non-linear interconnected power systems. BAT algorithm described
in Ref. [84] can be employed with the PI controllers to solve a time
domain based objective function for a power system interconnected with
two areas. This algorithm obtains the most optimistic results for various
loading conditions by improving the system response in terms of settling
time and overshoots. Since, these techniques allow the PV units to
operate near MPP, they are highly rated above the de-loading technique
to provide artificial inertia to the grid system.
4.3. Wind Power Systems
India has pledged to increase its wind volume to 60 GW by 2030. The
MNRE, Government of India has planned to install solar and wind hybrid
energy storage in order to achieve this ambitious target by 2030.
Moreover, the Indian wind manufacturing industry has witnessed a 80%
indigenization and is further focused to expand further in the coming
years [85]. The present trend signifies that India is expected to install
13.1 GW of wind capacity between 2020 and 2022 [86]. The wind en­
ergy power systems have wind turbine generators classified as wound
rotor induction generator, squirrel cage induction generator, doubly fed
induction generator and full converter-based generator [87]. Wound
rotor and squirrel cage induction motor can provide inertia during a
frequency disturbance but is small as juxtaposed to a synchronous
generator. The other two induction generators are variable speed wind
turbines with a power electronic converter that connects it to the grid
[88]. The variable speed wind turbine generators are not technologically
built to supply inertia to the grid like a synchronous generator but re­
quires a proper control mechanism to release or absorb the control en­
ergy in order to balance the power during a frequency event [89]. The
details of different techniques provided with wind energy power systems
for providing inertia to the grid in the occasion of a load mismatch has
been depicted in Fig. 17 [90]. These frequency support techniques are
further sub-classified which would be explained in the subsequent
sections.
4.3.1. De-loading Technique
The de-loading technique in wind energy systems is similar to the PV
power systems. This technique reserves active power and releases it to
the grid in the event of a frequency disruption [91]. The ideal operating
point of the wind system is made to shift to a reduced power level
thereby, providing a reserve generation for frequency regulation [86].
De-loading technique mainly operates in two modes, pitch control mode
and speed control mode.
In the pitch control mode (Fig. 18), the pitch control is achieved for a
constant wind speed, by increasing the pitch angle from some lower
value to higher value (βo to β2), corresponding to the rotor speed at
maximum power point. The operating point thereby shifts creating
M. Debanjan and K. Karuna
Fig. 17. Frequency response strategies for wind power systems [90].
Fig. 18. Pitch control mode in wind energy power systems [108].
reserve power for during a frequency event [90,93].
The speed control mode (Fig. 19) is further divided into over-speed
and under-speed control mode. In over-speed control mode, for a con­
stant pitch angle, the rotor speed is set to ωover-speed. During a frequency
event, the rotor speed is maintained back to ωmax-speed thereby, creating
a significant proportion of active power reserve needed to stabilize the
grid when there is a mismatch between generation and demand. In
under-speed control mode, the rotor speed is set to a ωunder-speed than
ωmax-speed. This leads to the generation of active power reserve that can
be used during a frequency event. The over-speed control is advanta­
geous than under-speed control because in the under-speed control,
some amount of energy is utilized to bring the rotor speed from a lower
value to the maximum speed under MPP. This opposite behavior of the
wind systems in the event of a frequency disruption during the first
phase is considered detrimental by many authors [94,95].
The two de-loading techniques explained above doesn’t provide a
14
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842
fixed amount of power. In order, to provide a constant amount of power,
both the pitch angle and the over-speed controller are combined
together to provide a frequency regulation as explained in Refs. [96,97].
This combination can yield further development in control of frequency
with the integration of droop control with it [96]. The long-term oper­
ation of wind turbines in de-loading mode causes economic losses to the
owners of the wind energy systems. Therefore, an integrated strategy
explained in Ref. [98] ensures that the DFIG can operate in MPP mode
when there is no requirement for frequency response.
4.3.2. Energy Storage Systems
ESSs are the most reliable of all the control strategies implemented to
mitigate low inertia and frequency issues. ESSs can be integrated to the
grid with the wind energy power systems thereby, proving to be a reli­
able solution depending on the varying nature of the wind. Various ESSs
like BESS, SMESS, FESS, super capacitors and a combination of either of
M. Debanjan and K. Karuna Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842

inertia emulation technique, the stored kinetic energy is released based

on either a single control loop or a double loop control strategy based on
ROCOF (Fig. 20). The purpose of including two loops is to ensure a
better frequency regulation than the single loop. In one loop control, the
MPPT and PI controller determines the speed and the torque of the
generator corresponding to maximum power. During a frequency event,
the inertia control loop is activated which provides additional inertia by
increasing the torque and reducing the speed of the generator thereby,
releasing the kinetic energy from the rotor [109,110]. Inertia control
loop provides a constant torque which acts as a disadvantage of this
method, due to which the rotor speed is reduced rapidly with delay in
controller operations. An improved technique highlighted in Ref. [111]
which allows the inertia constant of the inertia controller to increase
dynamically as long the ROCOF continues to decrease. This strategy is
implemented in Ref. [112] with DFIG and different gains of the fre­
quency control loop are compared to deduce the best response.
The traditional artificial inertia response techniques employ control
strategies based on PLL and VSC. Similar strategies based on ROCOF are
Fig. 19. Speed control mode in wind energy power systems [108].
explained in Refs. [113,114] which are employed with wind energy
systems to provide artificial inertia. The PLL based control strategy has
these like BESS and AGC prove to be an extremely important and potent
adverse effects in system stability as mentioned in Refs. [115,116]. This
solution to deliver improved frequency response in the event of a fault
led to the birth of the synchro-converter control strategy which endorses
[39,99–103]. Since, most of the ESSs differ in their energy and power
the synchronous generator-based control strategy to provide frequency
density, authors in Refs. [104,105]have suggested hybrid techniques
response by wind generation systems. It employs a sinusoidal locked
based on ESS that could be used as a frequency response. SMESS can be
loop capable of maintaining synchronism through active power control
used to improve the frequency response of PMSG due to its fast response
[117,118]. DFIG based wind energy systems are synchronized with the
characteristics [106]. The artificial inertia controller in PMSG wind
grid based on active power control scheme without having dependency
energy systems provide duty to the boost converter in the DC link. This
on PLL.
controls the power output and the torque by administering the current
The other artificial inertia response technique is the fast-power
through the reactor thereby, improving the frequency response. DFIG
reserve technique (Fig. 21), in which the wind generators provide con­
wind energy systems employ flywheel energy storage to provide primary
stant active power support by releasing kinetic energy to the grid based
frequency response by distributing the reserve active power suitably
on the control strategies explained here in Refs. [119–121]. In fast
between the turbine and the flywheel [107]. This power reserve is
power reserve technique, the change in frequency is used as an input for
activated by local controls when the ROCOF deviates from the set value.
detection and triggering circuit [121]. During standard system opera­
These local controls are further activated from the central control situ­
tion, the MPPT control loop is permitted and power shaping loop is
ated within the operator premises.
impaired while during a frequency deviation, the MPPT control loop is
disabled and power shaping loop is enabled. When the power shaping
4.3.3. Artificial Inertia Response Technique
loop is enabled during a frequency event, the wind energy system pro­
The synchronous generators traditionally provide inertia to the grid
duces over kinetic energy and releases it to the grid until the wind
by releasing or absorbing kinetic energy during a generation load
generator is discharged completely. After the stability is attained, the
mismatch. In wind energy systems, the decoupling of generators from
wind energy system returns to the MPPT mode. Thus, transition from
the grid prohibit them from providing any frequency response during a
over production to MPP leads to underproduction thereby, reversing
frequency event. Thus, inertia response techniques are developed to
power from the grid to the wind generator. A sloped transition is hence,
provide artificial inertia to the grid. The four most important artificial
preferred than a sharp transition to avoid such an unexpected operation.
inertia response techniques to reproduce the operation of synchronous
generators in wind energy systems are inertia emulation, virtual syn­
chronous generator, fast power reserve and synchro-converter [108]. In

Fig. 20. Frequency response using one loop and two loop control [10].

15
M. Debanjan and K. Karuna
Fig. 21. Power variation in fast power reserve technique [10].
4.3.4. Droop Control Technique
The droop controller works as a primary frequency control main­
taining the output power with the changes in system frequency as per
the equation below [122].
Poutput = Kdroop x Δf (14)
The droop controller gets activated when the system frequency de­
viates beyond the specified set point. The active power reserve created
by the de-loading technique is utilized by the droop controller for fre­
quency response. Wind energy systems with droop control can provide
frequency support by maintaining active power [123,124] as per the
equation below.
ωhigh − ωlow
Phigh − Plow = (15)
Kdroop
The requisite torque needed to stabilize the frequency deviation is
generated by the MPPT controller loop and the droop control loop
together.
4.4. Grid Inertia and Renewable Energy Penetration in India
Fig. 22 above shows the trend of rising penetration of renewable
energy with grid inertia in India. The trend shows that the rising pene­
tration of renewables in Indian grid network has made the power system
lighter (assuming no contribution from renewable generation) with
Fig. 22. Effect on grid inertia due to high renewable energy penetration in India [61].
16
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842
lesser inertia. Only the Type 1 wind turbine generators connected to grid
contribute towards grid inertia unlike Type 3 and Type 4 wind turbines
in India [61].
5. Grid Inertia and Energy Storage Systems
Grid inertia can be enhanced with the help of various control tech­
niques which mainly focus on the development of various controllers
where the logic can be utilized within the power electronic arena to
increase the ROCOF and thereby, response to the frequency disruptions.
This particular section deals with various energy storage technologies
that are considered instrumental in providing a fast frequency response
to balance the demand-supply mismatch and provide inertia during a
frequency event.
5.1. Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage (PHES)
PHES is a kind of hydroelectric energy storage where water is
pumped between a lower and upper reservoir [125]. This form of stor­
age has been practically implemented in various areas globally to match
the load demand and provide inertia. The excess energy is used to pump
water to a reservoir situated at a higher altitude and released to generate
power. This power is used to meet the demand thereby, reducing the
mismatch. The two modes in PHES are the pumping mode i.e., when
water is pumped to a higher reservoir and generating mode i.e., when
M. Debanjan and K. Karuna
water is released from the higher reservoir to rotate a turbine-generator
and generate power. The important aspect of PHES is that the pump can
be decoupled from the turbine-generator when PHES is not working in
either pumping or generating modes to act as a synchronous condenser.
This provides both reactive power and inertia support during a fre­
quency event thereby, limiting ROCOF under disturbances [125].
The installation capacities of PHES around the globe is 180 GW and
the potential in India is more than 96.5 GW. The present total installed
capacity of PHES in India is about 4.8 GW spread across 9 plants.
Moreover, PHES plants with total capacities of 3.6 GW are under con­
struction [126]. India plans to become one of the world leaders in PHES
but discrepancies in social costs, lack of policy framework and inade­
quate price have completely stalled the progress. The ability of PHES to
accommodate huge amounts of renewables into the grid network, has
led to the garnering of much attention to this form of storage nowadays
[127–129]. The authors in Refs. [130,131] have confirmed and vali­
dated that PHES is an important tool to provide inertia support into the
grid having 100% renewable energy penetration. The quintessential
inertia constant of PHES is found to be 2–4 s [132]. The possible
drawback of PHES is its inability to inject or absorb power not as fast and
swift as capacitors and flywheels but it can provide other ancillary
services like spinning reserve and voltage regulation apart from fre­
quency response.
5.2. Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)
CAES is a form of energy storage that mainly depends on the po­
tential energy of compressed or pressurized air. CAES is a promising
technology for inertia support as it is highly efficient and has long life
[136]. The basic principle of CAES involves compressing of air during
excess generation and low demand period while decompressing the air
to rotate turbine-generator during high demand period [137,138]. CAES
provides grid security and reliability by enhancing inertia, voltage
support, load shifting and frequency regulation. Moreover, it enables
large scale integration of solar and wind resources into the grid. The
typical inertia constant of CAES is around 3–4 s. Geographical con­
straints create a barrier in the development of CAES as it requires an
underground cavern for the storage of compressed air. In Refs. [139,
140], the authors have explained and examined that the power gener­
ated from CAES into the grid network is instrumental to facilitate and
accommodate large scale integration of renewable energy sources. The
output power from the CAES can be utilized with proper control mea­
sures to provide inertia support into the grid [139]. Table 7 explains the
capacity of CAES in India.
5.3. Flywheel Energy Storage (FES)
FES generally involves a flywheel to store energy in the form of ki­
netic energy. Motor accelerates the rotor to inject power into the grid
during a demand spike or a generator decelerates the rotor to absorb
power during a high generation period. The energy storage facility
provided by flywheels are suitable for continuous charging and dis­
charging options without any dependency on the age of the storage
system. The important aspect to be taken note of in this regard is the
ability of FES to provide inertia and frequency regulation [141]. FES are
Table 7
CAES capacity in India [126].
Capacity Value References
Total suitable area 34,400 km2
Huntorf cavern surface area 0.00125 km2 [133]
Number of possible caverns 2.75 × 107
Volume of Huntorf Caverns 141,000 m3 [134]
Total volume of CAES caverns 3.88 × 1012 m3
CAES energy storage density 0.003 MWh.m− 3 [135]
Total potential 11.6 × 109 MWh
17
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842
tied up at the PCC with the grid through power electronic converters and
hence, the form of inertia support provided by FES is artificial inertial
response due to which inertia constant of FES cannot be characterized as
such [142]. FES provides fast ramping capability, high roundtrip effi­
ciency and has a distinct lifetime advantage over other energy storage
systems. The drawbacks involve its energy capacity [143]. The inte­
gration of a flywheel with a wind energy system elevates the inertia.
Moreover, it reduces the ROCOF and frequency nadir of the system
comprehensively, the details of which is proved in Ref. [144]. In
Ref. [145], the author has proposed a fuzzy differential controller that
can be integrated with a FES and wind energy system to provide inertia
support.
The total installed capacity of FES globally, for frequency regulations
is 975 GW [126]. In India, the majority of applications of FES involves
transportation and rotary uninterruptible power supply. In India, the
flywheels can operate for 4 h with intervals of 15–30 min [126].
5.4. Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) and Ultra-Capacitors
BESS falls under the electrochemical energy storages. They contain
different chemical compounds that can store electricity. Different BESSs
have different characteristics and capabilities to release energy for
different durations of time. The two main categories of batteries include
the traditional batteries, where the energy can be recharged and stored
in the solid metal electrodes and, the flow batteries, where energy is
stored is various liquid electrolytes that are kept in separate tanks [126].
The provision to provide inertia support from batteries into the grid
involves power electronic converters. Moreover, a proper artificial
inertia control algorithm improves the frequency stability of the power
system. Batteries like sodium-sulfur batteries having a first response
time of 1 milli-second are suitable for providing inertia support to the
grid system [146]. The problem with hydrogen storage and batteries
with synthetic natural gas is that the response time of these are high
enough to be able provide an inertia response during a frequency
disruption [147,148]. The analysis performed in low inertia micro-grids
by authors in Refs. [149–151] suggests that battery storage systems are
instrumental to provide frequency support in low inertia micro grids.
Further, the battery provides energy that can be a possible replacement
of synchronous generators [152].
Lithium ion batteries have fast response time and as such, they can be
employed to provide frequency reinforcement. The drawback of lithium
ion batteries is the stress developed due to the sudden withdrawal of
large amount of power. Thus, to avoid this, ultra-capacitors are com­
bined with lithium ion batteries to reduce the stress and increase the
lifetime of the batteries. The combination of these two can hence, be
used to enhance inertia to the power system during a frequency collapse
[155]. Ultra-capacitors are energy storage devices that can provide huge
amount of energy in small amount of time thereby, making it a suitable
candidate to provide inertia reinforcement in the power system. The
authors in Refs. [156–158] have validated with authority that the
combination of batteries and ultra-capacitors can provide frequency
support effectively during a power imbalance. The batteries provide
frequency regulation while the ultra-capacitors deal with the sudden
fluctuations in power.
A total of 60 MWh of battery energy storage systems have been
commissioned in India as on date and further more are on the drawing
board [126]. Most of the projects involved are integrated solar PV and
BESS and few with wind and BESS. In 2017, the first BESS was
commissioned in India with sole purpose of frequency regulation by the
Power Grid Corporation Limited [126]. Table 8 indicates and compares
the various energy storage technologies discussed above used for fre­
quency support.
6. Conclusion and Discussion
India lies in the focal point of the global upsurge in energy demand.
M. Debanjan and K. Karuna Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842

Table 8
General characteristics of energy storage systems [153,154].
Energy Storage Technologies Efficiency Response Time Additional Ancillary Services Self- discharge Energy cost Lifetime
(%) (%/day) ($/kWh) (years)

Pumped Hydroelectric Energy 60–95 Minutes Voltage support, Black start capability and ~0 600–2000 30–60
Storage (PHES) Energy management
Compressed Air Energy Storage 85–90 <10 ms Voltage support and Black start capability 2–40 300–500 10–15
(CAES)
Flywheel Energy Storage (FES) 70–95 <10 ms Voltage support and Load balancing 20–100 20–100 20–30
Battery Energy Storage System 75–90 Milliseconds Voltage support, Power quality, Uninterrupted 1–20 15–2500 5–10
(BESS) and Ultracapacitors (ms) power supply and Peak shaving

*Both FES, BESS and ultracapacitors provide artificial inertia and as much the inertia emulated doesn’t have an inertia constant value. PHES and CAES provide
synchronous inertia as they have a rotating mass similar to the synchronous generator in traditional power systems.

The renewable energy share in the grid presently is 28.04% and
assuming the current annual growth rate of 6.5% for renewable energy
penetration in India, the forecasted share in 2030 is 54% and that of
2040 is 80%. The increase in the renewable energy proliferation into the
grid infrastructure of India creates an uncertainty regarding the infra­
structural adjustments that the grid system of India has to undergo so as
to accommodate such a colossal investment of power into its networks in
the upcoming future. This concern acts as the motivation of entire re­
view work done in this paper to highlight the current grid power system
scenario of India and bring forward the technological advancements
needed to adopt for developing a resilient frequency response inertial
infrastructure as renewable energy penetration increases in India. The
requirement of ancillary control services to maintain inertia into the grid
power system for such a high penetration of renewable energy sources is
well explanatory. The contribution of energy storage services for fast
response ancillary services in India presently, is the lowest. Thus, the
present-day secondary control reserve of the grid power system under
IEGC in India have to be increased many folds in-order to deal with the
ambitious target of renewable energy capacities in the coming years.
In order, to develop a perspective of the amount of inertia lost when
the on-grid renewable energy integrations are in the range of few hun­
dreds to thousands of megawatts, inertia values of an on-grid 100-kWp
solar PV system is compared with a 100-kW micro-steam turbine
generator. Since, solar PV systems are inertia-less, hence the inertia lost
is technically quantified by comparing the inertia constant with a 100-
kW micro steam turbine generator. Inertia constant is the capability to
deliver continuous rated power for a fixed duration of time (generally, in
seconds). Table 9 indicates that the inertia constant of a typical 100 kW
micro steam turbine generator is 4.44 s. The inference we can draw here
is the loss of this amount of inertia when a solar PV system of 100 kW
capacity is integrated to the grid instead of a micro steam turbine
generator of the same capacity. Thus, the amount of inertia loss that
India has to handle when 450 GW of renewable energy volume is unified
to the grid by 2030 is enormous and alarming let alone, the renewable
energy targets of 2040. The primary conclusion that can be drawn here
is the requirement of a concrete roadmap and the policy framework with
acceptance of available technological resources by India for providing
inertia and frequency response if such a huge integration of renewables
into the grid infrastructure is to happen by 2030. The following con­
clusions from each section can be elaborated below:
Section 1 explains the simultaneous renewable energy growth and
Table 9
Specifications of a 100-kW micro steam turbine generator.
Capacity (kW) 100
Moment of inertia (kg/m2) 10
Angular velocity (1/s) 314
Stored kinetic energy (at synchronous speed) (kJ) 493
Rated capacity (KVA) (at 0.9 power factor) 111
Inertia constant (s) 4.44
Assumed change in the active power output (kW) 10
Frequency (Hz) 50
Rate of change of frequency (ROCOF) (Hz/s) 0.50
decrease in inertia constants across the globe in the past two decades.
Further it, explains the corresponding loss in inertia due to the rise in
renewables across the world over the years. The integrative literature
review provided in this section draws conclusion of the rapid increase in
the growth of renewable energy sector of India in the last decade
without the development of adequate ancillary grid support services
needed to contain contingencies and respond to frequency variations
when the renewable energy penetration into the grid is beyond 50% by
2030.
Section 2 forecasts renewable energy rise till 2040 and provides an
integrative review for the requirement of grid infrastructural de­
velopments and ancillary services exclusive for frequency response and
inertia support in India. This section deduces that the technical and
economic aspects associated with improved grid infrastructure
including transmission and generation framework requires concrete
developments in grid capacity and operations in India so that the power
system is robust, resilient and durable to withstand higher proliferations
of renewables in the years to come.
Section 3 provides a narrative literature review of the Indian Elec­
tricity Grid Code (IEGC) on frequency response. This is novel, unique
and exclusive to this manuscript. It demonstrates the current strategies
prevalent in the grid system of India towards frequency response and
inertia support. The readers can conclude that the present grid power
systems need infrastructural developments in various energy storage
systems (ESS) to store higher magnitude of active power reserves
required for the ambitious Indian renewable energy targets of 2030 and
2040.
Section 4 reviews various technologies and control strategies
designed and developed across the globe to provide inertia for solar and
wind energy power systems. This section also discusses the various
inertia constants of different rotating generators in India and informs the
readers about the trend of decreasing inertia constants with rising
renewable energy penetration since the pass few years in India. The
section decides that these control strategies require implementation at
the ground level of India’s renewable energy grid infrastructure to
successfully achieve the goals set for 2030 and 2040.
Section 5 provides a narrative literature review of the specified en­
ergy storage technologies that can be developed over the current sce­
nario in India to provide inertia support and frequency response. It can
be inferred that the systematic development of these energy storage
technologies needs to groomed at the ground level to build a resilient
and robust Indian grid infrastructure along with all the inverter-based
energy sources to withstand the renewable surge by 2030. A well-
maintained structural foundation involving the expansion, growth and
development of the energy storage options has to be prepared in-order to
avoid an imminent setback in the progress of India’s renewable
juggernaut by 2030 and 2040.
7. Way Forward
The future work with respect to the extensive and comprehensive
review of the current Indian grid network system and the power market

18
M. Debanjan and K. Karuna
scenario performed in this manuscript paves the way for estimation of
the minimum kinetic energy passing through the inertia during con­
tingencies in the five combined regional Indian grid system. Further, the
evaluation of the minimum inertial energy storage capacity and mini­
mum active power inertial reserve too can be calculated from minimum
kinetic energy loss during contingencies. The energy storage share to­
wards ancillary operations in India is extremely low. Hence, with high
penetration of renewables into the India grid power system by 2030, the
future commissions involve continuous techno-economic assessments of
these energy storage systems for developing robust and resilient grid-
scale energy storage systems that be used for ancillary operations in
India. Moreover, India needs to adopt and stimulate a power system
ancillary services market for these kinds of innovative strategies and
energy storage technologies for implementation at the ground level by
inculcating the importance of grid inertia and frequency response into
the grassroot innovation, research and development level. The devel­
opment of advanced inertia forecasting methods too is an excellent way
forward to the review work undertaken in this paper for Indian grid
power system in order to contribute towards monitoring, assessment and
verification of grid ancillary operations with respect to the total gener­
ation and demand forecasts of the future India.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
The data has been visually interpreted in the form of graphs and
figures.
Acknowledgements
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
References
[1] Dong Jun, Xue Guiyuan, Dong Mengmeng, Xu X. Energy-saving power generation
dispatching in China: regulations, pilot projects and policy recommendations—a
review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev Elsevier 2015;43(c):1285–300. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.11.037.
[2] Saidur R, Rahim NA, Islam MR, Solangi KH. Environmental impact of wind
energy. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15:2423–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
rser.2011.02.024.
[3] Gerden T. The adoption of the kyoto protocol of t he united nations framework
convention on climate change. Prisp Za Novejso Zgodovino 2018;58. https://doi.
org/10.51663/pnz.58.2.07.
[4] Dreidy M, Mokhlis H, Mekhilef S. Inertia response and frequency control
techniques for renewable energy sources: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2017;69:144–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.170.
[5] rachael_england. China bumps up renewable energy target to reduce reliance on
coal. Engadget 2018;1. https://doi.org/26-09-2018.
[6] Zhong QC. Virtual Synchronous Machines: a unified interface for grid integration.
IEEE Power Energy Mag 2016;3:18–27. https://doi.org/10.1109/
MPEL.2016.2614906.
[7] Alam MS, Al-Ismail FS, Salem A, Abido MA. High-level penetration of renewable
energy sources into grid utility: challenges and solutions. IEEE Access 2020;8:
190277–99. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2020.3031481.
[8] Hossain MK, Ali MH. Transient stability augmentation of PV/DFIG/SG-Based
hybrid power system by nonlinear control-based variable resistive FCL. IEEE
Trans Sustain Energy 2015;6:1638–49. https://doi.org/10.1109/
TSTE.2015.2463286.
[9] Hossain MK, Ali MH. Transient stability augmentation of PV/DFIG/SG-based
hybrid power system by parallel-resonance bridge fault current limiter. Elec
Power Syst Res 2016;130:89–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2015.08.016.
[10] Fernández-Guillamón A, Gómez-Lázaro E, Muljadi E, Molina-García Á. Power
systems with high renewable energy sources: a review of inertia and frequency
control strategies over time. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2019;115. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109369.
19
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842
[11] Tielens P, Hertem D Van. Grid inertia and frequency control in power systems
with high penetration of renewables. Young Res Symp Electr Power Eng 2012;
1–6.
[12] Thambi S, Bhatacharya A, Fricko O. India’s energy and emissions outlook: results
from India energy model. Work Pap 2018;27.
[13] Sarkar S. India’s energy transition to play key role in global climate action, vol. 1;
2021. https://doi.org/10.02.2021.
[14] International Energy Agency. India Energy Outlook 2021, vol. 1; 2021. https://in
diaclimatedialogue.net/2021/02/10/indias-energy-transition-to-play-key-ro
le-in-global-climate-action/.
[15] Jaiswal Anjali JM. Transitioning India’s Economy to Clean Energy. 2019. https://
doi.org/05.11.2019.
[16] Ministry of Power. Power sector at a glance ALL India. Gov India; 2022. https
://powermin.gov.in/en/content/power-sector-glance-all-india. [Accessed 19
July 2022].
[17] Central Electricity Authority. All India Installed Capacity of Power Stations (for
coal, natural gas, diesel, hydro and nuclear); M of N and RE. Draft report on
Optimal Generation Capacity Mix for 2029-30. 2019.
[18] Srivastava A, Karnam B, Rai B, Singh H, Seethapathy R, Suri R, et al. Energy
storage system (ESS) roadmap for India: 2019 - 2032. NITI Aayog 2019:204.
[19] Milano F, Manjavacas ÁO. Energy storage system models. Convert Energy Storage
Syst 2019;2032:173–212. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108363266.007.
[20] Mahzarnia M, Sheikholeslami A, Adabi J. A voltage stabilizer for a microgrid
system with two types of distributed generation resources. IIUM Eng J 2013;14:
191–205. https://doi.org/10.31436/iiumej.v14i2.450.
[21] Sekhar ASR, Krishna KV. Improvement of voltage profile of the hybrid power
system connected to the. Grid 2012;2:87–93.
[22] Su CL. Effects of distribution system operations on voltage profiles in distribution
grids connected wind power generation. Int Conf Power Syst Technol
POWERCON2006 2006;1–7. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICPST.2006.321685.
[23] Ausavanop O, Chaitusaney S. Coordination of dispatchable distributed generation
and voltage control devices for improving voltage profile by Tabu search. In:
ECTI-CON 2011 - 8th Electr Eng Electron Comput Telecommun Inf Technol Assoc
Thail - Conf 2011; 2011. https://doi.org/10.1109/ECTICON.2011.5947978.
869–72.
[24] Johnson SC, Papageorgiou DJ, Mallapragada DS, Deetjen TA, Rhodes JD,
Webber ME. Evaluating rotational inertia as a component of grid reliability with
high penetrations of variable renewable energy. Energy 2019;180:258–71.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.04.216.
[25] Tamrakar U, Galipeau D, Tonkoski R, Tamrakar I. Improving transient stability of
photovoltaic-hydro microgrids using virtual synchronous machines. IEEE
Eindhoven PowerTech 2015:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/PTC.2015.7232663.
[26] Luna A, Tamrakar U, Hansen TM, Tonkoski R. Frequency response in grids with
high penetration of renewable energy sources. In: 2018 North American Power
Symposium (NAPS). IEEE; 2019. https://doi.org/10.1109/NAPS.2018.8600620.
The date of conference was from 09-11 September 2018.
[27] Zhao Y, Shi R, Bian X, Zhou C, Zhao Y, Zhang S, et al. Ammonia detection
methods in photocatalytic and electrocatalytic experiments: how to improve the
reliability of NH3 production rates? Adv Sci 2019;6:1802109. https://doi.org/
10.1002/advs.201802109.
[28] Singh BN, Singh B, Chandra A, Rastgoufard P, Al-Haddad K. An improved control
algorithm for active filters. IEEE Trans Power Deliv 2007;22:1009–20. https://
doi.org/10.1109/TPWRD.2006.886790.
[29] Luo A, Xu Q, Ma F, Chen Y. Overview of power quality analysis and control
technology for the smart grid. J Mod Power Syst Clean Energy 2016;4:1–9.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40565-016-0185-8.
[30] Delille G, François B, Malarange G. Dynamic frequency control support by energy
storage to reduce the impact of wind and solar generation on isolated power
system’s inertia. IEEE Trans Sustain Energy 2012;3:931–9. https://doi.org/
10.1109/TSTE.2012.2205025.
[31] Daly P, Flynn D, Cunniffe N. Inertia considerations within unit commitment and
economic dispatch for systems with high non-synchronous penetrations. In: 2015
IEEE Eindhoven PowerTech. IEEE; 2015. https://doi.org/10.1109/
PTC.2015.7232567. The date of conference is from 29 June 2015 - 02 July 2015.
[32] Musau MP, Chepkania TL, Odero AN, Wekesa CW. Effects of renewable energy on
frequency stability: a proposed case study of the Kenyan grid. In: Proc - 2017 IEEE
PES-IAS PowerAfrica Conf Harnessing Energy, Inf Commun Technol Afford
Electrif Africa, PowerAfrica 2017; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1109/
PowerAfrica.2017.7991192. 12–5.
[33] Liu C, Cai G. Power-oscillation evaluation in power systems with high penetration
of renewable power generation based on network virtual inertia. IET Renew
Power Gener 2019;13:138–45. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-rpg.2018.5306.
[34] Yu M, Roscoe AJ, Dyśko A, Booth CD, Ierna R, Zhu J, et al. Instantaneous
penetration level limits of nonsynchronous devices in the British power system.
IET Renew Power Gener 2017;11:1211–7. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-
rpg.2016.0352.
[35] Gross D, Bolognani S, Poolla BK, Dörfler F. Increasing the resilience of low-inertia
power systems by virtual inertia and damping. In: 10th Bulk Power Systems
Dynamics and Control Symposium– IREP 2017 at Espinho; 2017. The date of
conference is from August 27 - September 1, 2017.
[36] Matevosyan J, Sharma S, Huang S-, Woodfin D, Ragsdale K, Moorty S, et al.
Proposed future ancillary services in electric reliability council of Texas. In: 2015
IEEE Eindhoven PowerTech; 2015. p. 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/
PTC.2015.7232743.
M. Debanjan and K. Karuna
[37] Lu T, Sherman P, Chen X, Chen S, Lu X, McElroy M. India’s potential for
integrating solar and on- and offshore wind power into its energy system. Nat
Commun 2020;11:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18318-7.
[38] Jai H, Shrivastava S, Narasimhan S, Ravinder, Bakshi A, Nath R. Report of the
Expert Group : Review of Indian Electricity Grid Code. 2020.
[39] Miao L, Wen J, Xie H, Yue C, Lee W-J. Coordinated control strategy of wind
turbine generator and energy storage equipment for frequency support. IEEE
Trans Ind Appl 2015;51:1. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIA.2015.2394435.
[40] Dreidy M, Mokhlis H, Mekhilef S. Inertia response and frequency control
techniques for renewable energy sources : a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2017;69:144–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.170.
[41] Tielens P, Van Hertem D. The relevance of inertia in power systems. Renew
Sustain Energy Rev 2016;55:999–1009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
rser.2015.11.016.
[42] Spahic E, Varma D, Beck G, Kuhn G, Hild V. Impact of reduced system inertia on
stable power system operation and an overview of possible solutions. IEEE Power
Energy Soc Gen Meet 2016-Novem:1–5. https://doi.org/10.1109/
PESGM.2016.7741714.
[43] Anderson PM, Fouad AA. Power system control and stability, second edition.
Power Syst Control Stability, Second Ed 2002:1–658. https://doi.org/10.1109/
9780470545577.
[44] Dabur P, Yadav N, Tayal VK. Matlab design and simulation of AGC and AVR for
multi area power system and demand side management. Int J Comput Electron
Eng 2011:259–64.
[45] de Almeida RG, Peças Lopes JA. Participation of doubly fed induction wind
generators in system frequency regulation. IEEE Trans Power Syst 2007;22:
944–50. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRS.2007.901096.
[46] Grainger JJ, Stevenson Jr WD. Power System Analysis. 1994th ed. Singapore:
McGraw-Hill, Inc.; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1201/b11021.
[47] Kundur P. Power System Stability and Control. 1994th ed. United States of
America: McGraw-Hill, Inc.; 1994. https://doi.org/10.4324/b12113.
[48] Kumar S, Sharma G, Singh G. AGC & AVR of interconnected thermal power
system while considering the effect of GRCs. Int J Soft Comput Eng 2012;2:69–74.
[49] Eremia M, Shahidehpour M. Handbook of Electrical Power System Dynamics:
Modeling, Stability, and Control. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1002/
9781118516072.
[50] Masuta T, Yokoyama A. Supplementary load frequency control by use of a
number of both electric vehicles and heat pump water heaters. Smart Grid, IEEE
Trans 2012;3:1253–62. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSG.2012.2194746.
[51] Chen BY, Shangguan XC, Jin L, Li DY. An improved stability criterion for load
frequency control of power systems with time-varying delays. Energies 2020;13:
1–14. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13082101.
[52] Peng C, Zhang J, Yan H. Adaptive event-triggering H∞ load frequency control for
network-based power systems. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 2017;65:1685–94.
https://doi.org/10.1109/TIE.2017.2726965.
[53] Li H, Wang X, Xiao J. Adaptive event-triggered load frequency control for
interconnected microgrids by observer-based sliding mode control. IEEE Access
2019;7:68271–80. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2915954.
[54] K R S RVS. Robust decentralized load frequency control of interconnected power
system with Generation Rate Constraint using Type-2 fuzzy approach. Int J Electr
Power Energy Syst 2011;33:699–707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijepes.2010.12.027.
[55] Wu Y, Wei Z, Weng J, Li X, Deng RH. Resonance attacks on load frequency control
of smart grids. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2018;9:4490–502. https://doi.org/
10.1109/TSG.2017.2661307.
[56] Shabani H, Vahidi B, Ebrahimpour M. A robust PID controller based on
imperialist competitive algorithm for load-frequency control of power systems.
ISA Trans 2013;52:88–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isatra.2012.09.008.
[57] Ali E, Abd-Elazim S. Bacteria foraging optimization algorithm based load
frequency controller for interconnected power system. Int J Electr Power Energy
Syst - INT J ELEC POWER ENERG SYST 2011;33:633–8. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ijepes.2010.12.022.
[58] Rout U, Sahu R, Panda S. Design and analysis of differential evolution algorithm
based automatic generation control for interconnected power system. Ain Shams
Eng J 2013;4:409–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2012.10.010.
[59] Haes Alhelou H, Hamedani-Golshan ME, Zamani R, Heydarian-Forushani E,
Siano P. Challenges and opportunities of load frequency control in conventional,
modern and future smart power systems: A comprehensive review. Energies
2018;11. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11102497.
[60] Sathya MR, Mohamed Thameem Ansari M. Load frequency control using Bat
inspired algorithm based dual mode gain scheduling of PI controllers for
interconnected power system. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst 2015;64:365–74.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2014.07.042.
[61] Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Power System Operation Corporation
Limited. Report on Assessment of Inertia in Indian Power System. 2022.
[62] India energy outlook report (IEA). India energy outlook. World Energy Outlook
Spec Rep 2021;1–191.
[63] Kakimoto N, Takayama S, Satoh H, Nakamura K. Power modulation of
photovoltaic generator for frequency control of power system. IEEE Trans Energy
Convers 2009;24:943–9. https://doi.org/10.1109/TEC.2009.2026616.
[64] Zarina PP, Mishra S, Sekhar PC. Exploring frequency control capability of a PV
system in a hybrid PV-rotating machine-without storage system. Int J Electr
Power Energy Syst 2014;60:258–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijepes.2014.02.033.
20
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842
[65] Xin H, Liu Y, Wang Z, Gan D, Yang T. A new frequency regulation strategy for
photovoltaic systems without energy storage. IEEE Trans Sustain Energy 2013;4:
985–93. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSTE.2013.2261567.
[66] Alatrash H, Mensah A, Mark E, Haddad G, Enslin J. Generator emulation controls
for photovoltaic inverters. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 2012;3:996–1011. https://doi.
org/10.1109/TSG.2012.2188916.
[67] Sa-ngawong N, Ngamroo I. Intelligent photovoltaic farms for robust frequency
stabilization in multi-area interconnected power system based on PSO-based
optimal Sugeno fuzzy logic control. Renew Energy 2015;74:555–67. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.renene.2014.08.057.
[68] Hill C, Such M, Chen D, Gonzalez J, Grady WM. Battery energy storage for
enabling integration of distributed solar power generation. Smart Grid, IEEE
Trans 2012;3:850–7. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSG.2012.2190113.
[69] Nanou S, Papakonstantinou A, Papathanassiou S. A generic model of two-stage
grid-connected PV systems with primary frequency response and inertia
emulation. Elec Power Syst Res 2015;127:186–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
epsr.2015.06.011.
[70] Ray PK, Mohanty A. A robust firefly–swarm hybrid optimization for frequency
control in wind/PV/FC based microgrid. Appl Soft Comput J 2019;85:105823.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asoc.2019.105823.
[71] Datta M, Senjyu T, Yona A, Funabashi T, Kim CH. A frequency-control approach
by photovoltaic generator in a PV-diesel hybrid power system. IEEE Trans Energy
Convers 2011;26:559–71. https://doi.org/10.1109/TEC.2010.2089688.
[72] Sakeen B, Bachache NK, Wang S. Frequency control of PV-diesel hybrid power
system using optimal fuzzy logic controller. In: Proc - 2013 IEEE 11th Int Conf
Dependable, Auton Secur Comput DASC 2013; 2013. https://doi.org/10.1109/
DASC.2013.58. 174–8.
[73] Zarina PP, Mishra S. Power oscillation reduction contribution by PV in deloaded
mode. In: 2016 IEEE 6th Int Conf Power Syst ICPS 2016; 2016. https://doi.org/
10.1109/ICPES.2016.7584179. 10–3.
[74] Zarina PP, Mishra S, Sekhar PC. Exploring frequency control capability of a PV
system in a hybrid PV-rotating machine-without storage system. Int J Electr
Power Energy Syst 2014;60:258–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijepes.2014.02.033.
[75] Yan G, Liang S, Jia Q, Cai Y. Novel adapted de-loading control strategy for PV
generation participating in grid frequency regulation. J Eng 2019;2019:3383–7.
https://doi.org/10.1049/joe.2018.8481.
[76] Garozzo D, Tina GM. Evaluation of the effective active power reserve for fast
frequency response of PV with BESS inverters considering reactive power control.
Energies 2020;13. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13133437.
[77] Hosseinipour A, Hojabri H. Virtual inertia control of PV systems for dynamic
performance and damping enhancement of DC microgrids with constant power
loads. IET Renew Power Gener 2018;12:430–8. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-
rpg.2017.0468.
[78] Showers SO, Raji AK. Frequency regulation of grid connected solar PV system
using battery storage system. Proc 27th Int Conf Domest Use Energy, DUE 2019
2019:176–82.
[79] You S, Liu Y, Liu Y, Till A, Li H, Su Y, et al. Energy storage for frequency control in
high photovoltaic power grids. EUROCON 2019 - 18th Int Conf Smart Technol
2019;8–13. https://doi.org/10.1109/EUROCON.2019.8861993.
[80] Wang X, Yue M. Design of energy storage system to improve inertial response for
large scale PV generation. IEEE Power Energy Soc Gen Meet 2016;2016-Novem.
https://doi.org/10.1109/PESGM.2016.7741690.
[81] Nanou SI, Papakonstantinou AG, Papathanassiou SA. A generic model of two-
stage grid-connected PV systems with primary frequency response and inertia
emulation. Elec Power Syst Res 2015;127:186–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
epsr.2015.06.011.
[82] Datta M, Senjyu T, Yona A, Funabashi T, Kim C-H. A frequency-control approach
by photovoltaic generator in a PV–diesel hybrid power system. Energy
Conversion, IEEE Trans 2011;26:559–71. https://doi.org/10.1109/
TEC.2010.2089688.
[83] Abd-Elazim SM, Ali ES. Firefly algorithm-based load frequency controller design
of a two area system composing of PV grid and thermal generator. Electr Eng
2018;100:1253–62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00202-017-0576-5.
[84] Abd-Elazim SM, Ali ES. Load frequency controller design via BAT algorithm for
nonlinear interconnected power system. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst 2016;77:
166–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2015.11.029.
[85] Indian Wind Turbine Manufacturers Association (IWTMA) PTFPL. Windergy India
2021, fourth ed. International Trade Fair & Conference. Wind India n.d. htt
ps://www.windergy.in/market-scenario.
[86] Srivastava S, Jain S, Lee J, Zhao F, Jayasurya F, Lathigara A, et al. India Wind
Outlook Towards 2022. 2020.
[87] Brahma SM, Chaudhary M, Ranade SJ. Some findings about equivalencing
windfarms with type 1 and type 2 induction generators. In: NAPS 2011 - 43rd
North Am Power Symp; 2011. p. 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/
NAPS.2011.6025119.
[88] Boyle J, Littler T, Foley A. Review of frequency stability services for grid
balancing with wind generation. J Eng 2018;2018:1061–5. https://doi.org/
10.1049/joe.2018.0276.
[89] Lalor G, Mullane A, O’Malley M. Frequency control and wind turbine
technologies. IEEE Trans Power Syst 2005;20:1905–13.
[90] Hajiakbari Fini M, Hamedani Golshan ME. Determining optimal virtual inertia
and frequency control parameters to preserve the frequency stability in islanded
microgrids with high penetration of renewables. Elec Power Syst Res 2018;154:
13–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2017.08.007.
M. Debanjan and K. Karuna
[91] Pradhan C, Bhende C. Enhancement in primary frequency contribution using
dynamic deloading of wind turbines. IFAC-PapersOnLine 2015;48:13–8. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ifacol.2015.12.346.
[93] Ma HT, Chowdhury BH. Working towards frequency regulation with wind plants
Combined control approaches. IET Renew Power Gener 2010;4:308–16. https://
doi.org/10.1049/iet-rpg.2009.0100.
[94] Ramtharan G, Ekanayake J, Jenkins N. Frequency support from doubly fed
induction generator wind turbines. Renew Power Gener IET 2007;1:3–9. https://
doi.org/10.1049/iet-rpg:20060019.
[95] Janssens NA, Lambin G, Bragard N. Active Power Control Strategies of DFIG Wind
Turbines. In: 2007 IEEE Lausanne Power Tech; 2007. p. 516–21. https://doi.org/
10.1109/PCT.2007.4538370.
[96] Zhangjie C, Xiaoru W, Jin T. Control strategy of large-scale DFIG-based wind farm
for power grid frequency regulation. Proc. 31st Chin Control Conf 2012:6835–40.
[97] Wu Z, Gao W, Wang J, Gu S. A coordinated primary frequency regulation from
permanent Magnet synchronous wind turbine generation. 2012 IEEE Power
electron Mach Wind Appl 2012:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/
PEMWA.2012.6316405.
[98] Peng B, Zhang F, Liang J, Ding L, Liang Z, Wu Q. Coordinated control strategy for
the short-term frequency response of a DFIG-ES system based on wind speed zone
classification and fuzzy logic control. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst 2019;107:
363–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2018.11.010.
[99] Worku MY, Abido MA, Iravani R. Power fluctuation minimization in grid
connected photovoltaic using supercapacitor energy storage system. J Renew
Sustain Energy 2016;8:13501. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4942547.
[100] Ye H, Liu Y, Pei W, Kong L. Efficient droop-based primary frequency control
from variable-speed wind turbines and energy storage systems. 2017 IEEE
Transp. Electrif. Conf. Expo, Asia-Pacific (ITEC Asia-Pacific), 2017, p. 1–5. https
://doi.org/10.1109/ITEC-AP.2017.8080968.
[101] Zhang S, Mishra Y, Shahidehpour M. Fuzzy-logic based frequency controller for
wind farms augmented with energy storage systems. IEEE Trans Power Syst 2016;
31:1595–603. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRS.2015.2432113.
[102] Khalid M, Savkin AV. An optimal operation of wind energy storage system for
frequency control based on model predictive control. Renew Energy 2012;48:
127–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2012.03.038.
[103] Zhao H, Wu Q, Hu S, Xu H, Rasmussen CN. Review of energy storage system for
wind power integration support. Appl Energy 2015;137:545–53. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.04.103.
[104] Esmaili A, Novakovic B, Nasiri A, Abdel-Baqi O. A hybrid system of Li-ion
capacitors and flow battery for dynamic wind energy support. IEEE Trans Ind
Appl 2013;49:1649–57. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIA.2013.2255112.
[105] Mendis N, Muttaqi KM, Perera S. Management of low- and high-frequency power
components in demand-generation fluctuations of a DFIG-based wind-dominated
RAPS system using hybrid energy storage. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 2014;50:2258–68.
https://doi.org/10.1109/TIA.2013.2289973.
[106] Musarrat MN, Islam MR, Muttaqi KM, Sutanto D. Enhanced frequency support
from a PMSG-based wind energy conversion system integrated with a high
temperature SMES in standalone power supply systems. IEEE Trans Appl
Supercond 2019;29:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/TASC.2018.2882429.
[107] Díaz-González F, Hau M, Sumper A, Gomis-Bellmunt O. Coordinated operation of
wind turbines and flywheel storage for primary frequency control support. Int J
Electr Power Energy Syst 2015;68:313–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijepes.2014.12.062.
[108] Alam MS, Al-Ismail FS, Salem A, Abido MA. High-level penetration of renewable
energy sources into grid utility: challenges and solutions. IEEE Access 2020;8:
190277–99. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2020.3031481.
[109] Ekanayake J, Jenkins N. Comparison of the response of doubly fed and fixed-
speed induction generator wind turbines to changes in network frequency. IEEE
Trans Energy Convers 2004;19:800–2. https://doi.org/10.1109/
TEC.2004.827712.
[110] Morren J, Pierik J, de Haan SWH. Inertial response of variable speed wind
turbines. Elec Power Syst Res 2006;76:980–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
epsr.2005.12.002.
[111] Wu L, Infield DG. Towards an assessment of power system frequency support from
wind plant—modeling aggregate inertial response. IEEE Trans Power Syst 2013;
28:2283–91. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRS.2012.2236365.
[112] Zhang Z, Wang Y, Li H, Su X. Comparison of inertia control methods for DFIG-
based wind turbines. In: 2013 IEEE ECCE Asia Downunder; 2013. p. 960–4.
https://doi.org/10.1109/ECCE-Asia.2013.6579222.
[113] Göksu Ö, Teodorescu R, Rodriguez P, Helle L. A Review of the State of the Art in
Control of Variable-Speed Wind Turbines. 9 th Int. Work. Large-Scale Integr.
Wind Power into Power Syst. as well as Transm. Networks Offshore Wind Power
Plants. 2010.
[114] Hughes FM, Anaya-Lara O, Jenkins N, Strbac G. Control of DFIG-based wind
generation for power network support. IEEE Trans Power Syst 2005;20:1958–66.
https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRS.2005.857275.
[115] Jovcic D, Lamont LA, Xu L. VSC transmission model for analytical studies. 2003
IEEE Power Eng. Soc. Gen. Meet. (IEEE Cat. No.03CH37491), vols. 3, 2003, p.
1737-1742 Vol. vol. 3. https://doi.org/10.1109/PES.2003.1267418.
[116] Midtsund T, Suul JA, Undeland T. Evaluation of current controller performance
and stability for voltage source converters connected to a weak grid. 2nd Int.
Symp. Power Electron. Distrib. Gener. Syst. 2010:382–8. https://doi.org/
10.1109/PEDG.2010.5545794.
[117] Wang S, Hu J, Yuan X. Virtual synchronous control for grid-connected DFIG-based
wind turbines. IEEE J Emerg Sel Top Power Electron 2015;3:932–44. https://doi.
org/10.1109/JESTPE.2015.2418200.
21
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842
[118] Hung CT, Williams PT. Pericles_Exported_Citations n.d.:258–273.
[119] Ullah NR, Thiringer T, Karlsson D. Temporary primary frequency control support
by variable speed wind turbines— potential and applications. IEEE Trans Power
Syst 2008;23:601–12. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRS.2008.920076.
[120] Hansen AD, Altin M, Margaris ID, Iov F, Tarnowski GC. Analysis of the short-term
overproduction capability of variable speed wind turbines. Renew Energy 2014;
68:326–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2014.02.012.
[121] El Itani S, Annakkage UD, Joos G. Short-term frequency support utilizing inertial
response of DFIG wind turbines. In: 2011 IEEE Power Energy Soc. Gen. Meet.;
2011. p. 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1109/PES.2011.6038914.
[122] Jahan E, Hazari MR, Muyeen SM, Umemura A, Takahashi R, Tamura J. Primary
frequency regulation of the hybrid power system by deloaded PMSG-based
offshore wind farm using centralised droop controller. J Eng 2019;2019:4950–4.
https://doi.org/10.1049/joe.2018.9326.
[123] Yao W, Lee KY. A control configuration of wind farm for load-following and
frequency support by considering the inertia issue. In: 2011 IEEE Power Energy
Soc. Gen. Meet.; 2011. p. 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/PES.2011.6039511.
[124] Rathinadurai Louis J, Shanmugam S. Estimating PMSG wind turbines by inertia
and droop control schemes with intelligent fuzzy controller in Indian
development. J Electr Eng Technol 2014;9:1196–201. https://doi.org/10.5370/
JEET.2014.9.4.1196.
[125] NHA. Challenges and Opportunities For New Pumped Storage Development.
2013. p. 6–33.
[126] King M, Jain A, Bhakar R, Mathur J, Wang J. Overview of current compressed air
energy storage projects and analysis of the potential underground storage
capacity in India and the UK. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2021;139:110705.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.110705.
[127] Ela E, Kirby B, Botterud A, Milostan C, Krad I, Koritarov V. The role of pumped
storage hydro resources in electricity markets and system operation. Proc Hydro
Vis Int 2013;1–10.
[128] Nobile E, Sari G, Schwery A. Variable Speed Hydro Pumped Storage as Flexible
Enabler of Intermittent Renewable Penetration. In: 2018 IEEE Power Energy Soc.
Gen. Meet. .; 2018. p. 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1109/PESGM.2018.8586238.
[129] Rehman S, Al-Hadhrami LM, Alam MM. Pumped hydro energy storage system: a
technological review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;44:586–98. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.12.040.
[130] Salimath G, Singh NK, Badge SS. Coordination and performance analysis of
pumped hydro storage system integrated with solar, wind hybrid system. Int Conf
Energy, Commun Data Anal Soft Comput 2017;2017:160–4. https://doi.org/
10.1109/ICECDS.2017.8389718.
[131] Blakers A, Lu B, Stocks M, Anderson K, Nadolny A. Pumped hydro energy storage
to support 100% renewable electricity. In: 2018 IEEE 7th World Conf. Photovolt.
Energy Convers. (A Jt. Conf. 45th IEEE PVSC, 28th PVSEC 34th EU PVSEC); 2018.
p. 3672–5. https://doi.org/10.1109/PVSC.2018.8548026.
[132] Luo X, Wang J, Dooner M, Clarke J. Overview of current development in electrical
energy storage technologies and the application potential in power system
operation. Appl Energy 2015;137:511–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apenergy.2014.09.081.
[133] Aghahosseini A, Breyer C. Assessment of geological resource potential for
compressed air energy storage in global electricity supply. Energy Convers Manag
2018;169:161–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.05.058.
[134] He W, Luo X, Evans D, Busby J, Garvey S, Parkes D, et al. Exergy storage of
compressed air in cavern and cavern volume estimation of the large-scale
compressed air energy storage system. Appl Energy 2017;208:745–57. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.09.074.
[135] Gür TM. Review of electrical energy storage technologies{,} materials and
systems: challenges and prospects for large-scale grid storage. Energy Environ Sci
2018;11:2696–767. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8EE01419A.
[136] Chen L, Zheng T, Mei S, Xue X, Liu B, Lu Q. Review and prospect of compressed
air energy storage system. J Mod Power Syst Clean Energy 2016;4:529–41.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40565-016-0240-5.
[137] Chen H, Zhang X, Liu J, Tan C. Compressed air energy storage. In: Zobaa AF,
editor. Energy Storage. Rijeka: IntechOpen; 2013. https://doi.org/10.5772/
52221.
[138] Boicea VA. Energy storage technologies: the past and the present. Proc IEEE 2014;
102:1777–94. https://doi.org/10.1109/JPROC.2014.2359545.
[139] Cleary B, Duffy A, OConnor A, Conlon M, Fthenakis V. Assessing the economic
benefits of compressed air energy storage for mitigating wind curtailment. IEEE
Trans Sustain Energy 2015;6:1021–8. https://doi.org/10.1109/
TSTE.2014.2376698.
[140] Vongmanee V. The renewable energy applications for uninterruptible power
supply based on compressed air energy storage system. In: 2009 IEEE Symp Ind
Electron Appl. 2; 2009. p. 827–30. https://doi.org/10.1109/
ISIEA.2009.5356337.
[141] DNV GL Energy Advisory (for EirGrid plc). RoCoF Alternative Solutions
Technology Assessment: High level assessment of frequency measurement and
FFR type technologies and the relation with the present status for the reliable
detection of high RoCoF events in a adequate time frame. 2015. p. 62.
[142] Yu J, Fang J, Tang Y. Inertia Emulation by Flywheel Energy Storage System for
Improved Frequency Regulation. In: 2018 IEEE 4th South. Power Electron. Conf.;
2018. p. 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1109/SPEC.2018.8635947.
[143] Lu N, Weimar MR, Makarov YV, Rudolph FJ, Murthy SN, Arseneaux J, et al.
Evaluation of the flywheel potential for providing regulation service in California.
In: IEEE PES Gen. Meet.; 2010. p. 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/
PES.2010.5590114.
M. Debanjan and K. Karuna
[144] Jauch C, Hippel S. Hydraulic-pneumatic flywheel system in a wind turbine rotor
for inertia control. IET Renew Power Gener 2016;10:33–41. https://doi.org/
10.1049/iet-rpg.2015.0223.
[145] Yao J, Yu M, Gao W, Zeng X. Frequency regulation control strategy for PMSG
wind-power generation system with flywheel energy storage unit. IET Renew
Power Gener 2017;11:1082–93. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-rpg.2016.0047.
[146] NGK Insulators LTD. Structure of NAS energy storage system, vol. 3; 2016.
https://www.ngk-insulators.com/en/product/nas-about.html.
[147] U.S. Department of Energy. Grid Energy Storage Report. 2013.
[148] Commission IE. Electrical Energy Storage. 2011. Geneva, Switzerland.
[149] Hossain MJ, Pota HR, Mahmud MA, Aldeen M. Robust control for power sharing
in microgrids with low-inertia wind and PV generators. IEEE Trans Sustain Energy
2015;6:1067–77. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSTE.2014.2317801.
[150] Brogan PV, Best RJ, Morrow DJ, McKinley K, Kubik ML. Effect of BESS response
on frequency and RoCoF during underfrequency transients. IEEE Trans Power
Syst 2019;34:575–83. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRS.2018.2862147.
[151] Kim Y, Kim E, Moon S. Frequency and voltage control strategy of standalone
microgrids with high penetration of intermittent renewable generation systems.
IEEE Trans Power Syst 2016;31:718–28. https://doi.org/10.1109/
TPWRS.2015.2407392.
[152] Gonzalez-Longatt FM, Alhejaj SM. Enabling inertial response in utility-scale
battery energy storage system. In: 2016 IEEE Innov. Smart Grid Technol. - Asia;
2016. p. 605–10. https://doi.org/10.1109/ISGT-Asia.2016.7796453.
[153] Tønnesen AE, Pedersen AH, Nielsen AH, Knöpfli A. Electricity storage
technologies for short term power system services at transmission level. Power
2010;1–74.
22
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 168 (2022) 112842
[154] Ayamolowo OJ, Manditereza P, Kusakana K. An overview of inertia requirement
in modern renewable energy sourced grid: challenges and way forward. J Electr
Syst Inf Technol 2022;9:11.
[155] Knap V, Sinha R, Swierczynski M, Stroe D, Chaudhary S. Grid inertial response
with Lithium-ion battery energy storage systems. 2014 IEEE 23rd Int Symp Ind
Electron 2014:1817–22. https://doi.org/10.1109/ISIE.2014.6864891.
[156] Fang J, Tang Y, Li H, Li X. A battery/ultracapacitor hybrid energy storage system
for implementing the power management of virtual synchronous generators. IEEE
Trans Power Electron 2018;33:2820–4. https://doi.org/10.1109/
TPEL.2017.2759256.
[157] Akram U, Khalid M. A coordinated frequency regulation framework based on
hybrid battery-ultracapacitor energy storage technologies. IEEE Access 2018;6:
7310–20. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2017.2786283.
[158] Rocabert J, Capó-Misut R, Muñoz-Aguilar RS, Candela JI, Rodriguez P. Control of
energy storage system integrating electrochemical batteries and supercapacitors
for grid-connected applications. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 2019;55:1853–62. https://
doi.org/10.1109/TIA.2018.2873534.
[159] Ratnam KS, Palanisamy K, Yang G. Future low-inertia power systems:
requirements, issues, and solutions - a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2020;
124:109773. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.109773.
[160] IRENA. Global Energy Transformation: A Roadmap to 2050. 2018. https://doi.
org/10.1057/9780230244092.
[161] REN21. Renewable 2017, Global Status Report, vol. 72; 2017.
[163] Gonzalez-Longatt F, Chikuni E, Rashayi E. Effects of the Synthetic Inertia from
wind power on the total system inertia after a frequency disturbance. Proc IEEE
Int Conf Ind Technol 2013:826–32. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICIT.2013.6505779.