British Airways Engineering Training Electrical Fundamentals - Book 1

B r i t i s h A i r w a y s E n g i n e e r i n g T r a i n i n g
Electrical Fundamentals – Book 1
Your Course Notes
These notes have been prepared by British Airways Engineering

Training to provide a source of reference during your period of
training.
The information presented is as correct as possible at the time of

printing and is not subject to amendment action.
They will be useful to you during your training, but I must

emphasise that the appropriate Approved Technical Publications
must always be used when you are actually working on the
aircraft.
JIM WILLIAMSON
TRAINING STANDARDS AND AUTHORISATIONS MANAGER
Electrical Fundamentals - Book 1 - ETBN0479 Page 1 of 102 EASA Part 66

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Contents
Introduction..................................................................................... 3 Meters in Circuits.......................................................................... 59

Electrical Safety.............................................................................. 4 Voltmeters & Ammeters in a Practical Circuit............................... 62
Electron Theory .............................................................................. 9 Questions ..................................................................................... 64
Conduction ................................................................................... 12 Generation of Electricity ............................................................... 67
a.c. verses D.C............................................................................. 14 Batteries ....................................................................................... 70
Basic Electrical Definitions – Charge and Current ....................... 15 Leakage and Insulation Tests....................................................... 78
Basic Electrical Definitions – Voltage and EMF ........................... 17 Chemical Principle of Nickel Cadmium Batteries ......................... 79
Basic Electrical Definitions – Potential Difference........................ 18 The Silver Zinc (SiZn) Cell............................................................ 83
Basic Electrical Definitions - Resistance ...................................... 19 Connecting Cells or Batteries - Series.......................................... 84
Multiples and Sub Multiples.......................................................... 24 Connecting Cells or Batteries - Parallel........................................ 85
Effects of Temperature on Resistance ......................................... 25 Voltage Rating .............................................................................. 86
The Basic Electrical Circuit........................................................... 27 Capacity Rating ............................................................................ 87
Electrical Work, Power and Energy.............................................. 28 Thermal Runaway ........................................................................ 88
Resistors ...................................................................................... 30 Battery Inspection, Service and Maintenance .............................. 89
Resistors - Component Value Identification ................................. 34 Battery Charging........................................................................... 91
Ohms Law .................................................................................... 38 Pressure as a Source of electricity ............................................... 95
Kirchoff’s Laws ............................................................................. 42 Light and Electricity ...................................................................... 97
Dividers ........................................................................................ 45 Thermoelectricity ........................................................................ 100
Combinational Circuits ................................................................. 48 Magnetism and Motion ............................................................... 102
Power in Series and Parallel Circuits ........................................... 53
Fuses and Circuit Breakers .......................................................... 54
The Wheatstone Bridge................................................................ 55
EMF, Terminal PD and Internal Resistance ................................. 57

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Introduction
Electricity is probably the most useful and versatile type of energy Some terms and concepts which must be understood are:
available to mankind. To understand the nature of electricity, the
laws it obeys and the basic electrical properties of materials used • Electric charge: a property of some subatomic particles,
in circuits, the very construction of matter has to be studied. which determines their electromagnetic interactions.
Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces,
It is, however, very dangerous and must be treated with the electromagnetic fields.
greatest respect. Whilst it is necessary to the operation of the • Electric current: a movement or flow of electrically
human body, and in particular the nervous system, too much charged particles through a material, typically measured in
electricity, or misapplied electrical energy can cause serious amperes. It’s flow may be used to do work.
damage or death. • Static electricity: a stationary electrical charge which may
be built-up and stored on certain materials through friction
Electricity is a general term encompassing a variety of phenomena or other natural phenomina. Can produce an electrostatic
resulting from the presence and flow of an electric charge. The field
word comes from the Greek word ‘electron’ meaning amber • Electric field: an influence produced by a static or current
because the earliest observations of electrical effects were made electric charge on other charges in its vicinity.
by rubbing amber to generate static electricity. • Electric potential: a difference in charge state or ‘potential’
between two points that causes a current to flow if a
Recognisable phenomena include lightning, static electricity, and suitable path is available, typically measured in volts.
the flow of electrical current in an electrical wire while the less • Electromagnetism: a fundamental interaction between the
familiar concepts include the electromagnetic field and magnetic field and the presence and motion of an electric
electromagnetic induction. charge.
• Electrical power: typically provided by an electrical
Electrical phenomena have been studied since ancient times, generator. It provides the potential for a current to flow and
although advances in the science were not made until the do work on the components of an electrical circuit.
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. By the late nineteenth
• Electrical Circuit: a network of components connected by
century engineers were able to put it to industrial and residential
current conducting materials to produce an output of some
use. The rapid expansion in electrical technology at this time
sort. Normally a loop which allows the power source to
transformed industry and society. Electricity's extraordinary
apply a potential across the components.
versatility means that it can be put to an almost limitless set of
applications which include transport, heating, lighting,
communications, and computation. Electrical power is the
backbone of modern industrial society, and is essential in modern
aviation.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Electrical Safety
Our skin provides us with a natural barrier or resistance of

approximately 1,000 to 100,000 ohms depending on several
factors including skin thickness and surface moisture.
Alternating Current or ac is the type of electricity supplied by wall

outlets. In the United Kingdom the direction of flow of ac changes
at a rate of 50 cycles/sec (hertz). Direct current or DC flows in one
direction.
Properties: Shocks involving ac tend to push the recipient away

while shocks involving DC tend to grab hold of the recipient
making it difficult for them to get away from the shock source.
Lower levels of ac than DC will produce painful shocks in humans

while lower levels of DC than ac can lead to fibrillation of the heart
muscle. Women are more sensitive to the effects of both ac and
DC than are men.
Yearly Statistics involving Electrical Accidents in the UK.
200,000 - Accidents, over 1000 at work (HSE)
150,000 - Fires
700 - Deaths, over 25 at work (HSE)
Electrical Accidents are the third leading cause of industrial deaths

in the UK
Voltage is almost always a constant so electrical current levels are

determined by the resistance to flow. When there is a potential for
electrical shock we can protect ourselves by maximising our
resistance to current flow.
This is done by wearing insulating shoes and gloves, and by not

making direct contact with a source of ground potential such as
plumbing or other sources of ground.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Electrical Safety
The nervous system of the human body controls all movements.

The system carries electrical signals between the BRAIN and the
muscles. The signals are electro-chemical in nature, with electrical
levels in milli-volts.
Electric shock increases the levels so much so, that the normal
body signals become swamped. These large shock currents can
cause the “no-let-go” effect.
The effects of shock vary depending on the current imposed on the

nervous system.
Damage incurred on the human body depends on 2 main factors;

• the value of shock current flowing
• the time for which it flows
The human body can be considered a circuit through which an

applied voltage will drive a current.
The value of that current depends upon the resistance of the

current path.
The impedance of the body depends upon many factors;

• applied V
• current level & duration
• area of contact
• pressure ( physical )
• condition of skin (dry, soft)
• body temp.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Electrical Safety
Effects of current passing through the body.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Electrical Safety
One parellel path via feet . Two parallel paths, one via hands, one via feet.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Electrical Safety
Typical Shock Values Questions
1mA+ produces sensation called shock If your skin has a resistance of 100,000 ohms, and you touch a 9-
10mA becomes painful volt battery, what current will flow through you?
100mA+ usually fatal
500mA for less than 20mS may have no lasting effects What current will flow through you if you touch 240-volt house
50mA for 10Sec likely to be fatal potential?
Most fatalities come from: Soaked in seawater, your resistance is lowered to 100 ohms. Now
• Ventricular fibrillation how much current will flow through you if you touch the 9-volt
• Compression of the chest (failure to breathe). battery?
Treatment Soaked in seawater, what current will flow through you if you touch
the 240-volt house potential?
SWITCH OFF SUPPLY before touching victim
Send for qualified medical assistance immediately Assume your skin has a resistance of 100,000 W. How much
Give First Aid voltage (potential) would be needed to produce a current:
Emergency telephone number is …………………….. • that could be felt?
BA medical support line ………………………………. • that would be painful?
• that would probably be fatal?
Know what to do - remember it could be you.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Electron Theory
The Structure of Matter Structure of the Atom.
All pure substances are made up from a relatively few basic The word "atom" is Greek and it means "cannot be split". We now
substances called elements, either separately or combined know that atoms can be split and that they split into protons,
together to form a compound. There are 92 such elements neutrons and electrons.
occurring naturally.
The protons and neutrons are roughly equal in mass and form the
The ultimate particle to which an element can be reduced to is atom's nucleus. Protons have a positive charge, neutrons are
called the atom. However, many elements cannot exist in a stable neutral.
form as individual atoms, but only in groups of atoms. The
smallest part of an element or compound that normally exists in a
free state is the molecule. The molecule of an element may consist of
one or more atoms of that element. The molecule of a compound
consists of two or more atoms of different elements. For example,
the molecule of the element oxygen is made up of two oxygen atoms
(O2), whereas the compound of water is made up of two hydrogen
atoms and one oxygen atom (H2O). In a pure compound each
molecule contains the same number of atoms of each element. It
follows therefore that elements can only combine to form
compounds in certain fixed proportions.
Of course, not all

substances are pure
in the sense that
every molecule is
identical. Many of the
substances met in
every day life are
simply mixtures of
elements or
compounds. Electrons are much lower in mass but have a negative charge of
the same value as the proton’s positive charge. They orbit the
nucleus like the planets orbit the Sun (Bohr Model).

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Electron Theory
All atoms are striving to become neutrally charged, e.g. the The Positive Ion
charges of the Protons and Electrons are equal In some materials the outer electrons can easily be detached from
the atom, requiring only a small amount of external energy to
The Atomic number is determined by the number of Protons e.g. 1 overcome the attraction of the nucleus. Sources of such energy
Proton, the Atomic number is 1 (hydrogen), 6 Protons, Atomic may be heat, light, electrostatic fields etc.
number is 6 (Carbon).
The electron once
detached from the
atom is able to
move around the
structure of the
material and is
called a “Free
Electron”. The atom
which has lost the
The Atomic Mass is the number of Protons and the number of
electron has now
Neutrons. Therefore Hydrogen has an Atomic Mass of 2 and
gained an overall
Carbon an Atomic Mass of 12.
positive charge and
is therefore called a
The Oxygen atom consists of 8
“Positive Ion”.
Protons, 8 Neutrons and 8
Electrons. This is a “stable” atom.
Its 8 electrons are in 2 shells, M
The Negative Ion
and K. The inner K shell has only 2
electrons in it, the second shell has Likewise, when an atom
6 electrons. The second shell, gains an electron in its
however, is capable of taking 8 outer orbit it becomes
electrons. overall negatively charged
and is called a “Negative
Ion”

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
The Copper Atom
Since copper is the most commonly used metal in electrical When the valence electron in the outer shell of the copper atom
applications we shall examine its atomic structure. gains sufficient energy from the surrounding medium (sources
such as heat, light etc.), it can break free from the parent atom. It
The copper atom has 29 electrons in orbit around the nucleus. now becomes a “free electron”. These free electrons are capable
These are spread over 4 shells at varying distances from the of moving from one atom to another within the material. This
nucleus. The number of electrons in each shell is predictable and movement is random.
is structured according to the formula 2N2 where N is the number
in the shell. The first shell can have up to 2 electrons, the second The Aluminium Atom
8, the third 18 and the forth up to 32 electrons.
The most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust is Aluminium. It is
also a very good conductor but electrically it is not as good as
copper. Note it has three valent electrons.
The copper atom has 29 electrons as mentioned which means that

the outer shell has only 1 electron. This electron is called a
“Valence Electron”.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Conduction
An electric current is a flow of electric charges. The current can flow In spite of all this intense activity within the interior of the metal, there
quite easily through some materials; we call these conductors, and is no overall movement of electrons, and the piece of metal as a
finds it nearly impossible through others; we call these insulators. whole is electrically neutral since the total number of negative
charges are equal to the positive charges.
Let us now think of how current flows through a conductor. Most
conductors are metals such as copper, silver and gold. All metals have If we now bring an external charge near that metal the electrons
less than their full complement of electrons in the outer shell, and will be forced into a flow either towards the charge or away from
those that are present are loosely bound to their parent atom. it depending on the type of external charge. If the external charge
They can easily be detached from the atom and move about in the was a battery, we know it has two terminals a positive and negative.
space between atoms. For this reason they are called free Therefore the electrons of our metal would be attracted to the
electrons. So if an electron leaves, remember it takes its negative positive terminal and you have a instantaneous current flow.
charge with it, leaving behind a positive ion. The interior of the You would also get a force of attraction of the positive ions towards
metal under normal conditions can now be visualized as a the negative terminal but as the are held in the crystal lattice they
framework of positive ions in a fixed regular pattern known as a cannot move. We will look at these two current flows a little later.
crystal lattice, through which the free electrons may move freely.
At temperatures above absolute zero the free electrons are in a
constant state of motion which changes with temperature. The
positive ions are also vibrating about their mean position in the
crystal lattice.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Conduction
Electron Flow v Conventional Current Flow Both Conventional Current and Electron Flow are used by industry.
Many textbooks are available in both Electron Flow and
Conventional Current assumes that current flows out of the Conventional Current formats.
positive terminal, through the circuit and into the negative terminal
of the source. This was the convention chosen during the
discovery of electricity. They were wrong!
In fact, it makes no difference which way current is flowing as long

as it is used consistently. The direction of current flow does not
Electron Flow is what actually happens and electrons flow out of affect what the current does.
the negative terminal, through the circuit and into the positive
terminal of the source.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
a.c. verses D.C.
In D.C. (Direct Current), the current flows in one direction only Detection
through the circuit. Some circuits will not function unless D.C. is
applied to it as they are polarity conscious. Typical sources of D.C. Electric current can be detected by the presence of one or more of
are batteries, solar panels, D.C. Generators. the following effects:
a. Light e.g. light bulb, LED
b. Heat e.g. electric heaters, power effects – losses
c. Magnetism e.g. relays (electromagnets), motors,

In a.c. (Alternating Current), the current flows first in one direction, generators
then the other direction. This current change happens at the speed
of the supply frequency e.g. 50 cycles per second (Hz).. Many d. Chemical e.g. batteries
circuits are non-polarity conscious and will happily run on a.c. as
well as D.C. e.g. light bulb, heaters kettles. Typical sources of a.c. e. Pressure e.g. piezo electric
are Inverters, a.c. generators (alternators). Note the use of upper
and lower case when discussing a.c. or D.C. f. Friction e.g. static
g. Feel e.g. shock

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Basic Electrical Definitions – Charge and Current
Here we will look at the basic electrical terminology, their Current (I) Unit = Ampere (A)
meanings, units and physical parameters.
This is the “Rate of Flow of Charge (Q)”. It has the units of
The basic units we will look at are: Ampere’s (A)
• Charge
• Current
• Voltage
• Potential & Potential Difference
• Electromotive Force (emf)
• Conventional/Electron Flow (already discussed)
• Resistance
• Conductance & Conductivity
• Power
Charge (Q) Unit = Coulomb (C)

We have seen that a current of electricity (symbol I) is a flow of
electrons but the electron itself is too small to be of use as the unit
of electrical quantity and therefore a more practical unit consisting of
One Amp is equal to one coulomb ( C) per second, or 6.21 x 1018
many millions of electrons has been chosen. In the same way as a
electrons passing any given point in a circuit in 1 second, or
bushel is used as a convenient alternative to counting several
millions grains of wheat, the unit employed to measure electric
Q
I= (where t = time in seconds)
charge is the COULOMB. One Coulomb (C ) is the total charge ( Q ) t
of 6.21 x 1018 or 6.21 million, million, million electrons, or one electron
has a charge of 1.61 x 10-19 C. e.g. if a steady current of 2A flows for one minute then the amount
of charge (Q) transferred will be:
Note that this is a Quantity of electricity (Q) not a measure of
current, but it is used to define the unit of electrical current the Q
AMPERE (A). I= ∴ Q = It = 2 x60 = 120Coloumbs
t

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Basic Electrical Definitions
Examples:
If a total charge of 500C is to be transferred in 20sec, what current

must flow?
A current of 12.5A passes for 2 minutes. What quantity of

electricity is transferred?
A current of 0.15A must transfer a charge of 450C. For how long

must the current pass?

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Basic Electrical Definitions – Voltage and EMF
Voltage (V), (E), (p.d.), (emf) Water Analogy

Voltage is sometimes defined as Electrical Pressure. This
The force which creates the flow of current in a circuit is known as electrical pressure forces the electrons to move through a load.
the electromotive force (emf) and it magnitude is measured in
Volts Potential Difference (p.d.) is the voltage difference, or voltage
drop between two points.
One volt is the potential difference between two points if one joule
of energy is required to move one coulomb (6.2 x 1018 electrons)
between them.
The greater the voltage of a supply source, the greater its potential
to produce a current flow. Thus, a 115 volt supply has 115 times
the potential to produce a current flow than a 1 volt supply.
The unit of voltage is the volt (V).
W
V =
Q
where W = Power & Q = Charge
There is a relationship between V & I, in that Q = It. Therefore the

above equation can be transformed into. Electromotive Force
To make use of electricity by provision of an electric current, the
W potential difference must be maintained.
V=
It That is, the positive and negative charge must be continuously
replenished. A cell (or battery) uses chemical energy to maintain
the potential difference until such time that it is also depleted of
charge.
The unit of electromotive force is the Volt and its symbol (E)

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Basic Electrical Definitions – Potential Difference
Potential Difference
If 100V is applied across a circuit between points A & E then a p.d.
of 100V is said to exist. If we then were to measure the points B, C
& D we could find the measurements 60V, 30V & 10V respectively.
The following potential difference could be measured in the circuit
A-B 40V
B–C 30V
C–D 20V
D–E 10V
Below shows the p.d’s across various points.
A B C D E
100V 70V 40V 20V 0V
What are the potential differences between:

A–B E–D C–D
A–C E–C C–B
A–D E–B C–A
A–E E–A C–E
B–A B–C B–D
B–E

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Basic Electrical Definitions - Resistance
Resistance (R) Unit = Ohm (Ω) In general, when the applied voltage is held constant, the current
in a direct-current (DC) electrical circuit is inversely proportional to
All materials at normal temperatures oppose the movement of
the resistance. If the resistance is doubled, the current is cut in
electric charge through them and this opposition to the flow of
half; if the resistance is halved, the current is doubled.
electric current is called the RESISTANCE (R) of the material.
(This is due to collisions between the moving charges and the
This rule also holds true for most low-frequency alternating-current
atoms of the material).
(a.c.) systems, such as household utility circuits. In some a.c.
circuits, especially at high frequencies, the situation is more
The rate at which electricity flows through a circuit is affected by
complex, because some components in these systems can store
the resistance of the components and/or wires in the circuit.
and release energy, as well as dissipating or converting it.
Increased resistance results in a decrease in the amount of current
that will flow through the wire. All appliances, e.g. lights, power
The electrical resistance per unit length, area, or volume of a
tools etc. can all be thought of as resisters.
substance is known as resistivity. Resistivity figures are often
specified for copper and aluminium wire, in ohms per kilometre.
Resistance is the opposition that a substance offers to the flow of
electric current. It is represented by the uppercase letter R. The
Opposition to a.c. but not to DC, is a property known as
standard unit of resistance is the ohm, sometimes written out as a
Reactance. In an AC circuit, the resistance and reactance combine
word, and sometimes symbolized by the uppercase Greek letter
vectorially to yield Impedance.
omega (Ω). When an electric current of one ampere passes
through a component across which a potential difference (voltage) The unit of resistance is the Ohm and its symbol Ω
of one volt exists, then the resistance of that component is one
ohm.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Resistance
An electric current is a flow of free electrons through a conductor.
The size of the current flowing through a conductor for a given
applied voltage depends on:
• The number of free electrons

• The opposition to free movement of the electrons caused by
the structure of the material.
In order to produce an electric current (I) flow, a force must be

applied to the material to overcome the resistance (R). That force
is the voltage (v).
Effectively, there are 2 ways to increase or decrease the current

(I):
Picture A
• Increase or decrease the resistance of the circuit.
• Increase or decrease the applied force (V).
The two diagrams opposite develop the water analogy of an

electrical circuit.
Picture A shows a relatively low pressure with little resistance

creates a high rate of flow.
Picture B shows a relatively high pressure with high resistance

creates a similar rate of flow.
Picture B

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Resistance Factors Affecting Resistance

It can be seen that there is a relationship between Voltage, Current The factors that govern the value of the load resistance are:
and Resistance. Assuming that Voltage is stable, Current and
Resistance are inversely proportional to each other. • The material
• The cross-sectional area of the conductor
If the resistance of a circuit is increased the rate at which charge • The length of the conductor
(Q) will flow (I) is decreased. If the resistance of the circuit is • The temperature of the conductor
decreased the rate at which the charge (Q) will flow (I) is
increased. If there is no resistance the current (I) will be infinite e.g. Copper has a lower resistance to current flow than iron. A
and if there is infinite resistance there will be no current (I) flow. thin wire has greater resistance than a thick wire A long wire has
greater resistance than a short wire, a hot wire has a greater
Assuming that Resistance is stable, Current and Voltage are resistance than a cold wire, assuming the same material.
proportional to each other.
Combining these relationships it can be seen that:
If the Voltage applied to a circuit is increased the rate at which
charge (Q) will flow (I) is increased. If the voltage applied to a length l
circuit is decreased the rate at which the charge (Q) will flow (I) is Resistance = =
decreased. area a
This is given by: However, the RESISTIVITY (ρ - rho) of the material must also be
I taken into account, so the formulae becomes:
V =
R l
Resistance = ρ
a

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Application of the formula Conductance
It is sometimes more convienient to think in terms of how well a

material conducts currents rather than to think in terms of how well
it opposes current. The term “ Conductance” is often used and is
just the opposite of resistance. It is defined as the ease with which
a substance passes current flow. Mathematically, conductance is
the reciprocal of resistance.
Conductance =
The letter G is used to represent conductance, or sometimes

sigma ς
The equation can be written as;
The unit of conductance is the mho, pronounced “moe” . Notice

that mho is ohm spelt backwards.
The resistance of 1 ohm = a conductance of 1mhos, however a

resistance of 2 ohms = 0.5mhos and 1k Ω has a conductance of
0.001 mhos or 1m mhos.
In most cases it is more convienient to think in terms of ohms

(resistance ) rather than in terms of mhos ( conductance ).

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Examples
Calculate the resistance of 1000mtr of 15mm2 single copper

conductor. (Assume r to be 17.2mΩ per mm)
Calculate the resistance of 100mtr of copper wire that has a cross

sectional area of 2.48mm2 Assume r = 17.2mΩ per mm
Calculate in metres the length of aluminium conductor with a cross

sectional area of 40mm2 which will have a resistance of 0.57W.
Assume r = 17.2mΩ per mm

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Multiples and Sub Multiples
Multiple Prefix Symbol Examples:
1,000 = 103 Kilo k Write the following in S.I Units using a preferred prefix:
1,000,000 = 106 Mega M
1,000,000,000 = 109 Giga G 6000V
1,000,000,000,000 = 1012 Tera T
0.005V
Sub Multiple Prefix Symbol
0.001 = 10-3 milli m 0.003A

0.000001 = 10-6 micro μ
0.000000001 = 10-9 nano n 0.000012A
0.000000000001 = 10-12 pica p
1,200,000Ω
Examples of Multiples and Sub-multiples Write the following as a number and scientific notation:
1mA means 1 milli ampere which is 0.001 of an ampere, therefore 1.6MΩ

is a problem is one in which the current is 35mA when this is put in
the Ohms Law equation it must be written as 35 x 10-3. A voltage
of 5kV would be written as 5 x 103. Note that the symbols are not
6.5μA
used as written values of 10 to the power of. Also is a resistance is
written with a prefix i.e. Mega-ohm then the Ω is not used. 2000pF
3nA
5GHz

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Effects of Temperature on Resistance
A material which has many free electrons and will therefore allow Conductors:
current to flow is called a conductor. The greater the number the A conductor has a very large number of free electrons. It has
better its conducting properties. resistance because these free electrons, rather than passing
unobstructed through the material, collide with the relatively large
Examples of conductors are: Gold, silver, copper, aluminium, iron, and solid nuclei of the atoms. As the temperature increases, these
steel, brass, bronze, mercury, graphite, dirty water, concrete. nuclei will vibrate more and hence obstruct the path of the
electrons more, so that collisions will occur more frequently The
Of these the most common are Gold, silver, copper and result is that the resistance of conductors increases with
aluminium. Mercury is often used in gyroscopic instruments to aid temperature. This is said to have a POSITIVE TEMPERATURE
correction and erection of the gyros. CO-EFFICIENT
A material with very few free electrons cannot pass significant Insulators:
current and is called an Insulator. Due to the nature of the bonding there are no free electrons Only
those due to thermal energy, manage to break free from their fixed
Examples of insulators are glass, rubber, oil, asphalt, fibreglass, positions. As the temperature of an insulator increases, more
porcelain, ceramic, quartz, (dry) cotton, (dry) paper, (dry) wood, electrons acquire sufficient thermal energy to break free, and so
plastic, air, diamond the number of free electrons increases. The result is that
resistance of insulators decreases as temperature increases. This
The most common of these are: Rubber, plastic, air & dry paper is said to have a NEGATIVE TEMPERATURE CO-EFFICIENT
In a Semi-conductor there are a few free electrons Semi-Conductors:

Behave in much the same way as an insulator. At absolute zero it
A small current may flow. It is possible to add other atoms, called is a perfect insulator, the difference being only a matter of degree.
impurities into the semi-conductor material These modify the At room temperature very few electrons can break free in an
electrical properties of the semi-conductor material and insulator, but in a semiconductor a significant number break free.
combinations of these are used to produce various electrical Therefore in a semi-conductor as temperature increases the
devices such as diodes and transistors. Typical semi-conductors resistance decreases RAPIDLY. This is said to have a NEGATIVE
are Silicon and Germanium. TEMPERATURE CO-EFFICIENT

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Effects of Temperature on Resistance
The graph shows a comparison between the materials
NOTE: There is one more group known as Special Alloys. These

have a NEGLIGABLE TEMPERATURE CO-EFFICIENT.
This means that in essence, that the resistance remains constant

irrespective of temperature (within limits).

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
The Basic Electrical Circuit
The basic electrical circuit must consist of the following

components:
1. Power Source (V) or supply. This may be a cell, battery,

generator or solar panel to name a few. It must be large enough to
overcome the resistance and provide sufficient current to drive the
load.
2. Load. The object of the circuit. e.g. lamp, motor, heater,

electronic circuit etc. The load is the resistive element in the circuit.
There must be resistance or the current will be infinite. The object
of any circuit is to produce controlled electrical power (light, heat)
or mechanical power (motor). Electrical work is done if a quantity
of charge (coulombs) is moved between two points, which are at
different electrical potentials. The si unit of work is the joule. One
joule of work is done when a charge of one coulomb moves
through a potential difference of one volt.
3. Circuit Protection Device. This may be a fuse, circuit breaker,

current relay. It is there to protect the device AND the associated
circuitry from excessive current. No circuit is designed without a
protection device.
4. Control device. A means by which we can isolate the circuit i.e.

the load from the source. This may be a simple switch or a control
combined with the protection device as in a push-pull circuit
breaker.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Electrical Work, Power and Energy
The SI unit of Work is the joule (J), but this does not involve any
reference to time. When a 50 Newtons of force is applied through
a distance of 20 metres, the work done is the force multiplied by
the distance. In this case 50 x 20 = 1,000 joules (1kJ). The answer
is the same whether the work was done in 10 minutes or 1 hour.
Power is the work divided by time. If the work in the example was
completed in 40 seconds, the power would have been 1kJ in 40s
or 25 joules per second.
In electrical terms 1 joule is the work done by 1 amp flowing

through a resistance of 1 ohm.
Power is Work done per unit of time and can be expressed as:
Electrical Energy is the ability of an electrical system to do work.
Power = Work = joules = watts
Time sec Energy is expended when work is done and the amount of energy
used is equal to the work done. The units of energy and work are
The basic unit of power then is the watt. the same, i.e. Joules.
When large amounts of energy are involved, power per unit of time Energy = Work = Vlt (Joules)
is used, expressed in kilowatt - hours, abbreviated as kWh.
The energy a body contains may be determined by calculating the
kWh = P x T electrical work done on the body to give it that energy.
1000
Conversely, the work that a body could do if it used up all its
For example A heater rated at 1000 watts (1 kilowatt), operating
energy may be determined by calculating how much energy it
for one hour uses one kilowatt hour of energy.
contains.
Using a 60 watt light bulb for one hour consumes 0.06 kilowatt
This the rate at which work is done or the rate of conversion of
hours of electricity. Using a 60 watt light bulb for one thousand
energy by an electrical system.
hours consumes 60 kilowatt hours of electricity.
One kilowatt hour is 3.6 megajoules (1000 w x 3600 sec).

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Electrical Work, Power and Energy
As we have seen, the si unit of power is the watt, which is a rate of Questions
1 joule per second, therefore:
1. How much work is carried out if 4 coulombs of charge is moved
Work done ( joules ) VIt through a potential of 5 volts?
Power ( watts ) = =
Time taken (sec onds ) t
V2
∴ P = IV , P = I 2 R, P=
R
Power Ratings
Electrical equipment can only take a certain amount of heat 2. How much work is done when 5 amps flows through a potential
production without damage. of 2 volts for 10 minutes?
The safe power which a piece of equipment can consume without
damage is its "power rating" or "wattage rating".
Each component is given a power rating and if this is exceeded the

component will overheat. The more power consumed by a device
the more heat or light it produces in a given time. A 100w lamp
provides more light than a 60w lamp.
3. The voltage across a 1kΩ resistor is 10 volts, how much work is

carried out 30 minutes?

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Resistors
All materials resist the flow of electrons to some degree. This Surface area and size of the resistor determines the rate at which
opposition is called Resistance. It may be unwanted e.g., supply heat is dissipated from the resistor and its surrounding area.
leads, motor windings, or wanted e.g. for current limitation.
Generally the larger the physical size of the resistor, the higher its
In the case of wanted resistance, it may be necessary to add a power rating. Carbon resistors of the same resistance value are
component called a resistor. commonly available in ratings between 0.25W-2W.
Power rating of resistors When higher wattage is required, wire wound resistors may be
used with ratings of between 1W – 200W.
This power rating has a different meaning from that of a bulb. In
this case we must always keep below the stated value. To keep
below the stated power value, there are maximum permissible
values of voltage and current, which calculated as follows:
Maximum Current:
P
P = I 2R ∴ I =
R
Maximum Voltage
V2
P= ∴ V = PxR
R

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Resistor Construction
Carbon Composition: Metal Oxide or Deposited Film:

• A mixture of carbon and powder combined with resin. • A glass/ plastic core has a resistive film sprayed onto it
• Fired in a furnace to form a rod of standard length and width. • The resistance is usually determined by the depth of the coating
• Value set by length, width and ratio of mix • Film is usually of oxide or carbon
• Metal end connections • Metal end connections
• Painted for protection • Painted for protection
• Physically small • Physically small
• Poor accuracy • Better accuracy than carbon resin
• Low power ratings • Higher power ratings than carbon resin
Wire Wound:
• A length of resistive wire cut to the desire value
• Normally wound around a ceramic or plastic former
• Painted for protection
• Physically large
• Good accuracy
• High Power Ratings

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Types of Resistors
Circuit Symbols
Fixed:
As its name implies, the resistance value is fixed and cannot be
altered without replacing Fixed resistors may form part of a
variable circuit. Can by switching, be given the appearance of
being variable
Variable:
Come in both, wire wound and composite varieties Wire wound
more accurate and harder wearing A conductive arm is moved
along the resistive element increasing or decreasing the length of
resistance track
Variable Resistors

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Types of Resistors
Potentiometer:
Varies Voltage
Uses all three connections
Rheostat:
Varies Current
Uses only two connections

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Resistors - Component Value Identification
There are two commonly used forms of resistor value Exercises

identification:
Find values for;
• Alpha Numeric Coding
• Colour Coding 5R9J
Alpha Numeric Coding

33RM
By using a series of common letter, number combinations it is
possible to record the value and tolerance of a resistor using only
four or five figures from the following table. 590RG
3K3D
7M6K
Example:
Note: The multiplier letter always indicates where the decimal point
or 000 comma should be.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Colour Coding
The second and more common method of resistor value

identification is colour coding whereby a series of colour bands
around the resistor body show:
1. Value
2. Multiplier
3. Tolerance
4. Reliability (optional)
On most colour coded resistors a band at one end will be spaced

further apart than the others
When component values are presented by a colour code the

following standard applies:
The resistor should be viewed with this band to the right.
Note: The temp. co-efficient band is approx 1.5 times thickness.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Colour Coding

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Resistor Preferred Values:
Resistors are available in a number of standard ranges, often As carbon/resin resistors have some value of tolerance it is not
called 'preferred values' necessary to manufacture a multitude of various resistors
These ranges, or series, are set out by the Electronic Industries E.g. a 22kΩ with a 10% tolerance would cover a range from 19.8k
Association (EIA), and are E3, E6, E12, E24, E48, E96 and E192. to 24.2kΩ resistor
The number after the 'E' denotes the number of values the series
E6 Series at 20% Tolerance - Resistors values in Ω's
contains per decade. The E3 and E6 series aren't really used
these days; the most common series is probably E24. 1.0, 1.5, 2.2, 3.3, 4.7, 6.8
The series are logarithmic and are derived from the resistor E12 Series at 10% Tolerance - Resistors values in Ω's
tolerance; resistors with a tighter tolerance can have more values 1.0, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8, 2.2, 2.7, 3.3, 3.9, 4.7, 5.6, 6.8, 8.2
in the series that won't overlap one another.
E24 Series at 5% Tolerance - Resistors values in Ω's
The series are sometimes referred to by the tolerance, the two 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.2, 2.4, 2.7, 3.0,
being related as follows:
3.3, 3.6, 3.9, 4.3, 4.7, 5.1, 5.6, 6.2, 6.8, 7.2, 8.2, 9.1
E3: 50% tolerance E96 Series at 1% Tolerance - Resistors values in Ω's
E6: 20% tolerance
E12: 10% tolerance 1.00, 1.02, 1.05, 1.07, 1.10, 1.13, 1.15, 1.18, 1.21,
E24: 5% tolerance 1.24, 1.27, 1.30, 1.33, 1.37, 1.40, 1.43, 1.47, 1.50,
E48: 2% tolerance 1.54, 1.58, 1.62, 1.65, 1.69, 1.74, 1.78, 1.82, 1.87,
E96: 1% tolerance 1.91, 1.96, 2.00, 2.05, 2.10, 2.15, 2.21, 2.26, 2.32,
E192: less than 1% tolerance 2.37, 2.43, 2.49, 2.55, 2.61, 2.77, 2.74, 2.80, 2.87,
2.94, 3.01, 3.09, 3.16, 3.24, 3.32, 3.40, 3.48, 3.57,
When designing a circuit you need to round calculated resistor 3.65, 3.74, 3.83, 3.92, 4.02, 4.12, 4.22, 4.32, 4.42,
values to a preferred value. Normally this would be the value 4.53, 4.64, 4.75, 4.87, 4.99, 5.11, 5.23, 5.36, 5.49,
closest to the calculated one for the series you are using. However 5.62, 5.76, 5.90, 6.04, 6.19, 6.34, 6.49, 6.65, 6.81,
in some circumstances its better to round up to the next higher
6.98, 7.15, 7.32, 7.50, 7.68, 7.87, 8.06, 8.25, 8.45,
value, such as with current limiting resistors where using a value
smaller than calculated could overload a component.
8.66, 8.87, 9.09, 9.31, 9.53, 9.76

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Ohms Law
Put into words this states: Ohms Law - Ohmic and Non-Ohmic Graphs
Ohmic or linear conductors obey Ohms Law and a graph of I
“The current (I) flowing through a resistor (R) is directly against V, called a characteristic curve, is a straight line through
proportional to the voltage (V) across it, providing the temperature the origin. This graph assumes that the resistance of the circuit
remains constant”. does not change with changing temperatures e.g. a negligible
temperature co-efficient.
From this statement we can deduce:
V V
V = IR I= R=
R I
It should be noted the I & R are inversely proportional to each

other AND it assumes that temperature is constant.
Ohms Magic Circle
Complete:
The resistance of a non-ohmic or non linear conductor varies with

the p.d. This is due mainly to the increase in temperature that
corresponds to the increase in the current. Its I-V graph differs.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Total Resistance of Resistors
Before we look at complicated resistor networks let us first We can apply Ohm's Law to each resistor as follows:
consider what the opposition to current flow is in simple circuits
containing three resistors R1, R2 and R3. V1 = IR1 V2 = IR2 V3 = IR3
Series Resistors
The three resistors can be replaced by one resistor R, with the
If the three resistors are connected in series, what is the value of same current I flowing in it being produced by the applied voltage
the total resistance offered to the current flow? V. Therefore we can apply Ohm's Law to this circuit giving the
following expression:
V = IRT
Substituting expressions 3 and 2 into equation 1 gives:
IRT = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
Since I is common to all terms on each side of the equation it can

be eliminated from the expression 4 giving:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
The first thing to remember is that current cannot be 'lost', i.e. the
current flowing into a resistor is equal to the current flowing out. We see therefore that the total resistance of any number of
Therefore the current I flowing into Rl is the same in all resistors. resistors connected in series is the sum of resistances of each
Similarly, you cannot 'lose' voltage so the sum of the voltages one. You should note that all of the resistors must be expressed in
across the resistors V1, V2 and V3 must be equal to the supply ohms, the basic unit for resistance.
voltage V as shown below:
V = V1 + V2 + V3

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Parallel Resistors Applying Ohm's Law to each resistor we get the expressions:
V V V
Let us now consider a circuit in which the three resistors R1, R2 I1 = , I2 = , I3 =
and R3 are connected in parallel. R1 R2 R3
Remembering that R1, R2 and R3 can be replaced by one resistor
RT in which the current is I and the voltage across it is V, applying
Ohm's Law to this circuit we have:
V
IT =
RT
Substituting expressions 3 and 2 in equation 1 we get:
V V V V
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3
Since V is common to all terms on each side of the equation it can
be eliminated from each term resulting in:
1 1 1 1
= + +
We shall once again find the total resistance of the above circuit, RT R1 R2 R3
i.e. what is the value of a single resistor which could replace the We see therefore, that the reciprocal of the total resistance is
three resistors without changing the current I in the circuit. equal to the Sum of the reciprocals of each of the resistors
connected in parallel. Once again, the resistance of each resistor
There are two things to note in the circuit. Firstly, the total current must be expressed in ohms.
(I) in the circuit divides I1, I2 and I3 in the three resistors
respectively. Remember current cannot be lost so IT will be equal There are two things to note about the last expression. Firstly it is
to the sum of the individual currents. Secondly, the ends of each a very common mistake to fail to find the reciprocal of the result
resistor are connected to the common points A and B and the after adding the reciprocals of R1, R2, and R3, Secondly, and this
applied voltage V is also connected to points A and B, Therefore helps to check you answer, the total resistance RT is always less
the voltage V appears across each resistor. than the smallest value of R1, R2, or R3.
Consider the currents in the circuit. We have:
I T = I1 + I 2 + I 3

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Let us now go on to circuits in which we have resistors connected Current, Voltage and Power in Resistor Circuits
in both series and parallel. We shall again be required to find the
equivalent resistor which would give the same current for the same It is often necessary for us to obtain the values of current, voltage,
applied voltage of the whole circuit. or power in circuits. In the case of a straight forward series resistor
circuit there is only one current, but there will be various voltages
Consider the circuit below. developed across each of the resistors. The current and voltage
for each resistor will produce power and the sum of these powers
will be the total power taken from the source, i.e. the applied
voltage.
However, in straight forward parallel circuits the voltage across

each resistor is the same, i.e. the applied voltage, whilst the
current through each resistor will be dependent upon the value of
its resistance. Once again, the power developed in each one will
be dependent upon the value of its resistance. The total power
taken from the supply will be the sum of the individual powers in
the circuit.
In any problem of this kind always work out the equivalent single
resistances which will replace any parallel circuits. In our case this
is R2, with R3, and R4 with R5, and R6. Let's call them R2,3, and
R4,5,6, respectively. The circuit now becomes:
The original circuit now becomes a simple series circuit and the
resultant total resistance is obtained by merely adding the three
resistor values together

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Kirchoff’s Laws
When we discussed the two ways that resistors can be connected Kirchhoff's Second Law In any electrical closed circuit the
together, i.e., in series or in parallel, we noted that in the latter algebraic sum of electromotive forces (emf's) equals the algebraic
case the sum of the individual currents flowing into the parallel sum of the potential differences (pd's) being produced in that
network equalled the total current and in the former case the circuit.
applied voltage was equal to the sum of the voltages developed
across the resistors in series.
These two facts are expressed in two laws stated by KIRCHOFF

and defined as follows:
Kirchhoff's First Law The sum of the currents flowing into any
electrical junction of conductors equals the sum of the currents
flowing out of the junction.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Kirchoff’s Laws
Example: Problems
Vs = 36v, V1 + V2 + V3 = Vs 1.
RT = 12 + 6 + 36 = 54 Ω
By Ohms Law
V
R = 36
54 = 0.666 A
Calculate: RT, IT, V1, V2, V3, PT

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Kirchoff’s Laws
Problems
2.
Calculate R4, RT, V1, V2, V3, V4, P4

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Dividers
Series Circuit - Voltage Divider
Series Circuits are also known as voltage dividers.
Voltage (V) is split in a ratio that depends on the resistors.
The Potential Difference (p.d.) between points A & B across all

resistors is the same (e.g. 36V).
The current however, is divided proportionally across the network

In short, Vs = V1 = V2 etc. & I T = I1 + I 2 etc.
Calculating Resistance Totals in a Parallel Circuit:

If the resistors are of equal value, note that the p.d.’s remain the From Ohms Law:
same. With unequal resistors, the voltage will divide proportionally
e.g. if the resistors are 10 and 20 ohms respectively and V = 30V I= V
RT
then the 20 ohm resistor will drop 20V and the 10 ohm resistor the
other 10V.
I1 = V1
R1 I2 = V2
R2 I3 = V3
R3 etc.
Parallel Circuit - Current Divider
Note: V1,2 & 3 are the same
Components connected in such a way as to provide alternative V V V
paths for current flow. Hence:
V
RTotal = V1
R1 + VR22 + VR33 = R1 + R2 + R3
• The voltage across each component is the same.
• Total current is shared proportionally. Therefore: 1
RTotal = 1
R1 + R12 + R13
• Ohms Law applies to each component.
• Current I is split in a ratio that depends on the resistors
or R1 R2 R3
R2 R3 + R1 R3 + R1R2

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Dividers
Example Problem 1
Calculate IT, I1, I2, I3, PT
Solving R
R T = R1 + R12 + R3 = + 25 + 101 = 6.25Ω

1 1 1 1 1
50
or
50×25×10
25×10 +50×10 +50×25 = 6.25Ω
Note: RT is always lower than the lowest value resistor in the
network
Solving I
I T = RV = 6.25
36
= 5.76A
T
Solving I1, I2 & I3
I1 = RV1 = 36
50
= 0.72A I2 = RV2 = 36
25 = 1.44A
I3 = RV3 = 10
36
= 3.6A
I T = 5.76A = (0.72 + 1.44 + 3.6)

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Dividers
Problem 2
Calculate IT, I1, I2, I3, I4, P4

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Combinational Circuits
Consider the first circuit:
There are 2 parallel circuits:

1
RT1
= R11 + R12 = 100 1
+ 2501
= 71.429
1
RT2
= R13 + R14 = 350
1
+ 200
1
= 127.27Ω
This is the equivalent circuit:
Firstly, there is no set order in rationalising these circuits. In the

circuit above the parallel circuits would need to be addressed first
whereas the circuit below the series portion would need to be
addressed first.
The total resistance can now be calculated:
RT = 71.429 + 127.27 = 198.7Ω

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
V1 = IT xR1,2 = 120.78x10 −3 × 71.429 = 8.6275V
This is the reduced circuit and from this IT can be calculated using V2 = IT xR3,4 = 120.78x10 −3 × 127.27 = 15.373V
Ohms law.
Note: the total Voltage (VS) is the sum of the individual voltages
The voltage applied across each resistor within a // network is the

+ same.
24V 198.70Ω R1//R2 - - R3//R4
Using Ohms Law and these voltages/resistor values, the current
- through each leg can be determined
I1 = RV11 = 8.6275
100 = 86.275mA
VS I2 = RV12 = 8.6275
250 = 34.510mA
IT = RT
= 24
198.70
= 120.78mA
-3
Or 120.78 x 10 A
Now knowing IT, the voltage drops can be calculated across the I3 = RV23 = 15.373
350 = 43.992mA
individual parallel (//) networks.
I = 120.78mA
I4 = RV24 = 15.373
200 = 76.863mA
71.429Ω R1//R2
Note: I1 & I2 = 120.83mA as do I3 & I4
+
24V I = 120.78mA
-
127.27Ω R3//R4
I = 120.78mA

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Problem 1
Calculate RT, IT, I1, I2, Vr1, Vr2,Vr3,Vr4, Vr5, PT & P3

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Combinational Circuits using two power supplies
Apply Kirchoff’s second Law to loop 1 (w,x,y,w)

Equation (1) 4.95=270I1 +180(I1 + I2)
Apply Kirchoff’s second Law to loop 2 (w,y,z,w)

Equation (2) 12=10I2 +180(I1 + I2)
Collect Terms
(1) 4.95 = 450 I1 + 180 I 2
(2)12 = 180 I1 + 190 I 2
This circuit has 2 power supplies both of differing values. Multiply (1) x190 & (2) x180
940.5 = 85500 I1 + 34200 I 2
Points to note: Ohms and Kirchoff’s Laws apply
2160 = 32400 I1 + 34200 I 2
Solution:
Subtract (1) from (2)
Label circuit w,x,y,z or similar and solve by simultaneous equation. 1219.5 = −53100 I1
1219.5
I1 = = −22.996mA
−53100
Substituting in (1)
4.95 = 450 I1 + 180 I 2
4.95 = (450 x − 22.996) + 180 I 2
4.95 = −10.335 + 180 I 2
15.285
I2 = = 84.915mA
180
∴ Current through R2 = 84.915 − 22.996 = 61.92mA

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Combinational Circuits using two power supplies
Problem 1: Problem 2:
This circuit has 2 power supplies both of differing values.
Points to note: Ohms and Kirchoff’s Laws apply

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Power in Series and Parallel Circuits
The total power dissipated in a circuit is the SUM of the power Size and Power Rating
dissipated in the individual resistance's of the circuit.
The surface area and therefore the size of a component
Care must be taken not to exceed the power rating of any determines the rate at which heat is dissipated from the
component or that component may burn out. component to its surroundings.
Example: Generally therefore the larger the component, the higher its power
rating.
Carbon resistors of the same resistance value are commonly

available in ratings between 0.5W and 2 W
When higher wattage is required wire-wound resistors may be

used, the normal range here is 1 W to 200 W.
The total power dissipated in the circuit is

V 24
I= = = 2A
R 12
∴ VR1 = IxR = 2 x6 = 12V
∴ by Kirchoffs 2nd LawV2 = 24 − 12 = 12V
Power dissipated by each R
P = IV = 2 x12 = 24W
Comparing the power dissipated with the rated values it is seen
that the power rating of R2 (30 W) is not exceeded but that the
power rating of R1 (10 W) is exceeded. It is most likely then that
R1 will be rendered unserviceable.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Fuses and Circuit Breakers
Fuses are metals with very low resistance values which have Fuse Symbols
negligible effect on the current in a circuit. The term Fuse is short
for “Fusible Link”. They melt when the current exceeds the rated
value of the fuse.
The fuse protects the equipment, cables and power supply from
the heating effects of excessive current flows since on melting, the
circuit is broken and current no longer flows. A Circuit Breaker (CB) is an automatically-operated electrical
switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage
Although it is the heat produced in a fuse which causes it to 'blow' caused by overload orshort circuit. Unlike a fuse, which operates
fuses are rated by the CURRENT they will conduct at their once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset
specified working voltage without burning out. (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation.
Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that
The fuse to use in any circuit is one which as a current rating protect an individual appliances and to protect high voltage circuits
slightly HIGHER than the greatest current to be expected in the and systems.
circuit, ( 25% rule - typical ).

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
The Wheatstone Bridge
The series/parallel arrangement of resistors shown in the diagram Applying Ohm's Law for each resistor we have:
below is known as the Wheatstone Bridge. I 3 R2
1. I 3 R1 = I 2 R2 i.e. =
I2 R1
The same argument may be applied for resistors R3, and R4, in
which D is the common point. Therefore:
I 3 R3
2. I 3 R3 = I 2 R4 i.e. =
I 2 R4
Comparing equations 1) and 2) we see that:

R2 R4
=
R1 R3
From this the unknown resistor R4, is obtained as follows:

R2
3. R4 = xR3
R1
This type of circuit is used in test equipment to determine the value
of an unknown resistor by comparison with other resistors, the R2
In a multi-range instrument the ratio can be 1,10, 100, etc.
values of whose resistances are accurately known. In the R1
Wheatstone Bridge the values of resistors R1, and R2, are known Bridge resistance measuring instruments have two important
and fixed. R3, is a variable resistor and R4 is the resistor whose advantages over other measuring methods. The reading does not
value we wish to find. R3, is adjusted until the bridge is balanced, rely on the accuracy of reading a meter dial but only on being able
i.e. there is no current flowing in the ammeter which registers zero to detect zero current. The balance point of the bridge is not
amps. This means that the voltage at A equals that at B. It also affected by the value of the applied voltage, this can be seen from
means that the current in R1, equals the current in R2, and the the expression given by equation 3).
current in R3, equals that in R4. This is from applying Kirchoff's
First Law at junctions A and B respectively. Since the voltage at A Note: It is always the first pair of series resistors divided by each
equals the voltage at B, and C is a common point for the other other = the 2nd pair, irrespective of their labelling
ends of resistors R1, and R2, the pd’s across these resistors must
be equal.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
The Wheatstone Bridge
A Wheatstone Bridge may be used as a temperature sensor. The

Bridge is supplied with dc and has four resistors with the same
value of resistance at 'normal' temperature. Three of the resistors
are 'temperature stable' and the fourth is a Thermistor (with
negative temperature coefficient).
At 'normal' temperature, the Bridge is balanced, but if the

temperature changes the Bridge becomes unbalanced and there is
an output voltage Vo. The value of Vo is proportional to the change
in temperature. This causes a current to flow across the ammeter
which is calibrated with a suitable temperature scale.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
EMF, Terminal PD and Internal Resistance
All electrical supplies have internal resistance. In batteries it is Terminal Voltage

mainly due to the resistance of the electrolyte; in electrical
generators it is mainly the resistance of the machine windings. The The on load terminal voltage (V) is equal to the EMF (E) minus the
voltage (V) across the open circuited terminals of a supply is equal internal resistance (ri) volts drop. Thus, as the current drawn from
to the EMF (E), When a load is connected to the supply the load the supply increases the terminal voltage falls.
current flows through the internal resistance of the supply and
causes an internal resistance volts drop.
Assuming that the internal resistance remains constant, the fall in

terminal voltage is directly proportional to the load current.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Maximum Power Transfer
The internal resistance of a voltage supply affects the power that

can be developed in a load:
"Maximum power is developed in load when the load resistance is

equal to the internal resistance of the supply”
This statement is known as the "Maximum Power Transfer

Theorem".
The example below shows a battery of EMF (E) 12V and an

internal resistance (ri) of 2Ω supplying a load (RL): Plot the Power curve, using a base of load resistance (x axis),
against Load Power (y axis). When the load resistance and supply
internal resistance are equal, the load and supply are said to be
matched. This transference of maximum power is often required in
electronic circuits e.g. audio amplifiers to a loudspeaker
E 12 2
I= = ; Power in Load = I R
ri +RL 2+R

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Meters in Circuits
A word of CAUTION (a) (b)

A Voltmeter is always placed in parallel in a circuit
An Ammeter is always placed in series in a circuit
Failure to place them correctly can have disastrous results.
If a voltmeter is placed in series it will load the circuit heavily and

insufficient current will flow to allow the real load to function.
If an ammeter is placed in parallel it will cause the circuit

resistance to plummet and draw very large currents.
WHY
Below are two D’Arsonval meters. Meter (a) shows a Shunt
Resistor in parallel across the terminals and the coil movement.
Meter (b) shows a Multiplying Resistor in series with the coil
movement and the output terminals.
These resistor values will determine what value of Voltage and

Current the meter is capable of reading. REMEMBER these
meters will act as a load on the circuit, although if placed correctly
in the circuit the meters will have minimal load effect on that circuit.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Meters in Circuits
Voltmeter To maintain the correct meter current span and still accommodate
different voltage levels, many voltmeters use a string of switch-
Consider the effect of the Voltmeter on the circuit. The Voltmeter selected series resistors, as shown below. Turning the range
employs the multiplying resistor configuration (b). switch to the lower voltage ranges reduces the series resistance,
while the higher ranges add series resistance.
If we assume a voltmeter has a FSD (Full Scale Deflection) of 1mA
and an internal resistance of 10 ohms, then by Ohms Law the
voltage required to achieve a FSD must be:
I x R = 1 x 10-3 x 10 = 10mV
This is the maximum voltage that may be applied to the meter

without damaging the meter coil. If the meter needs to read 30V
then it must be adapted to cope with the extra applied voltage.
To achieve this a resistor called a MULTIPLER must be itted in

SERIES with with the meter coil. It is placed in series because of
basic Kirchoff's Laws, in that the voltage divides in the series
circuit.
In our example above:
FSD (I) = 1mA FSD (V) needs to be 30V

30V 30V
therefore R = = 0.001A = 30,000 Ohms
1mA
As the internal resistance is already 10 Ohms and the circuit is in
series the value of the multiplier must be:
30,000 - 10 = 29,990 Ohms

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Meters in Circuits
Ammeter The figure illustrates a typical multirange millimeter circuit. Notice

that in the 1 mA range, resistors R1, R2, R3, and R4 are in series,
Consider the effect of the Ammeter on the circuit. The Voltmeter and form one large shunt across the meter movement.
employs the multiplying resistor configuration.
As the range switch selects higher ranges, the shunt resistance
If we assume an ammeter has a FSD of 10mA and an internal decreases, while additional resistance is added to the meter
resistance of 5 ohms, then by Ohms Law the voltage required to branch.
achieve a FSD must be:
I x R = 10 x 10-3 x 5 = 50mV The resistor values are selected to maintain the correct full-scale
movement current. In the .05 mA range poisition, switch S1B
This is the maximum voltage that may be applied to the meter opens. Thus, the shunt is switched out of the meter circuit, and all
without damaging the meter coil. If the meter needs to read 30A of the current flows through the meter movement.
then it must be adapted to cope with the extra applied current.
To achieve this a resistor called a SHUNT must be fitted in

PARALLEL with with the meter coil. It is placed in parallel because
of basic Kirchoff's Laws, in that the current divides in the parallel
circuit.
In our example above:

FSD (I) = 10mA FSD (I) needs to be 30A
This means that 29.99A must be SHUNTED away from the coil. As
the FSD = 0.05V, then by Ohms Law;
0.05
= 0.001667Ω
29.99
Most ammeters have more than one range. The lowest is usually
determined by the current rating of the meter movement, while the
higher ranges are determined by different shunt values.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Voltmeters & Ammeters in a Practical Circuit
Meters MUST be placed so as not to affect circuit loading but more This will result in the ammeter having very little effect on the total
importantly, if an ammeter is placed into a circuit incorrectly i.e. in circuit current and the voltmeter’s internal resistance being so high
parallel, dangerously high currents may result. that most of the current will flow through the load.
Proof
Consider this circuit;
V 20
I= = = 2A
R 10
Ammeter coil = 5 Ω Shunt Resistor = 0.001Ω
RT = 999μΩ
Voltmeter coil = 10 Ω Shunt Resistor = 29990Ω
RT = 30000Ω
In this configuration if the shunt resistor value is very low, the

combined resistance value of the ammeter will be VERY low
(resistance in a parallel circuit is always lower that the lowest value
resistor in the circuit).
The combined resistance of the Voltmeter will be VERY high

(resistance in the series circuit is the sum of the individual
resistances)

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Voltmeters & Ammeters in a Practical Circuit
Now consider the Ammeter placed in parallel across the load; NOTE: A Voltmeter placed in series in the circuit will load the
circuit and REDUCE current flow. The circuit is unlikely to operate
correctly.
RT of Circuit
1 1
RL + R A =+ −6
= 998 x10 −6 Ω
10 999 x10
V 20
∴ I= = = 20000 A
R 998 x10 −6
The potential current in the circuit is extremely high and will
damage the circuit or equipment.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Questions
1. What are the factors affecting resistance? 8. Calculate IT, i1, i2 V1, V2, V3 and the power dissipated by R3
2. State Ohms Law
3. Calculate RT & VS when 3 resistors are placed in series with

each other, R1 = 5Ω , R2=8Ω and R3 = 12Ω. IT=2mA. The same 3
resistors are placed in parallel. If the same voltage is applied how
much current will now flow through each leg and what would the
total current be?
4. Three resistors are placed in series with each other, R1 = 12Ω,

R2=16Ω and R3 = 22Ω. VS=50. Calculate RT, I and the p.d. across
each resistor.
5. Three resistors are placed in series with each other, R1 =

9. Calculate VS, V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, i1, i2, and the power dissipated
unknown, R2=16Ω and R3 = 14Ω. VS=28. IT= 200mA. Calculate R1, by R5
and the p.d. across each resistor.
6. Three resistors are placed in parallel with each other, R1 = 6Ω ,

R2=10Ω and R3 = 12Ω. VS=28. Calculate RT, IT, i1, i2 & i3.
7. Three resistors are placed in parallel with each other, R1 = 20Ω ,

R2=30Ω and R3 = 40Ω. IT=10mA. Calculate RT, VS, i1, i2 & i3.
R4 being a variable, if its value is changed to120 Ω how would this

affect the power dissipated by R5 and by how much?

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Questions
10. Calculate V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, V6, i1, i2, i3, i4, and the power 13. With reference to the diagram below:
dissipated by R5 & R3
11. The cold resistance of a certain gas filled tungsten lamp is

18.2 Ω and its hot resistance at the operating voltage of 115V a.c. Calculate the total resistance of the circuit
is 202 Ω. Find the Current Calculate the current drawn from the supply
at the instant of switching on What value would the circuit fuse/breaker be set at?
at normal working temperature Calculate the current flowing in one of the 40Ω resistors and
explain how you can use this answer to calculate the current in the
12. The maximum resistance of a variable resistor is 4.8 Ω and the other 40Ω resistor and the 20Ω resistor.
minimum resistance is 0.5 Ω. Find the voltage across the resistor Calculate the potential at points A & E with respect to the negative
for each of these limits when the current is 1.2A. supply terminal.
Calculate the potential at point C with respect to point B
Calculate the power dissipated in the 30Ω resistor
If the 10Ω resistor were to go short circuit what effect would it have
on the total circuit resistance and the current drawn from the power
supply?

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Questions
14. A twin 2mm2 cable feeds a heater, which takes a current of 18. Calculate the supply voltage of the circuit below if the power
20A. If the cable is 100mtr long, calculate the voltage drop in it, dissipated in the 6Ω resistor is 24W
and the p.d. across the heater if the supply voltage is 200V. What
must be the minimum cross-sectional area of a replacement cable
if the voltage drop is not to exceed 6V nominal? Take ρ as
17.8μΩmm
15. How much energy is supplied to a 100Ω resistor, which is

connected to a 200V a.c. supply for 1 hour?
16. An electric heater consumes 2.7MJ when connected to its

115V a.c. supply for 30 minutes. Find the power rating of the
heater, and the current taken from the supply. What value of circuit
protection should there be?
17. An electric fire has 2 elements, each of resistance 18Ω , and is

connected to the supply through a cable of resistance 2Ω. The
supply is 200V a.c.. Calculate the total power taken from the
supply, and the total current: 19. A battery has an internal resistance of 0.04Ω and an e.m.f. of
12V. What is its terminal voltage (VS) if it delivers;
• if one element is switched on 1A
• if both elements are switched on. 10A
50A

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Generation of Electricity
Here we will be looking at the production of electricity by the The Electro-Chemical Series
following six methods:
• Chemical Action
• Friction
• Pressure
• Light
• Heat
• Magnetism and Motion
We shall look at each of these methods briefly, but the main focus
will be on chemical as employed in batteries. Generation by light,
heat, friction, pressure, magnetism and motion is covered in more
detail later within M3 or in other modules.
Chemical Action
How Cells Work - Galvanic Action
This is by use of two different metals placed in a liquid called
electrolyte. We call this a cell and by grouping these cells we In simple terms, batteries can be considered as electron pumps.
produce a battery.
The internal chemical reaction within the battery between the
The plate materials and electrolyte used generally gives the electrolyte and the negative metal electrode produces a build up of
batteries their names. These fall into two main groups determined free electrons, each with a negative charge, at the battery's
by the electrolyte, namely ‘ACID’ and ‘ALKALINE’. They can be used negative (-) terminal - the anode.
for differing purposes and as such they are constructed to match
these uses. The chemical reaction between the electrolyte and the positive (+)
electrode inside the battery produces an excess of positive (+) ions
Different metals have different electrical potentials in the electro- (atoms that are missing electrons, thus with a net positive
chemical series and can be selected to produce a cell with specific charge) at the positive (+) terminal - the cathode of the battery.
characteristics.
The electrical (pump) pressure or potential difference between the
+ and - terminals is called voltage or electromotive force (EMF).

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
How Cells Work - Galvanic Action - cont • The electrolyte (the ionic conductor) which provides the
Different metals have different affinities for electrons. When two medium for transfer of charge as ions inside the cell
dissimilar metals (or metal compounds) are put in contact or between the anode and cathode. The electrolyte is typically
connected through a conducting medium there is a tendency for a solvent containing dissolved chemicals providing ionic
electrons to pass from the metal with the smaller affinity for conductivity. It should be a non-conductor of electrons to
electrons, which becomes positively charged, to the metal with the avoid self discharge of the cell.
greater affinity which becomes negatively charged. A potential
difference between the metals will therefore build up until it just • The separator which electrically isolates the positive and
balances the tendency of the electron transfer between the metals. negative electrodes.
At this point the "equilibrium potential" is that which balances the
difference between the propensity of the two metals to gain or lose The Discharge Process
electrons.
When the battery is fully charged there is a surplus of electrons on
A battery or galvanic cell stores energy in chemical form in its the anode giving it a negative charge and a deficit on the cathode
active materials and can thus convert this to electrical energy on giving it a positive charge resulting in a potential difference across
demand, typically by means of an electrochemical oxidation- the cell.
reduction. Each galvanic or energy cell consists of at least three
and sometimes four components: When the circuit is completed the surplus electrons flow in the
external circuit from the negatively charged anode which loses all
• The anode or negative electrode is the reducing or fuel its charge to the positively charged cathode which accepts it,
electrode. It gives up electrons to the external circuit and is neutralising its positive charge. This action reduces the potential
oxidised during the elecrochemical (discharge) reaction. It difference across the cell to zero. The circuit is completed or
is generally a metal or an alloy but hydrogen is also used. balanced by the flow of positive ions in the electrolyte from the
The anodic process is the oxidation of the metal anode to the cathode.
reducing agent to form metal ions.
Since the electrons are negatively charged the electrical current
• The cathode or positive electrode is the oxidising they represent flows in the opposite direction, from the cathode
electrode. It accepts electrons from the external circuit and (positive terminal) to the anode (negative terminal).
is reduced during the electrochemical (discharge) reaction.
It is usually an metallic oxide or a sulfide but oxygen is also The anode is the electrode through which electrons flow out of a
used. The cathodic process is the reduction of the polarised electrical device (or the electrode through which current
oxidising agent (oxide) to leave the metal. flows in)

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Two Electrolyte Systems Cathode

Anode Materials
Materials
The principles of the Galvanic cell can be demonstrated by the
workings of the Daniell cell, a two electrolyte system. (Negative Terminals) (Positive Terminals)
BEST - Most Negative BEST Most Positive
Lithium Ferrate
Magnesium Iron Oxide
Aluminium Cuprous Oxide
Zinc Iodate
Chromium Cupric Oxide
Iron Mercuric Oxide
Nickel Cobaltic Oxide
Tin Manganese Dioxide
Lead Lead Dioxide
Hydrogen Silver Oxide
Copper Oxygen
Silver Nickel Oxyhydroxide
Palladium Nickel Dioxide
Mercury Silver Peroxide
The table oposite shows some common chemicals used for battery Platinum Permanganate
electrodes arranged in order of their relative electrode potentials. Gold Bromate
WORST Least Negative WORST Least Positive
Cells using aqueous (containing water) electrolytes are limited in

voltage to less than 2 Volts because the oxygen and hydrogen in
water dissociate in the presence of voltages above this voltage.
Lithium batteries (see below) which use non-aqueous electrolytes
do not have this problem and are available in voltages between 2.7
and 3.7 Volts. However the use of non-aqueous electrolytes
results in those cells having a relatively high internal impedance.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Batteries
There are two basic types of battery, the Primary Cell and the
Secondary Cell. Primary Cells are so called because their chemical
activity is either not reversible at all, or only reversible with
extreme difficulty. Such cells can only be reactivated with the
renewal of their component materials. Secondary Cells have
chemical reactions, which can be reversed by passing a current
through them in an opposite direction to their discharge current.
In this way the component materials are restored to their
original charged state and such cells can therefore be used to
store electrical energy.
A third small group of cells exists, which does not properly or

totally fit into either of the two previous categories. These are the
sealed Nickel Cadmium batteries, the uses of which include some
emergency light systems. These cells are not of the type in which the
electrolyte level can be topped up (which would be the Secondary
Cell convention), but they are rechargeable. Due to the sealed nature The small flat Mercury Cell (Mallory) as is used in photographic
of these cells, extreme care should be exercised in the equipment has a steel case which is the positive electrode and the
establishment of suitable charging circuits and associated zinc top, insulated from the base by a rubber grommet as the
manufacturer's and maintenance manuals should be negative electrode. The electrolyte is Potassium Hydroxide.
consulted.
Primary Cells
Two types only are mentioned here as examples of the dry primary
cell. The standard type has two poles, Carbon Rod (+ve) and
Zinc Container (-ve), with an electrolyte of Ammonium
Chloride (Salamoniac). Unfortunately this basic
arrangement has the distinct disadvantage that during discharge,
hydrogen bubbles form on the carbon rod effectively insulating the
rod from the electrolyte. To counteract this Polarisation a chemical
de-polariser, Manganese Dioxide is included in the cell
construction.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Batteries
Sintered Plates in Nickel Cadmium Cells

Positive and negative sintered plates are manufactured by
sintering finely powdered nickel on to a nickel clad steel wire
mesh. (The word sintering means welding of particles by heat and
pressure.) The highly porous structure thus formed is then filled with
active material by vacuum impregnation techniques. The
separators usually associated with sintered plates are made of
synthetic fibres which are gas permeable and electrolyte
absorbent.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Batteries
Secondary Cells The plates are arranged so that there is one more negative plate
than positive plates, this being done to prevent distortion of the
There are two distinct types of secondary cells used to form
outer positive plate during charge.
secondary batteries, namely LEAD ACID and ALKALINE.
In order to prevent shorting between positive and negative plate
Acids and Alkalines react unfavourably if brought into contact
structures, porous "Cedar wood" separators are fitted between
with each other, therefore they must never be allowed to mix. Tools
the plates, and a space is allowed for below the plates to allow
and equipment contaminated by use on one type must never be
material shredded from the plates to accumulate without
used on the other type.
danger of a short circuit. Lugs for the interconnection of cells to
form a battery or to provide output terminals, are formed in the plate
On stations where both Acid and Alkaline batteries are charged
grid structure and pass out of the cell case through a gas tight
and serviced, the battery charging room is arranged such that the
seal.
two types of battery are handled in different areas, preferably in
different rooms. Unlike primary cells in which the case formed an
Vents consisting of acid resisting material are screwed into an
integral part of the cell active material and one plate of the unit,
aperture in the roof of each cell. These vents are designed to allow
secondary cells use a different approach in which the case is
gas to escape without allowing acid to leak out. Some batteries
simply the container for the cells.
employ cells which are totally unspillable, allowing the battery
to be inverted during flight. The vent stopper used in such cases
Lead Acid Batteries
being long enough to protrude through the surface of the
Lead Acid types employ an impact and acid resisting case for electrolyte with the battery inverted, thus allowing gas to vent
each cell constructed from Polystyrene Compounds, or other out to atmosphere.
suitable material, the case being moulded or constructed to accept
the active materials and electrolyte, and to provide outlets for the The cell vent or stopper must be secured down and sealed, rubber
terminal posts for interconnection of cells; and a suitable vent to seals being fitted to each vent for this reason. Electrolyte used in
prevent gas pressure build-up without allowing electrolyte to Lead Acid batteries consists of a solution of Acid and Water
escape from the cell confines. mixed to a Specific Gravity of 1.270 for aircraft batteries. Only
distilled water is to be used in the solution since impurities found in
The methods used to construct each cell will vary from one lead tap water will reduce battery life and capacity.
acid battery type to another. Details of the active chemical
constituents of the modern Lead Acid battery will be found in the
following pages.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Batteries
Battery State of Positive Negative Electrolyte NOTE: PbO2 is correctly named Lead Dioxide. It may also be
Type Charge Plate Plate called Lead Peroxide which is an older term and strictly speaking
Lead Charged PbO2 Pb H2SO4 a less chemically accurate one. From a practical point of view
Acid (Lead (Lead) Concentrated however, either term is acceptable.
Dioxide) Sulphuric Acid
Discharged PbSO4 PbSO4 H2SO4
(Lead (Lead (Weak
Sulphate) Sulphate) Sulphuric Acid)

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Batteries
Electrolyte Fahrenheit Thermometer:
In addition to features already covered within this section, the a. Add 1 point (0.001) for every 2.5° above a datum of 60°F.
following should be noted with respect to the effect of temperature b. Subtract 1 point (0.001) for every 2.5° below a datum of
change on the electrolyte. 60°F.
Relative Density (otherwise referred to as Specific Gravity) of When mixing electrolyte it should be remembered that the ACID
the electrolyte is generally related to a temperature of 15°C (60°F). is ALWAYS added to the WATER. The reverse procedure can be
Readings taken at other temperatures should, therefore, be EXTREMELY DANGEROUS.
corrected to 15°C (60°F) as follows: For the Celsius scale 0.003 (3
points) should be added to the hydrometer reading for each 4°C A fully charged cell will produce a voltage of 2.2 volts which falls to 1.8
by which the temperature of the electrolyte is above 15°C, or 0.003 volts when fully discharged. During discharge the voltage hovers around
(3 points) should be subtracted from the hydrometer reading for 2.0 volts for a long portion of cell life hence, lead acid cells are said to have
each 4°C by which the temperature of the electrolyte is below 15°C. a Nominal Voltage of 2.0 volts per cell.
CAUTION: FRESHLY CHARGED BATTERIES WILL HAVE CELL

VOLTAGES IN EXCESS OF 2. 5 VOLTS, FALLING TO 2.2 VOLTS
AFTER ONE HOUR STANDING
Capacity is a term which describes the quantity of electricity that can be

taken from a fully charged battery or cell at a specified discharge rate
measured in Amperes, before the cell voltage falls to a defined value -
normally 1.8 volts. Capacity is therefore measured in terms of current
and time i.e. Amp-Hrs and is expressed as a percentage against
the maximum available from a standard cell or battery of that type.
Area and number of plates, strength of electrolyte and temperature

are all factors that control actual capacity

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Batteries
Sulphation
Sulphation is an excess of lead sulphate on the plates. A fully

charged battery will progressively revert to the discharged condition
in storage and needs a freshening charge every 2 -4 weeks.
The periodicity of this freshening charge will vary between approved

sources of information (e.g. CAAIP's Part 1 and 2 and
Manufacturers Manuals).
In quite a short time the lead sulphate can amalgamate

permanently with the plate structure becoming a hardened
mass that refuses to go back into solution during recharge.
The permanency of this plate impregnation becomes

progressively unacceptable as cell voltage decreases. The
"discharged" value of 1.8v per cell sets a limit to the acceptable
extent of sulphation.
The 'sulphated' areas of plates reduce capacity. They may be

removed in "flakes" by a heavy charge current but then become
lodged between plates or build up at the bottom of cells causing
short circuits. After such shedding the thin plate structure is
unevenly constructed and tends to distort more cracking the
material further.
Sulphation will be encouraged by continual "trickle"

charging/discharging and be accelerated by incorrect electrolyte
strength and low level. Battery capacity will be reduced.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Servicing of Lead Acid Batteries (Typical)
Initial Charge: The initial charge removes oxides and

sulphates formed during manufacture.
a. Connect the battery to the charging board and unscrew the

vents.
b. Charge at the initial bench rate (i.e. 3A)
c. Ensure the electrolyte temperature does not exceed 140°F
d. Check the terminal voltage and S.G. every 0.5 hour.
e. The battery will be fully charged when the TERMINAL
VOLTAGE and S.G. remain constant for a period of 4
hours. The electrolyte should be gassing freely.
f. Disconnect the battery and allow it to cool.
g. Rock the battery gently to disperse any gas retained in the
electrolyte. Adjust the level and/or the S.G if necessary.
h. If the electrolyte is adjusted charge for a further 1 hour to mix
the electrolyte.
i. Clean, dry, replace vents and grease the terminals.
j. Record the date of INITIAL CHARGE on the battery.
k. Raise battery record card.
Checking Battery Electrolyte to ensure the best results from the

battery regular checks should be carried out for electrolyte
level and S.G. When the electrolyte level is low it should be
topped with distilled water. S.G indicates the state of the
battery c h a r g e a n d i s m e a s u r e d u s i n g a HYDROMETER
as shown

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Servicing of Lead Acid Batteries (Typical)
Capacity Testing
a. Connect battery to the Cap. Tester.

b. Discharge at the 1 hour rate
c. Adjust the discharge current at regular intervals. Note the
terminal voltage.
d. Disconnect the battery when the terminal voltage has fallen
to its end voltage (e.g. 21.6v for a typical 24v battery and
10.6v for a 12v battery).
e. Calculate the capacity. A minimum capacity of 80% is
required for aircraft use. This is calculated by using the
following formula:
Time to reach end voltage
x100
60 minutes
f. Recharge as per routine servicing.
g. Enter details on the battery record card.
h. Record cap test date and efficiency on battery.
i. Carry out INSULATION and LEAKAGE test

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Leakage and Insulation Tests
These tests must be carried out at the periods specified in the M.M. Insulation Test
Leakage Test a. Place battery on a metal plate.

b. Connect a 250v insulation tester between the metal plate
a. Remove vent caps and the battery terminals in turn. The minimum
b. Hold the tester firmly over each vent in turn. acceptable resistance is 1MΩ.
c. PRESSURISE each cell to 2lb/in2
d. There should be no detectable leakage after a period of not
less than 15 seconds.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Chemical Principle of Nickel Cadmium Batteries
During charging an exchange of ions takes place, oxygen is The discharge and charge chemical reaction is shown below:
removed from the negative plates and is added to the positive
plates, bringing them to a higher state of oxidation. These
changes continue in both sets of plates for as long as the charging
current is applied or until both materials are converted; i.e. all the
oxygen is driven out of the negative plates and only Metallic
Cadmium remains and the positive plates become Nickel Oxide. The NiCad cell's particular electrochemistry yields a working
voltage of about 1.2 VDC. A wet, pocket plate, NiCad cell should
The electrolyte of the NiCad cell is a dilute solution (>21%) of be considered fully discharged at between 1.00 and 1.15 VDC.
Under charge, the NiCad cell's voltage will vary from 1.35 to 1.65
Potassium hydroxide (KOH) in water. The electrolyte acts only as
an ionised conductor and is forced out of the plates during VDC depending on state of charge, amount of recharging current
charging. It does not react with either set of plates in any way and in relation to the cell's capacity and temperature. These types of
its relative density remains almost unchanged. For this reason, it cycle characteristics mean that a battery pack for a 12 VDC
is impossible to determine the state of charge of a NiCad cell using system would use 10 NiCad cells in series. A 24 VDC system
a hydrometer. would use 19/20 NiCad cells in series.
Towards the end of any charging process and during

Nickel-cadmium cell electrochemistry
overcharging, gassing occurs as a result of electrolysis which
The anode (or positive pole) of a NiCad cell is chemically nickel reduces only the water content of the electrolyte. Gassing is
oxide hydroxide (NiOOH) when fully charged, and nickel hydroxide dependent on the temperature of the electrolyte and the
[Ni(OH)2] when fully discharged. The cathode (or negative pole) of charging voltage.
the NiCad cell is chemically composed of cadmium (Cd) when fully
charged, and cadmium hydroxide [Cd(OH)2] when fully During discharge, the chemical action is reversed; the
discharged. positive plates gradually losing oxygen while the negative plates
simultaneously regain lost oxygen. The plates absorb electrolyte to
The potassium hydroxide electrolyte has a density of 1.17 to 1.30 such an extent that it is not visible at the top of the cells.
irrespective of the cell's state of charge. The electrolyte also
contains a small amount of lithium hydroxide (LiOH).

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Nickel Cadmium Batteries
NiCad Battery Each cell consists of the components shown below. In some
respects the construction is very similar to the Lead Acid battery,
Typical NiCad Battery showing main connector, sensing it’s mainly the materials that change and the function of the
connector, vented lid, carrying handles (these batteries can be components.
heavy – sometimes in excess of 100lbs), data plate.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Construction of Nickel Cadmium Batteries
Plaques and Plates The basic feature of the Marathon battery is While the surface of a sintered plate appears to be relatively
its sintered plate, as shown in the series of diagrams opposite. smooth, it is actually a maze of tiny hills and valleys. This physical
property multiplies the apparent surface area several hundred times
Sintering Sintering is that process by which micro-fine powder is and permits the utilisation of a tremendous area of active
fused together at high temperatures to form a porous plaque material. The porosity of the plate permits the absorption of
structure. The porous structure of the Marathon plaque is obtained electrolyte. This further increases the volume of active material in
by sintering nickel powder to a fine mesh wire screen. The active direct contact with the electrolyte.
material which distinguishes between the negative and positive plates
is then electrochemically deposited within the press of the plaque. Cells The core assembly in a marathon battery is firmly affixed
Positive plaques are made by depositing nickel hydroxide, to a plastic or metal cover. This integral unit is then fitted
negative plaques by depositing cadmium hydroxide. snugly within a transparent plastic or metal case and the cover
is cemented or welded in position. The cell thus becomes a
The plaques are then formed, washed, dried and cut into the desired compact, enclosed unit. The plates extend to the bottom of the
late size. Nickel connecting tabs are welded to one corner of each cell, since no active material will flake or shed from them. This
plate. Positive and negative plates are then grouped into a core contributes to the solidity of the cell and gives it the ability to
assembly. withstand extreme conditions of shock and vibration.
Separators A continuous strip of highly specialised fabric and Vents Each cell is provided with a vent plug. This plug consists of a
pliable plastic composes the separator. This continuous separator is metal or plastic core and an outer collar of rubber. It can be
interposed between the plates as each successive plate is added to removed for the addition of distilled water or adjustment of the
the "stackup" in preparing the core assembly. Thus the plates electrolyte. When in place, the rubber expansion collar permits the
within the core are separated by a porous insulating barrier. The gas created on charge to escape. Since there is no gassing on
design provides the needed physical strength with minimum bulk and discharge, the vent automatically seals the cell, preventing leakage
excellent electrical insulation, as well as efficient electrolytic of electrolyte and also preventing entrance of foreign
conduction when immersed in the electrolyte. To insure complete substances into the cell.
insulation, the separator is slightly wider than the dimensions
of the plate. Battery Assemblies To provide the voltage for a given application,
cells are assembled into batteries and are housed in a steel
The connecting tabs of all plates project upward toward the proper battery case. An individual cell may be replaced in the event of
terminals, to which they are welded. The sintered plates are damage, thus eliminating loss of the entire battery.
positioned very closely together and are kept from actual
physical contact by a thin multi-layer laminate, known as a
separator.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Construction of Nickel Cadmium Batteries
Starts with a nickel screen (1) which is coated with nickel powder
After washing the plaques are cut into plates (7). A nickel tab is
(2) to form a plaque (3) which is 80% porous.
spot welded to each plate (8). A “stackup” is prepared by folding
separator material between alternative positive and negative plates
(9).
The plaque is coined with a plate die (4). The coined plaque is
vacuum impregnated with nickel or cadmium salts,
electrochemically deposited in the pores (5). Current is passed
through the plaque in the presence of electrolyte to convert salt to Nickel terminals are welded to the stackup which, with it’s
final form (6) cellophane binder, forms the core assembly (10). Cover and vent
assemblies are attached and sealed to the stackup (11). Entire unit
is inserted into a cell case and sealed (12).

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
The Silver Zinc (SiZn) Cell
The battery consists basically of a positive plate of metallic Silver

(Si) and a negative plate containing Zinc (Zn) oxide. The electrolyte
is a Caustic Potash which contains some zinc oxide in solution.
When charging the silver is converted to oxide of silver and the zinc
oxide is reduced to metallic zinc. The terminal voltage is 1.86v when
fully charged.
The advantages of the SiZn battery are its low weight and volume.
The two main disadvantages are its short life and difficult
charging characteristics.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Connecting Cells or Batteries - Series
All chemical cells will contain some degree of internal

resistance, on primary cells the resistance encountered can be
quite high. With secondary cells, each cell contains a large
number of plates in order to obtain a large plate area and high
capacity. The cross sectional area between the plates is therefore
considerably increased with the result that internal resistance in
secondary cells is very low in ohmic terms.
Irrespective of which cell types are considered, in order to obtain a

high output voltage from cells, it is necessary to connect a
number of cells in series. In this way, the voltage output from
each cell is additive. 6, 2 volt cells connected in series will
provide a battery with a terminal voltage of 12 volts on open
circuit. However, when current flows as a result of connecting a
load between the output terminals, some voltage will be lost due to
the internal voltage drop attributed to internal resistance.
Unless cells with a very large capacity and low internal resistance
are used for connection in series, cells in series will produce a
high terminal voltage but will only allow a small current to flow.
Increasing current flow will simply reduce the output voltage of the
circuit.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Connecting Cells or Batteries - Parallel
Connecting cells in parallel will not increase the voltage of the The advantage of series connection of cells can be combined with
circuit, the voltage will in fact be that of any one cell. Because of the the advantages of parallel connection if both series and
very much larger area of plates due to connecting all positive parallel connections are combined together. This method
plates together and all negative plates together, the internal of connection is called 'SERIES/PARALLEL' and allows
resistance will be greatly reduced and the current that can be high voltage to be combined with high current and low overall
obtained from the cells will be accumulations of the current internal resistance, hence the electrical power obtainable from a
normally available from each individual cell. With this type of set number of cells is at a maximum value with this method of
connection, the capacity is maximum hence, a large current will connection.
flow and terminal voltage is stable.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Voltage Rating
The OCV (Open Circuit Voltage) of 1.28 V is consistent for all

nickel-cadmium vented cells, regardless of cell size. The OCV
does vary slightly with temperature and elapsed time since the
battery's last charge. Immediately after charge, the OCV may
reach 1.40 V; however, it soon lowers to between 1.35 and 1.28
V. A 20-cell NiCad battery would, therefore, have an OCV
between 25.6 and 27 V. The voltage obtained by a cell
immediately after charging is typically slightly higher than the
average OCV. A nickel-cadmium battery may reach 27.5 V
immediately after charging, or 1.5 V per cell for a 19-cell battery.
Near the end of the charge cycle, the same battery may reach
28.5 V if the charging current is still applied. This voltage diminishes
quickly after the battery is removed from the charger and will soon
reach near 25 V.
The CCV (Closed Circuit Voltage) of a vented-cell nickel-

cadmium battery ranges between 1.2 and 1.25 V. This voltage
will vary depending on the battery temperature, the length of
time since the battery's last charge, and the discharge current
applied. The CCV of a nickel-cadmium cell remains nearly
constant under moderate load until the cell is near the
completely discharged state. The figure below illustrates the
CCV of a nickel-cadmium cell.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Capacity Rating
A nickel-cadmium battery has tremendous peak power and delivers Note; Open circuit voltage measurements give no indication
far more power than a lead-acid battery of the same size and of the state of charge, with the exception of a very low reading
weight. The large amount of instantly available power produced which indicates a" flat" battery
by a nickel-cadmium battery is why it is so well suited for starting
turbine engines. The capacity of a nickel-cadmium battery is a
function of the total plate area contained inside the cells (more plate
area, more capacity). Most NiCad batteries are designed for 24V
systems with a capacity between 22 and 80 Ah. The ampere-
hour rating is determined at a 5Ah discharge rate unless
otherwise denoted.
The capacitance of any battery is partially a function of that

battery's internal resistance. The internal resistance of most
vented nickel-cadmium cells is very low (less than \mf per cell),
which allows these cells to maintain a high discharge current and still
maintain acceptable voltage levels. The low internal resistance of a
nickel-cadmium battery allows it to recharge very rapidly. This
resistance in part results from the large surface area of active
materials made available through the use of a highly porous
plate.
The output of a nickel-cadmium battery is relatively constant,

even in harsh operating conditions such as very cold weather.
The optimum temperature range is between 60 and 90°F (16-
32°C) above or below these values, total capacity will diminish
slightly, as illustrated in the figure below.
There is no way of determining the state of charge in a Ni-Cad

battery because the voltage remains relatively constant when the
battery is discharged on load, until a sharp drop occurs when the
battery is fully discharged.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Thermal Runaway
This is a term used to describe a chain reaction like effect Research has shown that cases of Thermal Runaway are
associated with Ni-Cad batteries, causing their internal rare in aircraft where " high standards of maintenance and
temperature to build up rapidly and often resulting in a fire or quality control are used".
even an explosion. It is almost invariably caused by negligent
maintenance or adverse operating conditions. Providing The following precautions should be observed when operating
correct servicing procedures ( even though they may appear to aircraft using Ni-Cad batteries:
be lengthy ) are carried out there is little or no chance of Thermal
Runaway occurring. If it does occur the effect has been likened to • Regular maintenance and servicing I.A.W.
a " time bomb " in the aircraft. Thermal Runaway was the cause manufacturer’s recommendations.
of an American airliner crashing because a Ni-Cad battery • Avoidance of internal engine starting unless
exploded and severed the tail control rod. absolutely necessary.
• Ensure that battery ventilation is satisfactory
The cause of thermal runaway can be attributed to many factors and that battery temperature does not exceed laid
some of which are out of our hands as they are inherent in down safe limits.
construction. However, from the maintenance perspective there • Remember Short Cuts Can Lead To Disaster
are contributory factors that we should be aware of:
1. Separator damage
2. Unbalanced cells
3. Reversed cells
4. Internal shorts
5. Incorrect electrolyte levels
6. Impurities in the electrolyte, leading to internal
shorts.
7. Loose intercell connections.
8. Out of tolerance charging voltages

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Battery Inspection, Service and Maintenance
Battery Inspection Inspect the cell connectors for corrosion, cracks, and overheating. If
these problems exist, discharge and disassemble the battery in order
Every aircraft maintenance schedule will specify a battery inspection period. to repair the damage.
This schedule should not exceed 50 flight hours (typical - refer to
manufacturers data sheets) for new batteries to ensure proper Inspect the cell caps for proper O-ring and vent sleeve condition. Wash
battery and aircraft compatibility and operation. After a few months, the any dirty cell caps in clean, warm water. Check the cell electrolyte
inspection periods can be lengthened. Before removing the battery level for proper amounts. If the battery is overfilled and spillage has
from the aircraft, inspect the following and repair as needed: occurred, the battery should be removed, discharged and then
disassembled for repair. If a low level of electrolyte is found, add
Inspect the battery case for cracks, distortion, or other damage. clean distilled water only after the battery has been idle for at least
2hours after charging. Never add water to a discharged battery or a
Inspect the vent system (if installed) for proper airflow. battery of unknown charge. The electrolyte level increases
significantly during charging; therefore, if water is added before
Inspect the cells and clean as needed. Often potassium carbonate will charging. An overfill situation is likely.
deposit as white powder on the top of the cells. This should be removed
with a non-metallic brush or damp cloth. If excessive deposits are present,
suspect overcharging or leaking cells, and remove and clean the cells
individually.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Battery Inspection, Service and Maintenance
Capacity Testing Cell Unbalance:
This is exactly the same as with a Lead Acid battery. Cell Unbalance is the term applied to a battery in which one or
more cells are at a different state of charge to the remainder. This state
Electrolyte Level: As previously mentioned, the level will vary can be caused by:
according to the state of charge; • Internal shorts
• Charge low - electrolyte level low – absorbed into plates • Incorrect charging and discharging procedures.
• Charge high- electrolyte level high - forced out of plates. • Loss of charge due to natural decay whilst the battery is on
the shelf.
Consequently the electrolyte level can only be adjusted:; • Separator damage causing a lowering of cell capacity.
• While still on charge
• The cells are gassing freely Unless this condition is corrected, the performance and useful
• During the last 15 minutes to 1 hour of charging. life of the battery is seriously impaired. In order to reduce the risk of cell
imbalance the following steps should be observed;
This is carried out as follows: • Maintain adequate ventilation to keep the cells at an
• Using a syringe fit the appropriate size nozzle. even temperature during both charging and discharging.
• Insert nozzle into cell - ensure nozzle shoulder seats on • Carry out regular Capacity Tests
vent seal. • Prior to charging balance the cells by placing 1 ohm
• Attempt to draw off any free electrolyte. shorting resistors across each cell for approx. 16 hours
• If no electrolyte can be removed, add distilled water in thus ensuring all cells are at zero volts prior to charging.
small quantities to the cell until electrolyte can be • When charging a battery is subjected to a 50%
withdrawn and the correct level is achieved by virtue of the overcharge. This ensures that every cell is completely
nozzle length. charged.
• Any suspect cells (normally detected during a Cap.Test)
Wash valves in water to dissolve any crystallisation that may have the battery is given a small charge for 1 hour (approx.
occurred. 0.2amps) and left to stand for 16-24 hours, then the cell
voltages are checked. Any defective cells will easily be
Using a suitable pressure tester and gauge connect the tester to the identified and should be replaced.
valve and ensure that the valve relief mechanism operates within
specified limits, i.e. 2-10 psi.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Battery Charging
Constant Voltage Method
A battery must be charged using d.c. only. The supply positive must As its name implies the voltage is kept constant, the current
be connected to the battery positive. reducing as the battery becomes charged due to the resistance
of the battery increasing.
The rate at which a battery can be charged is dependant upon the
charge a battery can take without excessive gassing, or heat. Initially charge rate is high due to the low internal resistance of the
During charging only a small portion of the current goes to re- battery. The battery is fully charged when the current is at
forming the electrodes, the rest acts to break up the water into approx. 1 ampere. Multiple charging, batteries must be
hydrogen and oxygen (electrolysis). If the charge rate is to high, connected in parallel.
excessive gassing will occur and the active material on the plates
will be loosened and will fall off causing the plates to short circuit. Advantages:
Due to excessive heat buckling of the plates may also occur. • Cheaper equipment
• Quicker
The rule of thumb for charging is: Charge at 1 ampere for each • Water losses smaller
positive plate of a single cell i.e. a cell containing 13 plates will have
6 positive plates therefore the maximum charging rate should be 6 Disadvantages:
amperes. • Possibility of Thermal Runaway

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Battery Charging
Constant Current Method Advantages:

• Ensures better cell balance
As its name implies the supply voltage alters to keep the current
rate of charge constant. This requires very careful monitoring (if
• Ensures a total battery charge
automatic equipment is not used ) because of the risk of • Reduces the risk of Thermal Runaway
overcharging. The exact current flow and time of charge must be
known and programmed. Disadvantages:
• Longer charging time
It is used on Ni-Cad or new lead acid batteries, where the state of • Greater water losses during charging
charge can be determined.
To charge more than one battery at the same time they must be
connected in series.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Battery Charging
SPECIFIC FREEZING
Temperature Related Precautions GRAVITY POINT
Temperature is a vital factor in the operation and life of a storage °F °C
battery. Chemical action takes place more rapidly as temperature 1.300 -96 -70.8
increases. For this reason, a battery will give much better
performance in temperate or tropical climates than in cold 1.295 -66 -54
climates. On the other hand, a battery will deteriorate faster in a 1.275 -64 -53
warm climate.
1.250 -62 -52.2
In cold climates, the state of charge in a storage battery should be 1.225 -35 -37.2
kept at a maximum. A fully charged battery will not freeze even
under the most severe weather conditions, but a discharged 1.200 -16 -26.7
battery will freeze very easily. 1.175 -4 -26.7
When water is added to a battery in extremely cold weather, the 1.150 +5 -20.00
battery must be charged at once. If this is not done, the water will 1.125 +13 -18.0
not mix with the acid and will freeze. The table below gives the
freezing point for various states of charge. 1.100 +18 -10.6

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Battery Charging
General Safety Precautions 12. Always charge batteries in a well ventilated area.
Forced-air fans to help remove any dangerous fumes
1. The sulphuric acid electrolyte is highly corrosive. Serious are recommended; simply assuming that a large room,
burns can result if it comes into contact with any part of the such as a hangar, is well ventilated is incorrect.
body. Early symptoms of contamination are itching and
reddening of the skin. 13. Always turn off the battery charger before disconnecting any
connections between the battery and the charger. This will help
2. To prevent contamination, wear rubber gloves, a rubber eliminate the possibility of sparks at the battery terminals.
apron and protective goggles.
14. When removing the battery from the aircraft, always
3. If electrolyte gets onto the skin, wash the affected areas with disconnect the negative lead first. When installing the
large quantities of water, preferably warm. battery, always connect the negative lead last. This will help
prevent accidental shorts between the airframe and the
4. If electrolyte gets into the eyes, flush with water and SEEK battery's positive terminal.
medical assistance immediately.
15. Make sure that the caps of each cell of the battery are
5. Sulphuric acid spillage's or contamination can be neutralised by vented and that the vents are clean. If the caps appear old and
Bicarbonate of Soda dirty, soak them in plain hot water in order to clean the
vents. If the vents remain clogged, replace the caps
6. Alkaline contamination can be neutralised by Boric Acid. prior to charging.
7. Containers for handling electrolyte should be made of glass, glazed 16. Remove the battery from the aircraft prior to charging
earthenware etc. whenever possible. The corrosive electrolyte tends to
vaporise during charging and escape through the vented
8. Keep containers apart and clearly marked. battery caps. This electrolyte will corrode the aircraft if the battery
is charged while in the aeroplane. If the battery should be charged
9. NEVER examine batteries with a naked light. while it remains in the aircraft, never operate any radios or other
aircraft electronic equipment. A battery charger does not
10. All lead acid batteries and their servicing equipment's MUST be regulate voltage accurately enough to ensure trouble-free
kept clear of Ni-Cad batteries. operation of electronic equipment.
11. Always add the Acid to Water and Never Water to Acid.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Pressure as a Source of electricity
Crystal Controlled Oscillators Certain crystalline substances, notably quartz, exhibit a

piezoelectric effect which results in a pd (potential difference)
Crystals are a class of materials that, when solidified, are arranged appearing between the opposite faces of the crystal when it is
in a definite, geometric pattern in three dimensions (table salt and mechanically deformed and vice versa. The crystal can be shown
sugar are common examples). Quartz Crystal is silicon and to have an 'electrical' equivalent circuit.
oxygen arranged in a crystalline structure (SiO2). SiO2 is also
found abundantly in nature in a non-crystal structure NOTE: This is not actually correct but gives an understanding of
(“amorphous”) as sand. the piezoelectric effect.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Pressure as a Source of electricity
In general, if you deform a piezo crystal by applying a force, you

will get charge separation: Think of a simple battery.
Conversley, if you apply a current to a piezo crystal, a deformation

of it’s shape will occur.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Light and Electricity
Photoconductive Cells One form of construction is shown, in which a film of semi-

conducting material is laid down on an insulating substrate and
When light fails upon a semiconductor, the energy taken up by electrodes are evaporated on to its surface through a mask.
the atoms causes the spontaneous generation of electron hole The electrodes have the shape shown in order to increase the
pairs. The net effect is an increase in bulk conductivity, or a decrease contact area and decrease the resistance of the cell. The 'dark’
in electrical resistance. Materials used as the semiconductor material 4
resistance of the cell generally has a value between 10 and 10 Ω,
6
include lead sulphide, lead selenide, indium antironide and the characteristic of a typical cell being illustrated. Photoconductive
Cadmium Sulphide (CdS). The last is the most commonly used cells are also known as Light Dependent Resistors (LDR).
material since its spectral response curve closely matches the
human eye. Cadmium sulphide cells can, therefore, be used in Photoconductor arrays can be manufactured in the form of a film
applications where humans could normally estimate illumination integrated circuit. It is possible to connect active devices (e.g.
levels, e.g., camera exposure meters, street lighting control circuits, transistors) to the array in order to use it in encoding networks,
smoke detectors, etc. such as in punched card and punched tape readers and in
positioning systems.
Other types of photoconductive cells generally have spectral
response curves with peak values at wavelengths of 2 μm to 3 μm.
These cells are used to detect radiation with a high infrared
content.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Photoelectrics
When light falls on to a metal surface, it causes electrons to shoot

off, the number of electrons being greater or smaller according
to the strength of the light and nature of the surface. A potential of
20 volts applied to an anode will sweep up these electrons and
produce a current of electricity proportional to the illumination of the
light falling on the metal surface. The current can be used, therefore,
to measure the strength of the light.
The photoelectric photometer makes use of this principle.

Naturally, the more sensitive the response of the metal
cathode, the more accurate will be the measurement. A
surface which gives a high sensitivity over the visible part of the
spectrum can be made by depositing a thin layer of caesium on a
base of antimony or bismuth.
Sometimes a gas-filled photocell is used. The photoelectrons

collide with the gas molecules, which then split into positive ions
and negative electrons. These drift with the applied voltage and
add considerably to the photocurrent. It is, however, more
unstable than the vacuum cell, as it is sensitive to variations in
the potential and in the pressure of the gas.
Emission cells can be used as switching devices to operate burglar

alarms and to automatically open doors. The interruption of a
light beam directed on to the cell changes its conductivity, which
triggers off a secondary mechanism. Because the response of
these cells can be conveniently amplified, they are used in
conjunction with spectrometers to measure the intensity of spectral
lines.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
The Photo-Voltaic Cell
One type of photographic exposure meter is basically a photo-voltaic cell.

It needs no amplification or electrical supplies and gives a direct meter
reading of light intensity. This makes for compactness and
portability while its accuracy, though less than that of the vacuum cell,
falls well within the tolerances of photographic emulsions.
The cell is made up of a thin transparent layer of gold deposited on the

surface of a slab of grey crystalline selenium which is itself in contact with an
iron base plate. Light falling on the gold layer reaches the surface of the
semi-conducting selenium. This light at the boundary induces electrons to
flow into the gold from the selenium, creating a difference of potential
across the junction. Externally a conventional current flows from the iron
base contact via a micro-ammeter to the gold surface.
The instrument requires frequent recalibration, as it is affected by

temperature and as it suffers from both long and short term fatigue
with exposure.
The Photo-Voltaic light meter does not require any electrical

supplies. Light causes electrons to flow from the selenium into the
gold.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Thermoelectricity
The valency electrons in a metal constitute an "electron gas" Now suppose that the top half is replaced by a dissimilar
whose particles, the free electrons, wander at random within metal. The conditions will be similar the first situation, but the
the interspaces. Consider one such electron, (see figure below) it force pulling the electron into metal A is different from that trying to
will be attracted by every one of the ions in the neighbourhood and pull it into metal B.
owing to the regular arrangement of the ions in the crystal lattice,
the resultant force will be zero. This explains the ability of the
electrons to wander about at random.
Now suppose that a surface is created by removing the mass of This will produce a potential difference at the junction, and cause a
metal above the plane represented by the dotted line. Then the current to flow if a circuit is made.
upward-acting forces vanish, leaving only the downward-acting
forces, as shown below. These have a resultant which acts away
from the surface and consequently, whenever an electron reaches
the surface it is immediately pulled back.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Thermoelectricity
Thermocouple The cold junction may be held at any desired temperature and the
corresponding calibration curve is obtained by drawing new axes through
At the point of contact between two different metals there exists this point on the curve. The graph is not linear, so that we must
an electrical potential difference the value of which depends on standardise the thermocouple at a sufficient number of points to draw the
the temperature of the junction. When we complete the circuit with curve. To avoid ambiguity, we usually operate only on one side of the
a second junction at a different temperature, a current flows in the maximum of the graph. When a measuring instrument is included in the
circuit. circuit, other junctions between different metals may be introduced,
but they do not influence the readings provided they are all at the
This thermoelectric effect is called the Seebeck effect after the man who same temperature. For less accurate measurements we can
discovered it, and the junction is called a thermocouple. Either the net dispense with the cold junction completely and replace it by the
emf in the circuit or the resulting current may be used to measure measuring instrument. The thermocouple then behaves as though its
temperature. When the cold junction is maintained at 0QC, then the cold junction were at room temperature.
graph is the calibration curve for the hot junction.
The robustness, low thermal capacity and compact size of the
thermocouple make it the most widely used thermometer in industry.
It lends itself well to remote control and to automated systems. By
choosing suitable combinations of metals or alloys, such as
platinum-rhodium alloy, temperatures of up to 1500°C can be
measured. Other combinations (thermals) are iron/constantan
and chromel/constantan. The sensitivity which can be achieved by
combining thermocouples into a thermopile is extremely high. Such
an instrument with several hundred junctions can detect the heat
of a candle a hundred feet away.
In general the emf produced is small ( mV ) and is normally in the

region of 1mV per 25°C.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Magnetism and Motion
This form of electrical power generation will be discussed later in

this module.

Issue 4 30-MAR-2011 Module 3.1 - 3.8
Aircraft Maintenance Licence
EASA 66 – Module 3 – Electrical Fundamentals – Book 2

of 4
These notes have been prepared by British Airways Engineering Training to provide a source
of reference during your period of training.
The information presented is as correct as possible at the time of printing and is not subject
to amendment action.
They will be useful to you during your training, but I must emphasise that the appropriate
Approved Technical Publications must always be used when you are actually working on the
aircraft.
I trust your stay with us will be informative and enjoyable.
Jim Williamson
Training Quality Standards Manager
Part 66 Electrical Fundamentals – Book 2 of 4 -1–

Modules 3.9 – 3.11 Issue 3 Book 1 July 2008
Electrical Fundamentals Book 2 of 4 – Contents
Contents
Capacitance/Capacitors ...........................
Magnetism / Electromagnetism ...............
Electromagnetic Induction........................
Transformers ..........................................

Capacitors/Capacitance A capacitor consists of two or more metal plates separated by an
insulator (called the dielectric).
In some ways a capacitor can be likened to a battery although they function
in different ways. Both release Electrical Energy, in a battery it is chemical
energy that is released as electrical energy. The chemical reaction produces
electrons whereas a capacitor is a passive component in a circuit. It
cannot create a charge like a battery. In common with the battery is
that it has positive and negative terminals and can store and
release electrons.
Like the battery, one side of the capacitor stores an electrical

charge. Unlike the battery, it discharges instantaneously. This
storing and releasing of electrons is the basic function of the
capacitor which in turn creates several uses. Most obvious is its
ability to rapidly discharge. A good example of this is a camera
flash. Stored electrons are instantly released upon demand,
creating an immediate and temporary flash. The instant release can
be slowed down but at the cost of reduced current flow.

ACTION OF A CAPACITOR A capacitor is an electronic component that can store electrical
energy in the form of an electric field. In its simplest form, a
When connected to a supply voltage, charges collect on the plates. capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an
These charges: insulator called the dielectric.
If we apply a dc voltage to the plates of a capacitor, the capacitor

• are equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity. will become charged. The figure opposite shows a battery
• produce an electric field across the dielectric. connected to the simple two-plate capacitor. The positive terminal
• are proportional to the applied voltage (v) of the battery attracts the electrons in the left-hand plate of the
• during the charging period electrons are moved from plate A capacitor thereby leaving that plate with a positive charge.
to plate B around the circuit as shown.
Electrons from the negative terminal of the battery move on to the
right-hand plate giving it a negative charge. In this state, the
capacitor is said to be charged. Since the positive and negative
electrical charges on the plates attract one another, there will be a
force field set up between the two plates. However, there is no
electrical current flow through the capacitor because of the
insulating dielectric between the two plates.
The only time current flows is when the battery is initially connected.
Current flow, or the movement of electrons, takes place only during
that brief instant of time that it takes for the capacitor to charge.
Most capacitors can be charged in either direction. Figure B shows

how the two-plate capacitor can be charged in the opposite
direction simply by reversing the battery leads. In this state, the left-
hand plate takes on a negative charge and the right-hand plate
takes on a positive charge.

If the battery in the circuit is removed from the capacitor, the When a capacitor is shorted in this way, the electrons on the
electrical charges on the plates remain. The attraction of the negative plate flow through the shorting connection to the positively
positive and negative charges on the two plates across the charged plate. Momentarily, electrons will flow creating a current.
dielectric holds the charges in place and the capacitor remains The excess of electrons on the right-hand plate will neutralise the
charged. As long as the two plates are insulated from one another, positive charge on the left-hand plate. This discharge action gives
the capacitor will remain charged. the capacitor a neutral or zero charge.
The capacitor can be discharged by shorting the plates together by

connecting a wire between them as shown in the figure below. As you can see, a capacitor can store electrical energy in the form
of a charge. The capacitor is charged by an external voltage
source, then retains that charge because of the attraction of the
opposite charges on the two plates across the dielectric. The
capacitor can be discharged by connecting the two plates together.
The charge is then neutralised. No current flows through the
capacitor itself, but current does flow in a capacitive circuit during
the time the capacitor is being charged or discharged.
The ability of an electronic component to store an electrical charge

is referred to as capacitance. Components that exhibit this
characteristic are known as capacitors. Most capacitors are two-
leaded electronic components.
However, capacitance can exist in any situation where two

conductors are separated by an insulator. For example,
capacitance exists between an insulated wire running near a metal
chassis. The chassis represents one plate of the capacitor while the
wire represents the other plate. The insulation of the wire and any
air space between the two conductors represents the dielectric.
Capacitance not in the form of a physical component is generally
Note: This is not an ideal way to discharge a capacitor as the referred to as distributed or stray capacitance It exists in all
currents flowing can be very high. electronic circuits and can greatly effect their operation at high
frequencies.

Unit of Capacitance Capacitor Symbols
The unit of capacitance is the FARAD. A capacitor has a
capacitance of 1 FARAD when a charging current of 1 AMPERE
flowing for I SECOND causes a change of 1 VOLT in the potential
across the plates.
Q
C= or Q = CV
V
where Q is in COULOMBS and C is in FARADS
The FARAD is a very large (and impractical) unit and capacitors

have much
smaller values e.g. Trim
1 - MICROFARAD (1mF) = 1x10-6 All symbols may be shown with the negative plate either curved or
straight.
1 - PICOFARAD (1pf) = 1x10-12
WORKED EXAMPLE
A 4 mF capacitor is connected to a 100 V d.c. supply and fully

charged. Calculate the charge on the capacitor in coulombs.
Q = CV = 4 x10−6 x100 = 0.0004Coulombs

FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITANCE SAFE WORKING VOLTAGE
The safe working voltage is the maximum d.c. voltage that can be
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor depends upon: applied to the capacitor without the dielectric breaking down. A
large value capacitor has a thin dielectric which is suitable only for
• area of the plates (A) An increase in x-sectional area low voltages. A high voltage, high value capacitor is usually very
increases the capacitance. bulky.
• distance between the plates (d) An increase in the
Capacitor values are stated in capacitance and maximum working
distance decreases the capacitance.
voltage.
• insulating material between the plates (k) Different e.g. F 750V dcw (d.c. working)
materials have different dielectric values.
THIS VOLTAGE MUST NOT BE EXCEEDED.
The capacitance of a capacitor is given by: A CHARGED CAPACITOR - ESPECIALLY A LARGE ONE - CAN
BE DANGEROUS: ALWAYS MAKE SURE IT IS DISCHARGED
A BEFORE YOU ATTEMPT TO HANDLE IT.
C=k WHEN AN ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR IS OF THE POLARISED
d TYPE IT CAN ONLY BE USED IN A D.C. CIRCUIT AND MUST BE
where A is in metres CONNECTED WITH THE CORRECT POLARITY.
d is in metres
k is a constant for the dielectric used
If the dielectric material used is other than air the capacitance will
be increased by the approximate factors:
PAPER 3, MICA 51 CERAMICS 100 to 1000
Dry Air has a dielectric value of 1.

Defining Capacitance By graphical consideration...
1
E = QV
• ‘Good’ capacitors store a lot of charge when only a small 2
voltage is applied
• Leakage is minimal
• Capacitance is charge stored per volt
Q
C=
V
Graphical Representation
Equating the equation to a straight line graph:
From the definition of voltage as the energy per unit charge, one
might expect that the energy stored on this ideal capacitor would be
just QV. That is, all the work done on the charge in moving it from
Q one plate to the other would appear as energy stored. But in fact,
C= the expression above shows that just half of that work appears as
energy stored in the capacitor. For a finite resistance, one can show
V that half of the energy supplied by the battery for the charging of the
capacitor is dissipated as heat in the resistor, regardless of the size
Q = CV of the resistor.
y = mx By substitution of Q=CV
1 1 1 Q2
By general definition E=QV and is a product of charge and voltage
E = QV , E = CV 2 , E=
2 2 2 C

GROUPING OF CAPACITORS
As opposite charges accumulate on the plates of a capacitor due to
the separation of charge, a voltage develops across the capacitor Capacitors in Parallel
due to the electric field of these charges. When capacitors are connected in parallel the total charge (QT)
Ever-increasing work must be done against this ever-increasing drawn from the supply is the sum of the individual charges in the
electric field as more charge is separated. capacitors. In the diagram below:
The energy (measured in joules, in SI) stored in a capacitor is equal
to the amount of work required to establish the voltage across the
capacitor, and therefore the electric field.
The maximum energy that can be (safely) stored in a particular

capacitor is limited by the maximum electric field that the dielectric
can withstand before it breaks down.
Therefore, all capacitors made with the same dielectric have about
the same maximum energy density (joules of energy per cubic
meter).
QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 ........
CT V = C1V + C2V + C3V .....
∴ CT = C1 + C2 + C3 .....
Note
• voltage across each capacitor is the same
• the charge on each capacitor is directly proportional to the
value of its capacitance.

Capacitors in Series TYPES OF CAPACITORS
When capacitors are connected in series the charge (Q) on each Some typical types of Capacitor are shown below
capacitor is the same as that drawn from the supply. Hence:
V = V1 + V2 + V3 ....
Q Q Q Q
= + + .....
CT C1 C2 C3
1 1 1 1
∴ = + + .....
CT C1 C2 C3
A PAPER CAPACITOR is made of flat thin strips of metal foil

conductors that are separated by waxed paper (the dielectric
material). Paper capacitors usually range in value from about 300
Pico farads to about 4 microfarads. The working voltage of a paper
capacitor rarely exceeds 600 volts. Paper capacitors are sealed
with wax to prevent the harmful effects of moisture and to prevent
corrosion and leakage.
Many different kinds of outer covering are used on paper

Note capacitors, the simplest being a tubular cardboard covering. Some
• the charge on each capacitor is the same types of paper capacitors are encased in very hard plastic. These
• the voltage across each capacitor is inversely proportional to types are very rugged and can be used over a much wider
its capacitance. temperature range than can the tubular cardboard type.
Part 66 Electrical Fundamentals – Book 2 of 4 - 10 –

A MICA CAPACITOR (high A CERAMIC CAPACITOR is so named because it contains a
Quality) is made of metal foil ceramic dielectric. One type of ceramic capacitor uses a hollow
plates that are separated by ceramic cylinder as both the form on which to construct the
sheets of mica (the dielectric). capacitor and as the dielectric material. The plates consist of thin
The whole assembly is encased films of metal deposited on the ceramic cylinder.
in moulded plastic. The figure
shows a cut-away view of a
mica capacitor. Because the
capacitor parts are moulded into
a plastic case, corrosion and
damage to the plates and
dielectric are prevented. In
addition, the moulded plastic
case makes the capacitor
mechanically stronger. Various
types of terminals are used on
mica capacitors to connect them
into circuits. These terminals are also moulded into the plastic case.
Mica is an excellent dielectric and can withstand a higher voltage

than can a paper dielectric of the same thickness. Common values
of mica capacitors range from approximately 50 Pico farads to 0.02 A second type of ceramic capacitor is manufactured in the shape of
microfarad. a disk. After leads are attached to each side of the capacitor, the
capacitor is completely covered with an insulating moisture-proof
coating. Ceramic capacitors usually range in value from 1 Pico
farad to 0.01 microfarad and may be used with voltages as high as
30,000 volts.

An ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR is used where a large amount of A Variable Capacitor is constructed in such manner that its value
capacitance is required. As the name implies, an electrolytic of capacitance can be varied. A typical variable capacitor
capacitor contains an electrolyte. This electrolyte can be in the form (adjustable capacitor) is the rotor-stator type. It consists of two sets
of a liquid (wet electrolytic capacitor). The wet electrolytic capacitor of metal plates arranged so that the rotor plates move between the
is no longer in popular use due to the care needed to prevent stator plates. Air is the dielectric. As the position of the rotor is
spilling of the electrolyte. changed, the capacitance value is likewise changed. This type of
capacitor is used for tuning most radio receivers.
A dry electrolytic capacitor consists essentially of two metal plates
separated by the electrolyte. In most cases the capacitor is housed
in a cylindrical aluminium container which acts as the negative
terminal of the capacitor. The positive terminal (or terminals if the
capacitor is of the multisection type) is a lug (or lugs) on the bottom
end of the container. The capacitance value(s) and the voltage
rating of the capacitor are generally printed on the side of the
aluminium case.

Preset Trimmers
Colour Codes for Capacitors

This capacitor consists of two plates separated by a sheet of mica.
A screw adjustment is used to vary the distance between the plates, Although the capacitance value may be printed on the body of a
thereby changing the capacitance. capacitor, it may also be indicated by a colour code. The colour
code used to represent capacitance values is similar to that used to
represent resistance values.
For each of these codes, coloured dots or bands are used to

indicate the value of the capacitor. A mica capacitor, it should be
noted, may be marked with either three dots or six dots. Both the
three- and the six-dot codes are similar, but the six-dot code
contains more information about electrical ratings of the capacitor,
such as working voltage and temperature coefficient.
The capacitor shown represents either a mica capacitor or a

moulded paper capacitor. To determine the type and value of the
capacitor, hold the capacitor so that the three arrows point left to
right (>). The first dot at the base of the arrow sequence (the left-
most dot) represents the capacitor TYPE. This dot is either black,
white, silver, or the same colour as the capacitor body. Mica is
represented by a black or white dot and paper by a silver dot or dot
having the same colour as the body of the capacitor. The two dots
to the immediate right of the type dot indicate the first and second
digits of the capacitance value. The dot at the bottom right
represents the multiplier to be used. The multiplier represents Pico
farads. The dot in the bottom centre indicates the tolerance value of
the capacitor.

6-dot colour code for mica and moulded paper capacitors
Example of mica capacitors

Another method is similar to Resistor Colour coding:

Charging a capacitor The Time Constant of a capacitor is give as:
t = CR
The capacitor (C) in the circuit diagram is being charged from a
supply voltage (Vs) with the current passing through a resistor (R).
The voltage across the capacitor (Vc) is initially zero but it increases
as the capacitor charges. The capacitor is fully charged when
where t is given in seconds
Vc = Vs. The charging current (I) is determined by the voltage
across the resistor (Vs - Vc):
The amount of time however that it takes to fully charge a capacitor
is:
t = 5CR
The time constant is the time taken for the charging (or discharging)
current (I) to fall to 1/e of its initial value. 'e' is the base of natural
logarithms, an important number in mathematics (like ).
e = 2.71828 (to 6 significant figures) so we can roughly say that the
time constant is the time taken for the current to fall to 1/3 of its initial
value. (Its actual value is 63.2%).
After each time constant the current falls by 1/e (about 1/3). After 5
Charging current, I = (Vs - Vc) / R (note that the voltage across time constants (5RC) the current has fallen to less than 1% of its
the capacitor is increasing) initial value and we can reasonably say that the capacitor is fully
charged, but in fact the capacitor takes for ever to charge fully!
At switch on Vc = 0V so the initial current = Vs/R
A large time constant means the capacitor charges or discharges
Vc increases as soon as charge (Q) starts to build up (Vc=Q/C) As slowly.
the capacitor charges it slows the rate of flow of charge (I) down.
This is because the plates of the capacitor progressively have less Note The time constant is a property of the circuit containing both
space to store electrons. This means that the rate of charging capacitance and resistance, it is not a property of a capacitor alone.
becomes progressively slower.

The graph shows that when the switch in the circuit is closed, the After 1 time constant the capacitor will charge to 63.2% of its full
current (I) reaches an instantaneous maximum value and the charge status. After the second time constant the capacitor will
voltage (V) measured across the capacitor is zero. This means that have charged to 63.2% of the remaining 36.8% to take it to a total
there is a 900 lag between Current and Voltage. In a capacitive 86.4% of its full charge state. The capacitor takes 5 time constants
circuit voltage is said to lag current. to be deemed fully charged. At this point current will effectively stop
flowing in the circuit. Therefore a capacitor tends to block current
flow in a D.C. circuit. If the switch is now opened (position B) the
capacitor would remain fully charged (remember that it will decay
slowly through the air and other components in the circuit.
Remember: The capacitor is charged and if touched or short

circuited it can cause damaged or serious injury.
Example:
1. If R = 47k and C = 22µF, then the time constant,

RC = 47k × 22µF = 1.0s.
2. If R = 33k and C = 1µF, then the time constant,
RC = 33k × 1µF = 33ms.
Fully charged however is 5 times these figures

Discharge of Capacitors In the first time constant the capacitor will fall 63.2% to 36.8% of its
full charge status. In the second time constant it will continue to
When the switch is placed to position C the current flow reaches an discharge to 63.2% of the remaining 36.8% to 13.6% of its full
instantaneous maximum value and the electrons will flow from the charge status. After 5 time constants the capacitor is said to be fully
negatively charged plate, through the load (lamp) to the positively discharged.
charged plate.
The current and voltage (across the capacitor) will decay at the
same rate. The time the current flow takes to decay to zero is 5CR
Seconds. With no resistance in the circuit, shorting the capacitor will Capacitors, a.c. verses d.c.
create a spark across the contacts. The resistive element in the
circuit acts to reduce the rate of flow of charge (I). • A capacitor is said to “pass a.c.” and “block d.c.”
• This is an important aspect and will be dealt with in
more detail during a.c. theory

Capacitors as Smoothers Capacitor as a suppressor
During the first half of the voltage peaks from the rectifier, when the
voltage increases, the capacitor charges up.
When the voltage decreases to zero in the second half of the
peaks, the capacitor releases its stored energy to keep the output
voltage as constant as possible.
Such a capacitor is called a 'smoothing' or 'reservoir' capacitor
when it is used in this application
The D.C. from the supply has a small a.c. ripple by virtue of the
Other Uses of Capacitors
generator. This will create electrical “noise” e.g. crackling at the
Capacitors are used for several purposes: speakers. The capacitor will see the ripple as a.c. and allow the a.c.
element to pass but will block the D.C. element. If the capacitor
• Timing - for example with a 555 timer IC controlling the value is correct, only pure D.C. will be presented to the radio
charging and discharging. circuits.
• Smoothing - for example in a power supply.
• Coupling - for example between stages of an audio system
and to connect a loudspeaker.
• Filtering - for example in the tone control of an audio
system.
• Tuning - for example in a radio system.
• Storing energy - for example in a camera flash circuit.
• Suppressing – see example

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 7. How would you determine the total charge when two
capacitors are connected;
1. Draw and label the symbols used for fixed, electrolytic,
variable and pre-set capacitors. a. In series?
2. What is the effect on capacitance of an increase in the area of b. In parallel?

overlap of a variable capacitor?
8. Describe, with the aid of a diagram, the charging of a 1μF
3. A charged, parallel plate capacitor is disconnected from the capacitor from a d.c. supply which rises from 0 to +10V
supply and its plates moved further apart. What will be the effect on:
instantaneously. The circuit has a total series resistance of 1 MΩ
a. The charge stored?
9. A 50μF capacitor has a pd of 200 volts across its plates.
Calculate the charge in coulombs that will be stored.
b. The voltage across the plates?
10 A capacitor has a charge of 0.25 coulomb when the Pd across its
4. What factors must be taken into account when; plates is 2,500 volts. Calculate its capacitance.
a. Removing a capacitor from a circuit?
b. Connecting an electrolytic capacitor into a d.c. circuit?
5. State the meaning of "Time Constant.
6. What is meant by "Steady State Value"?

Magnetism
Introduction to Electromagnetism
The next topic will describe in more detail the relationship between
magnetism and electricity, and the last will show how they are
brought together to produce electromagnets, inductors and
transformers. The phenomenon of magnetism has been known and
used for much longer than any other property in the science of
electricity. Magnetism occurs naturally in some minerals, e.g.
lodestone and has the property of attracting and picking up small
pieces of iron or steel. A further property of these minerals is that if
they are freely suspended, they will come to rest pointing in a north-
south direction. This is because the earth itself behaves like a huge
natural magnet and its magnetism pulls the piece of mineral into
line with it. This property forms the basis of the magnetic compass
and has been used by mariners for navigation for many years.
This can be achieved by:
Simple Theory of Magnetism:
1. Stroking with another magnetic
Groups of molecules in a magnetic material behave like a tiny individual 2. By hammering a piece of magnetic material held in the
magnet, with its own North and South Poles. These miniature magnets are same direction as a magnetic field i.e. the Earth's field.
called Domains. 3. By heating a piece of magnetic material, and allowing it to
cool in a magnetic field.
In an unmagnetised magnetic material, the DOMAINS are arranged 4. By passing an electric current through a coil wound around
in ' chains ', so they do not produce an observable overall magnetic the magnetic material.
effect. In a magnetised magnetic material, the DOMAINS are
arranged in ' rows ' thus leaving a column of unattached North & Of these, the last is the most effective and is the method used
South poles at either end. The material now exhibits magnetic commercially.
qualities. Therefore a material will be magnetised when the ' DOMAINS can be knocked out of their rows by reversing the
Magnetic Domains ' are forced out of their closed chains under the procedures above.
influence of an applied magnetic field.

The Earths Magnetic Field Rocks that are formed from the molten state contain indicators of
the magnetic field at the time of their solidification. The study of
The Earth's magnetic field is generated in the fluid outer core by a such "magnetic fossils" indicates that the Earth's magnetic field
self-exciting dynamo process. Electrical currents flowing in the reverses itself every million years or so (the north and south
slowly moving molten iron generate the magnetic field. In addition to magnetic poles switch). This is but one detail of the magnetic field
sources in the Earth's core the magnetic field observable at the that is not well understood.
Earth's surface has sources in the crust and in the ionosphere and
magnetosphere. The Earth's Magnetosphere
The solar wind mentioned above is a stream of ionized gases that

blows outward from the Sun at about 400 km/second and that
varies in intensity with the amount of surface activity on the Sun.
The Earth's magnetic field shields it from much of the solar wind.
When the solar wind encounters Earth's magnetic field it is
deflected like water around the bow of a ship, as illustrated in the
image below

Artificial Magnets Permanent Magnets
The use of an irregular shaped piece of natural magnetic A common form of permanent magnet is a bar magnet. We have
material is not very satisfactory in practice. However, some other already seen that any magnet attracts pieces of iron and when it
material such as iron or steel, made to the shape required, can is in the shape of a bar, the force of attraction is usually greatest
be made into a magnet. If a piece of iron is placed near to a in the regions of the ends, which are called POLES and
natural magnet (or any other magnet) it will exhibit magnetic negligible in the middle of its length. We also saw that if the bar
properties and it is said to be magnetised by induction. A piece of is freely suspended it will take up a fixed position with one end
un-magnetised iron can also be made into a magnet by stroking pointing to the north, called the north seeking pole (or more
it with one end of a natural magnet. We shall also see later that a commonly just NORTH POLE) and the other end pointing to the
piece of iron can be magnetised using an electric current. Any south called the SOUTH POLE of the magnet. Materials which
magnet formed by any of the above methods is called an exhibit magnetic effects are called FERROMAGNETIC materials,
artificial magnet. Some materials are easily made magnetic, e.g. iron, cobalt, nickel. The two poles of any single magnet are
such as soft iron, but others, such as hard iron (and steel) are always of equal strength and are complementary and cannot
much more difficult to magnetise. In general, materials that are exist in isolation. The region around a magnet in which its forces
easily magnetised also readily lose their magnetism and are can be detected is called its MAGNETIC FIELD and this can
TEMPORARY magnets. Conversely, materials which are difficult conveniently be imagined as consisting of LINES OF FORCE or
to magnetise do not lose their magnetism easily and are LINES OF MAGNETIC FLUX.
PERMANENT magnets.

Lines of Magnetic Flux

Magnetic Lines of Flux
Magnetic lines of flux have the following properties:
1. They appear to originate at the N - Pole and terminate at the S -

Pole.
2. They repel each other sideways.
3. They try to shorten themselves.
4. They never cross each other.
5. Their is no known insulator to them.
6. They always take the path of least reluctance.
7. They always form closed loops.

When a magnet is suspended the South Pole will align itself with
the Earths North Pole ( Note if a stronger North Pole is present it Electro-Magnetic Fields
will align itself with that or the resultant of the combination) When an electric current flows in a conductor, it is found that a
magnetic field is set up around the conductor such that iron filings
and compass needles are affected.
Compass in a Magnetic Field

The Magnetic Field around a Straight Conductor.

Maxwell's Corkscrew/Screw rule is used to determine the direction
of the magnetic field around the wire.
The Right Hand Grip/Grasp Rule:
Maxwell’s Corkscrew is also known as the Right Hand Rule is a

physics principle applied to electric current passing through a
straight wire, resulting a magnetic field. Imagine gripping the
conductor with the right hand, the thumb points in the direction of
the conventional current (from positive to negative), and the
fingers in the direction of the magnetic field.
.
In a cross sectional view of a conductor a dot ( ) indicates the
current is flowing toward you, and the cross ( + ) flowing away. The
circles around the conductor represent the magnetic field.

Magnetic Effects of Parallel Conductors It should be noted that when the currents are in the same direction,
the conductors would move towards one another if they are free to
Instead of considering one conductor let us now consider two move. Of course, as you would expect, when the currents are in
straight conductors placed parallel to each other and we look at the opposite directions they will repel one another.
resultant magnetic fields produced when the conductors are viewed
end on. The currents flowing in the conductors can either be
flowing in the same direction or opposite directions. The resultant
fields are shown.
This is a current carrying conductor wound in the shape of a coil. At

each part of the coil, the corkscrew rule applies as to the direction
of the magnetic field being produced. However, remembering that
lines of flux cannot cross over, the lines of flux from neighbouring
conductors combine together and produce a magnetic field very
similar to that of a bar magnet.

The diagram below shows the resultant field pattern of a coil of wire
wound round a hollow cardboard former.
It should be noted that the lines of flux are spread out external to
the former, i.e. the flux density is not large. The field inside the
former is very concentrated providing a high flux density.

The Magnetic Circuit *William Gilbert, also known as Gilbard (1544 –1603) was an
English physician and a natural philosopher.
Magnetomotive Force (mmf):
Scientifically, Gilbert is known for his investigations of magnetism
and electricity. Gilbert is credited as one of the originators of the
Magnetomotive force (mmf), also known as magnetic potential, is term electricity, and many regard him as the father of electrical
the property of certain substances or phenomena that gives rise to engineering or father of electricty and magnetism.
magnetic fields. Magnetomotive force is analogous to electromotive
force or voltage in electricity.
The standard unit of magnetomotive force is the ampere turn (AT),

represented by a steady, direct electrical current of one ampere (1A)
flowing in a single-turn loop of electrically conducting material in a
vacuum. Sometimes a unit called the gilbert* (G) is used to quantify
magnetomotive force. The gilbert is defined differently, and is a
slightly smaller unit than the ampere-turn. To convert from ampere-
turns to gilberts, multiply by 1.25664. Conversely, multiply by
0.795773.
Although the standard definition of magnetomotive force involves

current passing through an electrical conductor, permanent magnets
also exhibit magnetomotive force. The same is true for planets with
magnetic fields, such as the Earth, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune. The Sun also generates magnetomotive forces, particularly
in the vicinity of sunspots.

Definitions: Permeability or Permativity: The specific measure of a material's
acceptance of magnetic flux
Strength of an Electro-Magnet •Analogous to the specific resistance of a conductive material (ρ),
except inverse (greater permeability means easier passage of
Flux Density(β):Unit = Tesla (T) A measure of flux per square magnetic flux, whereas greater specific resistance means more
metre. It can be increased by: difficult passage of electric current)
•Increase the number of Turns in a coil
•Increase the current through the conductor Permeability (μ–pronounced mu) The ratio of Flux Density ( ) to
•Introduce a magnetic core the magnetising force (H)
When an mmf produces a Magnetising Force “Η”, a certain Flux

1Weber Φ
1 Tesla = 2
=β = Density is established.
M A
The ratio of Flux Density (β) to Magnetic Field Strength (Η) at any
Flux (Φ Phi ): Unit = Weber The total number of lines leaving a point in free space is called the “Permeability of Free Space”.
pole
It is represented by the symbol μo and has the standard value of
Magnetic Flux Φ = β A 4πx10 (1.256 x10 )
−7 −6
Magnetomotive Force ( MMF ): Is the number of Ampere turns in

a coil where: β
Thus in Free Space: μo = ∴ β = μoxH
H
(Ampere Turns = Current x Number of Turns)(NI)
Where μ of air = 1
The Magnetising Force ( H ): The number of Ampere Turns per
β
mmf NI We know that the Permeability of Free Space is μo =
Metre = H= & mmf = NI then H = H
l l In any other medium the ratio of β /Η is equal to μ oμ r where
Note: The Magnetising Force ( H ) depends ONLY on the μ r is the “Relative Permeability” of the medium. The product of
current and the number of Ampere turns per metre, whereas μ oμ r is sometimes referred to as the “Absolute Permeability” of
Flux Density also depends on the type of core used. the medium and is given the symbol μ (pronounced “mu”).

Ferromagnetic Materials: natural magnetic properties of iron •Reluctance: The opposition to magnetic field flux through a given
(Latin = "ferrum") volume of space or material. Analogous to electrical resistance
•A ferromagnetic material is one that readily magnetises (its
constituent atoms easily orient their electron spins to conform to an l
external magnetic field force – hence Easily magnetised) Reluctance is given by: R=
•Soft ferromagnetic materials become demagnetized μA
spontaneously when removed from a magnetic field.
•Hard ferromagnetic materials can retain their magnetism, making where
them useful in the production of permanent magnets.
l is the length of the circuit in metres
Paramagnetic Materials: Have a small and positive susceptibility
to magnetic fields.
μ0 is the permeability of free space, equal to 4π x10 −7 henry per
•These materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the metre
material does not retain the magnetic properties when the external μr is the relative magnetic permeability of the material
(dimensionless)
field is removed.
A is the cross-sectional area of the circuit in square metres
•Paramagnetic properties are due to the presence of some
unpaired electrons, and from the realignment of the electron orbits The inverse of reluctance is called permeance.
caused by the external magnetic field.
Its SI derived unit is the Henry (the same as the unit of inductance,
•Paramagnetic materials include magnesium, molybdenum, lithium,
and tantalum. although the two concepts are distinct).
Diamagnetic Materials: Have a very weak and negative The symbol is “S” and is measured in Amperes per Weber.
susceptibility to magnetic fields. mmf
• Diamagnetic materials are slightly repelled by a magnetic field and S=
the material does not retain the magnetic properties when the Φ
external field is removed.
•Retentivity: If a ferromagnetic material tends to retain its
•Diamagnetic materials are solids with all paired electron resulting
magnetization after an external field is removed, it is said to have
in no permanent net magnetic moment per atom.
•Diamagnetic properties arise from the realignment of the electron good retentivity
orbits under the influence of an external magnetic field. •This, of course, is a necessary quality for a permanent magnet.
•Most elements in the periodic table, including copper, silver, and
gold, are diamagnetic.

The Magnetic Circuit
10 Turns, 1 Amp = 10At
20 Turns, 2 Amps = 40 At
mmf: The force that establishes the magnetic flux when a current
flows through a coil is known as the magnetomotive force (mmf).
It is measured in Ampere Turns (At)
mmf = NI Ampere Turns ( NI )
where I is the current in Amps and N is the number of turns of wire which the
current is flowing through.

The Magnetising Force (H)
The mmf per metre length of the magnetic circuit (L)
mmf IN
H= sin ce mmf = IN H =
L L
Unit of H = Amperes turns per metre 20 Turns, 2 Amps = 160At/m
Note: L must be converted into metres e.g. 10cm = 0.1m and 25cm =
0.25m
10 turns, 1 Amp = 100At/m

Iron Core Solenoid The solenoid field relationship is
An iron core has the effect of multiplying greatly the magnetic field
of a solenoid compared to the air core solenoid on the left. β = kμ 0 nI where μ = kμ 0
where k is the relative permeability of the iron, n is the number of
turns and I is the current, shows the magnifying effect of the iron
core.
Electromagnet
Electromagnets are usually in the form of iron core solenoids. The
ferromagnetic property of the iron core causes the internal magnet
domains of the iron to line up with the smaller driving magnetic field
produced by the current in the solenoid. The effect is the
multiplication of the magnetic field by factors of tens to even
thousands.

Hysterisis Curves
Before we get onto electromagnetic devices we need to

understand what happens to the magnetic field produced by a
coil wound round an iron core when the current is reversed in
direction.
We know that a magnetising force H will produce a magnetic

field which will have a certain flux density B and that the direction
of the field is determined by the direction of the current I. It would
appear therefore that when the current is reduced to zero the
magnetic field should be zero. However, in the case of
ferromagnetic materials, this is not the case. Indeed, when the
current is zero, there is still magnetic flux in the core.
This effect of the magnetic field change lagging behind the

current change producing it, is called HYSTERESIS. Consider
the graph shown opposite.
The dotted line from the origin up to saturation shows how the flux
density β increases as the magnetising field Η is increased. Since
the strength of the magnetising field is ΝΙ and Ν is constant, the
strength of Η is dependent upon the value of the current Ι.
It can be seen that if Ι is now gradually reduced back to zero, the

full line is a measure of the flux density being produced and when Η
is zero, i.e. Ι is zero, there is some flux density left. This is called
REMANENCE or RESIDUAL

Hysterisis Loop showing domain magnetisation Variations in Hysteresis Curves
There is considerable variation in the hysteresis of different
magnetic materials. This can be used to our advantage when used in
different applications e.g. relays, transformers
Note the depicted direction of the “domains” . The magnetising force in our
example is current and M is equal to β.

Electromagnetic Screening:
A Faraday cage is a metallic enclosure that prevents the entry or
escape of an electromagnetic field (EM Field). An ideal Faraday
cage consists of an unbroken, perfectly conducting shell. This ideal
cannot be achieved in practice, but can be approached by using
fine-mesh copper screening. For best performance, the cage should
be directly connected to an earth ground.
Faraday cages are used in electronic labs where stray EM fields

must be kept out. This is important in the testing of sensitive
wireless receiving equipment. In addition, a Faraday cage can
prevent the escape of the EM fields emitted by a cathode-ray-tube
(CRT) computer monitor.
A heavy-duty Faraday cage can protect against direct lightning

strikes. When properly connected to an earth ground, the cage
conducts the high current harmlessly to ground, and keeps the EM
pulse from affecting personnel or hardware inside.
When an aircraft is struck by lightning, the metal frame becomes a

Faraday cage and draws the electricity away from the passengers
inside. A microwave oven’s door has a screen which prevents
electromagnetic energy from escaping into the room. Electronic
parts which generate radio frequencies are often protected by
Faraday cages called RF shields.

Inductance and Inductors
Electromagnetic Induction
Consider a coil wound with a large number of turns connected to

a centre zero reading GALVANOMETER. If the permanent
magnet is moved up to and along the axis of the coil the
galvanometer will show a current is flowing in the coil. Since
there is no battery connected in the coil circuit there must have
been an electromotive force induced, hence induction in the coil.
Immediately the magnet stops moving the current in the coil
circuit ceases.
What will determine the size of the current induced? Since the When the magnet is moved towards or away from the coil its
number of turns of the coil is fixed, and the size of the permanent magnetic field moves with it and it is this magnetic field cutting the
magnetic field is also fixed, then the only other quantity which coil which generates the emf across the coil. Conversely when the
can change the size of the current induced is the SPEED at coil is moved towards, or away from the magnet, the magnetic flux
which the magnet is moved. This is the case - when the magnet is cut by the coil and again an emf is induced in the coil. The
is moved faster the current increases and of course, vice versa. direction of current flow will depend on the relative direction of the
These factors are embodied in the Laws of Electro-Magnetic movement of the coil or magnet.
Induction
The two important laws are:
Faraday's Law When a conductor comes under the influence of

a changing magnetic field an emf is induced into it. The
magnitude of the induced emf is proportional to the rate of
change of flux or field.
Lenz's Law This states that the induced current always acts in
such a direction so as to oppose the change in flux producing
the current.

Inductance in DC Circuits When the switch is opened, the collapsing magnetic field
induces an emf such as to oppose the reducing current. This
Consider the diagram below. back emf is in such a direction to maintain current flow which, if
of sufficient magnitude, could cause sparking across the
contacts of the switch.
The foregoing assumes no resistance in the circuit.
With the switch open, the current and magnetic flux is zero.
When the switch is closed, the changing flux in the coil, by
Faraday's law, will induce a voltage, which is known as a self
induced voltage. This process is referred to as Self Induction.
From Lenz's law, the induced voltage will oppose that which is
causing it, i.e. it will oppose the current growth. The induced emf
is therefore called a BACK EMF.

Growth and Decay of Current In A Coil VR + V L = V
We will now consider the practical case of when there is resistance Now the current in the circuit can build up and it does so
in the circuit shown. EXPONENTIALLY. This is shown in the diagrams opposite. The
really important thing is that as the current changes exponentially
the voltage across R (VR) must also change in the same way
because Ohm's Law must apply. The back emf across the coil must
decrease exponentially since the above voltage equation must be
maintained. Eventually VR reaches its maximum value and VL
decreases to zero. VR will be a maximum when the current reaches
its maximum value, i.e.: Since the current is constant, there cannot
be any back emf in the coil, i.e. VL = 0. These are shown in the
current and voltage wave form diagrams
When the switch 'S' is placed on contact 'a', the current in the circuit
suddenly changes from zero to some discrete value and this
produces a back emf (VL) in the coil. At the moment of switching
this will be equal to the whole of the applied emf (V) and therefore
the voltage across R (VR) is zero.
It should be noted that at the moment the switch is closed and as

long as it remains closed:

The switch is now moved to contact 'b', i.e. the source of energy
keeping the current flowing, the battery, is removed from the
Unit of Inductance
circuit. The voltage equation now becomes:
The unit of inductance L is the HENRY (H). It is defined as: “A
circuit has an inductance of 1 HENRY (1 H), if an electromotive
VR + VL = 0 or VL = − VR force (e) of 1 volt, is induced in the circuit when the current varies
uniformly at the rate of 1 ampere per second.”
At the instant the switch is moved to 'b', the current wants to
drop to zero, i.e. a sudden change. This rapid change of current This can be written in the form of an equation as follows:
produces a back emf and by Lenz's Law, it will be in such a
direction as to keep the current flowing. The back emf is initially e = −L x rate of change of current
at its maximum value and since the voltage equation above must
be maintained, it is opposite to the voltage across R. There is no Δi
energy source to maintain a current in the circuit and it must e = −L
therefore decay to zero. It does so exponentially, VR follows it Δt
(Ohm's Law) and VL rises also exponentially, and all reach zero
at the same time as shown. You should note that the induced emf is negative because it
opposes the direction of current change. You should also be aware
that the symbol for 'rate of change of current' i.e. is a short hand
way of writing the expression.
Example When current changes at 20mA/sec in a 10mH coil, what

is the value of the induced emf?
Answer i.e.
Δi
e = −L
Δt
e = −10 x10 −3 x 20 x10 −3 = 200 μV
Once again the quantities must be put into their basic units when
inserting them into the equation.

Flemings Right Hand Rule
To predict which way the induced current will flow, we can use
Fleming's right-hand rule. Also known as the Generator Rule this is
a way of determining the direction of the induced emf of a conductor
moving in a magnetic field.
The thumb, the first and the second fingers on the right hand are
held so that they are at right angles to each other.
If the first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field and the Point your thuMb in the direction of the Motion.
thumb in the direction of the motion of the conductor then the
second finger will point in the direction of the induced emf in the Rotate your hand so that your First finger points in the direction of
conductor. the magnetic Field.
Your seCond finger will now be pointing in the direction of the

induced Current flow.

Self Inductance
For any circuit the magnetic field at any point is proportional to the
current I flowing in the circuit. Hence the magnetic flux Φ which All circuits contain inductance even a straight piece of wire but if the straight
links the circuit is also proportional to Ι. The constant of piece of wire is formed into a coil the number of flux linkages increases and
proportionality (which is a function of the shape and size of the so does the inductance.
circuit) is known as the self-inductance L.
Φ=LΙ
The unit of self-inductance is the henry (H).
A device designed to exhibit a specific value of self-inductance is

known as an inductor.
When the current through a circuit changes an emf or voltage is

produced, given by
Remember the negative sign indicates that the induced voltage has
a direction which opposes the change in Ι.

UNIT OF INDUCTANCE When a circuit is switched off, the fall in current will produce a Eb
which will try to maintain current flow
N 2 μ0 μr A
L=
l If there is no external circuit then no current will flow and this will
L = INDUCTANCE (HENRIES). induce a very large Eb which can cause sparking
N = NUMBER OF TURNS. The rate at which the field collapses is important (remember
Faraday’s Law)
μo μr = ABSOLUTE PERMEABILITY. i.e. a circuit with an inductance of 4 H in which the current will
change from 2A to 6A in 1 second, then
A = AREA IN SQUARE METRES.
Δi 4
l = LENGTH OF COIL IN METRES (NOT WIRE). Eb = − L = −4 = 16V
Δt 1
Q. FIND THE INDUCTANCE OF A COIL WITH 15 TURNS A Now if we can turn the circuit off so fast that the current went from
CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF 10CM AND A LENGTH OF 1.5CM 2A to zero in 5mSecs (5x10-3 ) then
Δi 2
Eb = − L = −4 = 1600V
Δt 0.005

MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
Whenever two coils are located so that the flux from one coil links
with the turns of the other coil, a change of flux in one coil causes
an emf to be induced in the other coil.
This allows the energy from one coil to be transferred or coupled to

the other coil. The two coils are said to be coupled or linked by the
property of MUTUAL INDUCTANCE (M).
The amount of mutual inductance depends on the relative positions

of the two coils.
If the coils are separated a considerable distance, the amount of

flux common to both coils is small and the mutual inductance is low.
Conversely, if the coils are close together so that nearly all the flux
of one coil links the turns of the other, the mutual inductance is
high. The mutual inductance can be increased greatly by mounting
the coils on a common iron core.

When two coils are placed close together as shown with Coil 1 FACTORS AFFECTING MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
connected to a battery through switch S, and coil 2 connected to an
ammeter (A). When switch S is closed (figure A), the current that The mutual inductance of two adjacent coils is dependent upon the
flows in coil 1 sets up a magnetic field that links with coil 2, causing physical dimensions of the two coils, the number of turns in each
an induced voltage in coil 2 and a momentary deflection of the coil, the distance between the two coils, the relative positions of the
ammeter. axes of the two coils, and the permeability of the cores.
When the current in coil 1 reaches a steady value, the ammeter The COEFFICIENT OF COUPLING between two coils is equal to
returns to zero. If switch S is now opened (figure B), the ammeter the ratio of the flux cutting one coil to the flux originated in the other
(A) deflects momentarily in the opposite direction, indicating a coil. If the two coils are so positioned with respect to each other so
momentary flow of current in the opposite direction in coil 2. This that all of the flux of one coil cuts all of the turns of the other, the
current in coil 2 is produced by the collapsing magnetic field of coil coils are said to have a unity coefficient of coupling. It is never
1. exactly equal to unity (1), but it approaches this value in certain
types of coupling devices. If all of the flux produced by one coil cuts
only half the turns of the other coil, the coefficient of coupling is 0.5.
The coefficient of coupling is designated by the letter K.
The mutual inductance between two coils, L1 and L2, is expressed

in terms of the inductance of each coil and the coefficient of
coupling K. As a formula:

Effect of Angle between the Coils In diagram (b) below, the input coil is moved to position B (450). The output
for both coils will be 0.707 of the input value. Again this is because the Cos
The angle between the coils will also affect the value of any induced emf. If of 450 is 0.707.
the magnetic field is not cutting another conductor by 900 then the induced
emf will be greatly reduced.
In diagram (a) below if the input coil is placed at position A, output (O/P) 2
will be at a maximum and O/P 1 Zero.
This is because the Cosine of 00 = 1 and the Cosine of 900 = 0. These

angles correlate to the physical angle between the input coil and the output
coils.

In diagram (c) below if the input coil is placed at position C, output (O/P) 2 Types of Coupling
will be at a Zero and O/P 1 Maximum.
In the diagram below the coils are at 900 to each other with any magnetic
flux cutting the secondary winding by an angle of 00. Consequently there is
no induced emf into the secondary winding.
This is known as Zero Coupling.
This is assuming that there are the same number of windings on both input
and output coils and that materials and physical sizes are the same.

In the diagram below the coils are in line to each other with any magnetic In the diagram below the coils are in line to each other with any magnetic
flux cutting the secondary winding by an angle of 900. Consequently there is flux cutting the secondary winding by an angle of 900. Consequently there is
some induced emf into the secondary winding, however the air offers a high some induced emf into the secondary winding. This time however the iron
reluctance path to the magnetic fields and reduces the value induced. core offers a low reluctance path to the magnetic fields and increases the
efficiency of the value induced.
This is known as Medium Coupling.
This is known as Loose Coupling.

In the diagram below the coils are in line to each other with any magnetic
flux cutting the secondary winding by an angle of 900. Consequently there is
some induced emf into the secondary winding. This time however the iron
core offers a low reluctance path to the magnetic fields and with both
windings would around each other reluctance is reduced to a minimum
value therefore there are very few losses.
This is known as Tight Coupling.

Inductors Connected in Series When inductors are connected in parallel, the total inductance is less
than any one of the parallel inductors' inductances. Again,
remember that the definitive measure of inductance is the amount
The rules for inductors in series and parallel are the same as for of voltage dropped across an inductor for a given rate of current
resistors in series and parallel. So if there are three inductors, L1 change through it. Since the current through each parallel inductor
L2 and L3 the total inductance LT will be: will be a fraction of the total current, and the voltage across each
parallel inductor will be equal, a change in total current will result in
less voltage dropped across the parallel array than for any one of
the inductors considered separately. In other words, there will be
less voltage dropped across parallel inductors for a given rate of
change in current than for any of those inductors considered
separately, because total current divides among parallel branches.
Less voltage for the same rate of change in current means less
inductance.
Thus, the total inductance is less than any one of the individual
inductors' inductances.
In series LT = L1 + L2 + L3
To understand why this is, consider the following: the definitive

measure of inductance is the amount of voltage dropped across an 1 1
inductor for a given rate of current change through it. If inductors In parallel: =
are connected together in series (thereby sharing the same current, L T L1 + L2 + L3
and seeing the same rate of change in current), then the total
voltage dropped as the result of a change in current will be additive
with each inductor, creating a greater total voltage than either of
the individual inductors alone. Greater voltage for the same rate of
change in current means greater inductance.
Thus, the total inductance for series inductors is more than any one
of the individual inductors' inductances.

However, if they are physically placed so that they do exhibit a
mutual inductance, this isn't sufficient. We must include a mutual
inductance where each coil's magnetic field affects the other coil.
Furthermore, we must take into account whether the magnetic fields
of the two coils are aiding each other or opposing each other, since
each self-inductance can be either increased or decreased by the
value of the mutual inductance, designated M. Therefore, we must
select one of two equations:
LT = (L1 + M) + (L2 + M)
LT = (L1 - M) + (L2 - M)
Or,
LT = L1 + L2 ± 2M
If you try to connect three or more coils in series, you must take into
account the mutual inductance between each pair of coils. That's
three different mutual inductances for three coils, and six mutual
inductances for four coils.

Inductive Time Constant The time that it takes to reach this maximum value is:
Inductors have the exact opposite characteristics of capacitors.

L
Whereas capacitors store energy in an electric field (produced by
the voltage between two plates), inductors store energy in a t =5
magnetic field (produced by the current through wire). While the R
stored energy in a capacitor tries to maintain a constant voltage
across its terminals, the stored energy in an inductor tries to In the example previous the time (t) to reach maximum current flow
maintain a constant current through its windings. would be:
Consequently, an inductor opposes a change in current.

L 20 x10−3
t =5 =5 = 20mS
R 5
It should be noted that after 1 Time Constant (4mS) the inductor
voltage would have fallen to 3.68V and that the current in the circuit
would have risen to 63.2% of its maximum value.
When the switch is first closed, the voltage across the inductor will
immediately jump to battery voltage (acting as though it were an
open-circuit) and decay down to zero over time (eventually acting
as though it were a short-circuit). The current in the circuit will
initially be zero and will rise to a maximum value, determined by the
total effective resistance in the circuit.

Why L/R and not LR the capacitor or inductor to be dissipated in the form of heat by a
resistor:
It is often perplexing to new students of electronics why the time-
constant calculation for an inductive circuit is different from that of a
capacitive circuit. For a resistor-capacitor circuit, the time constant
(in seconds) is calculated from the product of resistance in ohms
and capacitance in farads: t=RC. However, for a resistor-inductor
circuit, the time constant is calculated from the quotient (division) of
inductance in henrys over the resistance in ohms: t=L/R.
This difference in calculation has a profound impact on the

qualitative analysis of transient circuit response. Resistor-capacitor
circuits respond quicker with low resistance and slower with high
resistance; resistor-inductor circuits are just the opposite,
responding quicker with high resistance and slower with low
resistance. While capacitive circuits seem to present no intuitive
trouble, inductive circuits tend to make less sense.
Key to the understanding of transient circuits is a firm grasp on the

concept of energy transfer and the electrical nature of it. Both
capacitors and inductors have the ability to store quantities of In either case, heat dissipated by the resistor constitutes energy
energy, the capacitor storing energy in the medium of an electric leaving the circuit, and as a consequence the reactive component
field and the inductor storing energy in the medium of a magnetic loses its store of energy over time, resulting in a measurable
field. A capacitor's electrostatic energy storage manifests itself in decrease of either voltage (capacitor) or current (inductor)
the tendency to maintain a constant voltage across the terminals. expressed on the graph. The more power dissipated by the resistor,
An inductor's electromagnetic energy storage manifests itself in the the faster this discharging action will occur, because power is by
tendency to maintain a constant current through it. definition the rate of energy transfer over time.
Consider what happens to each of these reactive components in a

condition of discharge: that is, when energy is being released from

Therefore, a transient circuit's time constant will be dependent upon
the resistance of the circuit. Of course, it is also dependent upon
the size (storage capacity) of the reactive component, but since the
relationship of resistance to time constant is the issue of this
section, we'll focus on the effects of resistance alone. A circuit's
time constant will be less (faster discharging rate) if the resistance
value is such that it maximizes power dissipation (rate of energy
transfer into heat). For a capacitive circuit where stored energy
manifests itself in the form of a voltage, this means the resistor
must have a low resistance value so as to maximize current for any
given amount of voltage (given voltage times high current equals
high power). For an inductive circuit where stored energy manifests
itself in the form of a current, this means the resistor must have a
high resistance value so as to maximize voltage drop for any given
amount of current (given current times high voltage equals high
power). The cart, sitting at the top of a slope, possesses potential energy
due to the influence of gravity and its elevated position on the hill. If
This may be analogously understood by considering capacitive and we consider the cart's braking system to be analogous to the
inductive energy storage in mechanical terms. Capacitors, storing resistance of the system and the cart itself to be the capacitor, what
energy electrostatically, are reservoirs of potential energy. resistance value would facilitate rapid release of that potential
Inductors, storing energy electromagnetically (electrodynamically), energy? Minimum resistance (no brakes) would diminish the cart's
are reservoirs of kinetic energy. In mechanical terms, potential altitude quickest, of course! Without any braking action, the cart will
energy can be illustrated by a suspended mass, while kinetic freely roll downhill, thus expending that potential energy as it loses
energy can be illustrated by a moving mass. Consider the following height. With maximum braking action (brakes firmly set), the cart
illustration as an analogy of a capacitor: will refuse to roll (or it will roll very slowly) and it will hold its
potential energy for a long period of time. Likewise, a capacitive
circuit will discharge rapidly if its resistance is low and discharge
slowly if its resistance is high.

Now let's consider a mechanical analogy for an inductor, showing Inductor Symbols
its stored energy in kinetic form:
This time the cart is on level ground, already moving. Its energy is
kinetic (motion), not potential (height). Once again if we consider
the cart's braking system to be analogous to circuit resistance and
the cart itself to be the inductor, what resistance value would
facilitate rapid release of that kinetic energy? Maximum resistance
(maximum braking action) would slow it down quickest, of course!
With maximum braking action, the cart will quickly grind to a halt,
thus expending its kinetic energy as it slows down. Without any
braking action, the cart will be free to roll on indefinitely (barring any
other sources of friction like aerodynamic drag and rolling
resistance), and it will hold its kinetic energy for a long period of
time. Likewise, an inductive circuit will discharge rapidly if its
resistance is high and discharge slowly if its resistance is low.

Inductor effects on a Circuit
Once the current has reached a steady value the back EMF ( E )
b
falls to zero and the coil has little effect on the circuit
Coils are therefore said to" PASS "d.c.
Under a.c. conditions where the magnitude of the constantly

changing, self induction is always taking place, opposing current
changes
Coils are therefore said to" BLOCK" a.c.
Types & Uses:
HF Chokes – small L, non inductive core e.g. cardboard, bakelite –

mH
Iron cored – large L, low f, - up to 100H
Tuned Circuit Inductors – used with capacitors where necessary to

vary the inductance of the circuit

Transformers Basic Operation
The principle of operation is that of Mutual Inductance. A simple low

These notes on transformers are mainly concerned with those that
frequency transformer consists of two coils wound on a high
may be encountered when dealing with aircraft electrical and
permeability core of soft iron. A changing current in one of the coils
instrument systems. The transformer has no moving parts and is an
(known as the PRIMARY) creates a changing magnetic field that
extremely efficient piece of equipment. It operates by flux from one
induces a voltage in the other coil (known as the SECONDARY).
coil linking with another. This flux MUST be changing state and so
The magnitude of the secondary voltage (VS), compared to the
the transformer can only be operated on alternating current. (There
applied (Primary) voltage (VP), depends upon the number of turns
are occasions when transformers are to be found in dc circuits, but
on the secondary winding (NS) and the number of turns on the
they only operate when the dc is changing state).
primary winding (NP). There is obviously a relationship between the
two and this is known as the 'Turns Ratio'. If losses (which are very
small) are ignored, then the ratio may be expressed as:

Transformation Ratio (T) The ratio of VS to VP (or NS to NP) is frequency and the material used for the core has a narrow
known as the 'Transformation Ratio'. If VS is smaller than VP, then hysteresis loop (stalloy or permalloy). Eddy current loss is caused
the output will be less than the input and the transformer is called a by the eddy (or circulating) currents in the core set up by the
Step-down transformer. A Step-up transformer is one in which VS is changing magnetic field. These eddy currents produce heat and so
greater than VP. When using Transformation Ratio, it is constitute an energy loss. Laminating the core prevents the eddy
conventional to always put the secondary voltage before the currents from combining into one large circulating current which
primary voltage. Thus, a transformation ratio of 4:1 means that the would rapidly over-heat the transformer. Flux leakage losses occur
output voltage will be four times the input voltage (step-up) and a when not all of the primary flux links with the secondary coil. Ideally,
transformation ratio of 1:3 means that the output voltage will be one primary and secondary coils should occupy the same space on the
third the input voltage (step-down). Any chance of confusion on this core, but this is physically impossible and so manufacturers go to
point can, of course, be obviated by the use of the appropriate term great lengths to close-couple the coils in order to keep this loss to a
of step-up or step-down after the ratio is given. minimum.
Transformer Losses As stated earlier, transformers are very

efficient (easily 98%) and the losses are very small. The ‘Ideal’
transformer (no losses) is often referred to when dealing with them
but some losses occur in all transformers. At the particular designed
operating frequency, the losses in a transformer can be considered
to be constant, apart from the Copper Losses (see below) which will
vary as the load varies. Losses are divided into three groups:
Copper losses, Iron losses and Flux Leakage losses.
Copper loses are caused by I2R losses in the windings and are
therefore dependent upon the primary and secondary currents and
the resistance of the windings Iron losses are themselves divided
into two parts: Hysteresis losses and Eddy current losses.
Hysteresis loss is caused when the core is continuously magnetised
and demagnetised each half-cycle. The energy required to do this is
dissipated as heat in the core and so depends upon the supply
frequency and the core material.
Transformers are therefore designed for operation at a particular

Transformer Construction staggered when assembled to give a threelimbed former (see
sketch). This gives two magnetic paths and this type, whilst more
The Core or Former of a transformer on which the coils are wound expensive to build, is more suitable for use with large values of
is invariably one of two types, the CORE type or the SHELL type. current. When used for singlephase work, the windings are installed
The coils forming the Primary winding and the Secondary on the centre limb. When used for three-phase work, each limb is
winding(s) are wound so as to be in the closest proximity to each allocated to the primary and secondary windings of one particular
other in order to achieve the maximum flux linkage. Winding the phase. (This point is covered later in these notes). This form of
primary of a step-up transformer nearest to the core and then construction is also widely used in magnetic amplifiers but, in that
winding the secondary on top of it has the added advantage of usage, the crosssectional area of the centre limb is twice that of the
keeping the primary insulation between the higher voltage outer limbs.
secondary and the metal core.
Core Type The laminations are either U and I shaped or L shaped.

They are staggered when assembled to provide a single magnetic
circuit. The windings can be on one limb or split between the two
limbs. 7
6
Shell Type The laminations are usually T and U shaped and are

Transformer Operation
The primary alternating flux will also induce a back-emf into the
In order to understand the operation of a transformer, it is essential primary winding in opposition to the applied emf. The effective emf
to get the sequence of events in the correct order: acting on the primary is therefore very small and only a very small
current will flow in the primary winding. (The foregoing is, of course,
On No Load Imagine that a simple transformer, with a a description of inductive reactance, XL). The very small current that
transformation ratio of 2:1, has its primary winding connected to a flows in the primary is that current which is necessary to overcome
100 volt ac supply and that its secondary winding is open-circuited losses and to magnetise the core. A phasor diagram of this is
(no load). The current that flows in the primary will cause an shown below. The primary and secondary voltages are in anti-
alternating flux in the core which will induce a voltage of 200 volts phase and it is usual to show them in this manner on a phasor
ac in the secondary winding as shown below. diagram. Because the circuit is inductive, the offload primary current
will lag behind the primary voltage. The in-phase component of this
current is overcoming copper losses and the quadrature component
is magnetising the core.

On Load Imagine now that a resistive load is placed on the The Effects of Various Loads on a Transformer
secondary winding’s output, causing 3 Amperes to flow in the
secondary. This gives rise to a secondary flux in the core. The When a RESISTIVE LOAD is placed on a transformer, the effect is
secondary flux opposes the primary flux (Lenz’s Law) and so as described on the previous page.
reduces the total flux in the core. This means that the primary back-
emf is reduced, with a consequent increase in effective emf in the When an INDUCTIVE LOAD is placed on a transformer, the effect
primary and so an increase in primary current. The primary current is as though the inductance was connected directly to the supply. In
stops rising when; Input Wattage = Output Wattage + Losses. other words, the primary current lags behind the supply by an angle
depending on the amount of the inductance. See phasor diagram
In our case, the Output Wattage is 600 Watts and so the primary below.
current will rise to just over 6 Amperes in order to balance the
output and to overcome losses. (As losses are very small, they are
often ignored when transformers are being discussed). The phasor
diagram below shows how the load current is transformed through
180º to become the primary load current and is then combined with
the off-load current to give the total primary current.

When a CAPACITIVE LOAD is placed on a transformer, the effect The transformer is therefore just a link between the supply and the
is as though the capacitance was connected directly to the supply. load. Putting a load on a transformer has the same effect as putting
In other words, the primary current leads the supply voltage by an that load directly onto the supply (apart from the voltage
angle determined by the amount of capacitance. See phasor consideration, of course). The transformer may be loaded-up in
diagram below. exactly the same way as a generator may be loaded-up.
More Than One Output
A transformer is not confined to having just one output winding and

voltage. It can have a secondary winding with various tappings to
give differing output voltages, or it can have several secondary
windings each of a different output voltage, or it can have a
combination of both. It is therefore a very versatile piece of
equipment. It must be realised that the individual loads on all these
secondaries will all combine to be effectively one load as far as the
primary winding is concerned.

Types of Transformer If the current flow is considered for one particular half-cycle, it will
be seen that the primary and secondary currents are opposing each
The VOLTAGE or POWER Transformer These are the names other in the common portion of the winding. The actual current flow
given to the type of transformer described in the preceding pages of in the common portion is therefore the difference between the two
these notes. currents. This means that the cross-sectional area of the copper
can be decreased in the common portion, bringing about a saving in
The AUTO Transformer This is a special type of transformer that weight. This saving is obviously most beneficial on auto-
has only a single winding, which serves as both the primary and the transformers where the input voltage and the output voltage are
secondary. It follows that a portion of the winding is common to both very close together and the vast majority of the winding is common.
the input and to the output. It may be used either as a step-up or as
a step-down transformer. If an ac supply is applied to the primary One disadvantage of this type of transformer, especially when used
terminals, an alternating current will flow through those coils as a step-down, is that, in the event of an open-circuit occurring in
connected across P1 and P2. This will set up an alternating flux the common portion of the winding, the input voltage will be applied
which will link with all of the turns on the former, inducing a voltage to the load. For this reason, it was unusual to find auto-transformers
in each. The output voltage is therefore that which appears in the in aircraft systems but, owing to improved reliability and the
coils across terminals S1 and S2. Loading the secondary will have widespread use of ac in aircraft, they are now to be found in
the same effect as described for the Power transformer. increasing numbers.

Auto-transformers can be used as boosters to compensate for volts The VARIAC Transformer (Not really an aircraft item but often
drop in long lengths of supply cables and for such things as motor found in servicing bays). This is an auto-transformer with a toroidal-
starters, where a low voltage is tapped off for initial starting and wound coil over which travels a wiperarm. By this means, an output
then the voltage is increased gradually by way of tappings until the voltage can be varied over wide limits. It is a very useful tool for
motor is being supplied with the full voltage. Apart from control carrying out equipment testing.
systems and circuits, they can also be found on some aircraft,
feeding items such as navigation lights and low voltage ac bus bars.

The Quadrature Transformer or Mutual Reactor This device was This is the purpose of the Quadrature transformer. In understanding
known about for many years but no practical use was made of it the use to which it is put, it is best to forget the applied voltage and
until the advent of Constant Frequency ac Systems in aircraft with to remember that if a current is forced through the primary, the
their control systems. A device was required that gave a phase secondary emf will occur 90° after it. The air gap has an optimum
angle of 90° between the current in one circuit and a signal being size and is usually concealed beneath the windings, so it looks just
injected into another circuit. The angle between the primary current like any other small transformer. It is only used to obtain signal
in a quadrature transformer and its secondary voltage is (for all voltages and cannot be loaded to any great extent. 8
practical purposes) 90°. To explain its operation, consider first of all
a normal power transformer and its basic off-load phasor diagram. 3
See (a) below.
If an air gap is cut in the former of the transformer, more current will
be required to magnetise the core to overcome the increased
reluctance. As the magnetising element of the primary current is at
90° to the applied voltage, it can be seen that the primary current is
increased and at the same time moved around -until it is almost 90°
behind the applied voltage. It also follows that the primary current is
almost at 90° ahead of the secondary emf.

The CURRENT Transformer The current transformer is designed transformer will have one ampere passing through its secondary
to enable circuit currents to be measured without breaking into the winding and (designed) load when 400 amperes are passing
circuit, as is necessary with an ammeter or its shunt. The output of through the primary cable. (The bar-primary counts as a single
the current transformer may be applied directly to an instrument or turn).
be used in control circuits. It works on the principle of mutual
inductance but its construction and mode of operation are vastly Operation
different to that of the power transformer.
When the load current passes through the supply cable, it causes a
Construction Some current transformers have primary windings magnetic field along its whole length which is constantly buildingup,
consisting of a relatively few turns, capable of carrying the load collapsing, reversing, building-up, etc. It is this flux which induces
current that is to be measured. Others, known as BARPRIMARY emfs into the coils of the secondary winding.
current transformers, use the load’s supply cable as the primary
winding. It is this latter type that is most widely used on aircraft and As the ring former and secondary coil only take up a very small
so will be concentrated on in these notes. The former on which the length of the primary cable (usually less than I inch), it is obvious
secondary winding is wound is a ring consisting of a continuous that, whatever happens at the secondary, the effect on the primary
strip of metal wound on itself in a spiral. This gives the effect of will be virtually nil. The primary, which depends on the load, may
laminations but it is not, in fact, actually laminated in the true sense. therefore be regarded as a constant current/constant flux supply.
The secondary winding is toroidally wound on the ring former with The voltage in the secondary winding causes a current to flow
its two ends brought out for connection to its load (meter or control through its load and through the secondary winding. This produces
circuit). a secondary flux which opposes the primary flux and so keeps the
core flux to a very low level. This is a most important point to
Design Features When a power transformer is designed, the remember because, if the primary is operated with the secondary
designers only needs to know the supply on which it will operate, winding disconnected from its load there will be no secondary emf
the output voltage and the maximum current that it will supply. They to oppose the primary emf. This will result in a high core flux;
are not interested in the actual loads that may be placed on it. increased eddy currents in the core; increased voltages in the
Things are different with the current transformer. A current individual secondary coils; and overheating. The sum result is that
transformer is designed to operate only on one particular load. If a the current transformer will burn out. (Even if the mistake is realised
different load is attached to its secondary, then it will not give and the system is switched off before it actually burns out, the core
accurate results. The designer needs to know the load and the may be premagnetised, or biased, and cannot thereafter be relied
supply source and then design the current transformer to link the upon to be accurate).
two together. Although voltages are obviously involved, it is correct
to talk about the ‘transformation of current’. A 400:1 current

If it is necessary to operate the primary when the secondary load is
disconnected, short together the secondary terminals. This will
cause a secondary current and flux and so keep the core flux to a
minimum. 84
If the current transformer is supplying a load such as an ammeter,

then the actual connections may not matter and the ammeter will
indicate whichever way it is connected-up. This is not true,
however, when the current transformer is feeding signals into
control circuits, where it is essential to get the phasing right. If the
secondary connections are crossed, the output will be turned
through 180° causing untold havoc in the control circuit. It is
absolutely essential to get the secondary connections correct. In the
same way, if a current transformer is being fitted over its primary
cable, it is absolutely essential to physically position it the right way
round.

Current Transformer Summary
• When fitting a current transformer, GET IT THE RIGHT

WAY ROUND.
• When connecting the secondary to its load, CONNECT IT
CORRECTLY.
• NEVER operate the primary circuit with the secondary
opencircuited - SHORT IT OUT!
• NEVER operate a current transformer on anything other
than its DESIGNED LOAD.
• In some cases, the current transformer and its load are a
matched pair. (They may even carry the same serial
numbers). If one is changed, then the other must also be
changed.
• When they are used in control circuitry, remember that the
secondary output is a supply source proportional to the
primary current flow.

The IMPEDANCE MATCHING Transformer Besides using a source of supply to a load circuit only when the load impedance is
transformers to change ac values of voltage and current, we can equal to the internal impedance of the source of supply. If we have
also use them between a source of supply and a load circuit to a case where they are not equal and we want maximum power to
‘match’ the impedances of the two circuits. be transferred, we can use the impedance matching effect of a
transformer to achieve the necessary conditions. It is not very
In any circuit; Impedance Z = V/I Therefore, in a transformer, the difficult to make a load impedance appear to the supply source to
impedance of the secondary, ZS, is the ratio of secondary voltage to be equal to the supply source’s own impedance.
secondary current, and the impedance of the primary, ZP, is the
ratio of the primary voltage to the primary current. The primary and
secondary voltages and currents are related to each other by the
Turns Ratio of the transformer and so it follows that the impedances
must be related also.
Zs
This relationship is given by: Z P =
T2
This means that a secondary load impedance of ZS appears to the

Zs
source of supply to be an impedance (ZP) to the value of
T2
As an example: If a transformer with a turns ratio, T, of 3 is

connected to a load impedance (ZS) of 9000 ohms, the supply
9000
source ‘sees’ an impedance of: = 1000Ω
9
It should already be known that maximum power is transferred from As an example; The 4 ohms impedance below must be made to

appear to the supply source to be equal to 10,000 ohms: From our
formula,
Zs
ZP = , we need to find T.
T2
Zs 4 1
T2 = = =
Z P 10, 000 2,500
By transposition,
1
∴T =
50
This means that a 50:1 step-down transformer will transform the 4

ohms in the secondary to 10,000 ohms in the primary and
maximum power is then transferred to the load.

THREE-PHASE Transformers It is possible to use single-phase circuit dictate the format of the connections and so the less
transformers and interconnect them on a three-phase system, but it desirable of them (in particular Star:Star) will often be encountered.
is more usual for a. single (three-limbed) former to be used. Each
limb is allocated to the primary and secondary windings of one of
the three phases, as shown below.
There are only four possible combinations: Having established the lay-out of the transformer, it is only
necessary to decide on the method of connection to be used in a
The preferred methods of connection are c) and d), above but the particular instance.
requirements of the circuit must come first and so the connections
at a) and b) will very often be met in circuits.
The reason for giving c) and d) as the preferred methods of

connection is that a Star:Star connection or a Delta:Delta
connection sets up harmonic magnetic waveforms in the former and
so creates harmonic distortion in the outputs, whereas Star:Delta or
Delta:Star do not create this problem.
However, as stated above, sometimes the requirements of the

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) The LVDT the displacement of the armature from the null and whose phase
produces an electrical signal that is proportional to the linear relationship with the primary supply shows whether the armature
displacement of a moveable armature core. The LVDT has a simple has moved nearer one end or the other of the coil. Thus for each
construction. Basically there are two elements involved with LVDT, portion of the armature, there is a definite output voltage, different in
the armature and the transformer. The transformer has a stationary level and polarity than for any other position, no matter how slight
Coil enclosed in a protective magnetic shield. The armature then the difference.
moves within the hollow core of the coil. The coil has a primary
winding in the middle and two secondaries, wired in series
opposition. When the primary is energised by an AC current, the
armatures - made of a closely controlled magnetic material -
induces a voltage from the primary to the secondary windings.
The position of the armature within the core of the coil determines
the level of the voltage at each secondary; if the armature is placed
precisely midway between the two secondaries (null position) the
induced voltage in each secondary is equal and opposite and there
is no output. As the armature is moved in either direction away from
the null, the LVDT produces an output voltage that is proportional to

Special LVDT Characteristics Because of its special
characteristics, the LVDT has distinct advantages over the other
devices used for motion mechanisation of transducers. Some of
these advantages are as follows: There is no friction or hysteresis,
since there is no mechanical contact between windings and
armature. There is no mechanical wear, hence virtually infinite life.
Linear output assures accurate measurement with direct read-out
instruments. There is infinite resolution, limited only by the ability to
read the small change of armature for small change in voltage.
Complete electrical isolation between input and output, permitting
adding and subtracting signals without buffer amps. High level
output simplifies circuitry. Over ranging does not cause any damage
or permanent change in characteristics. The LVDT is rugged and
shock resistant and virtually free of maintenance.
LVDT - Position and Rate Feedback
The diagram shows a practical application of a LVDT. This example

is taken from a DC1 0. The actual values of position feedback
shown are typical output levels. A second LVDT can be employed
and via a differentiator, a rate output obtained, again typical values
are shown. LVDT used for position feedback and via a
Differentiator, rate feedback of aileron actuator position.

As well as the linear differential transformer there is the rotary
differential transformer, the operation is the same as that for the
linear. The only difference is the fact that it is arranged to detect
rotational movement instead of linear movement. The output from
the transformer as we said is still the same and can be used in the
same manner as with the linear transformer. Shown in the figure
below is an example of how they are assembled and used on the
aircraft.

EASA 66 – Module 3 – Electrical Fundamentals

Book 3 of 4 - a.c. Theory
These notes have been prepared by British Airways Engineering Training to provide a source
The information presented is as correct as possible at the time of printing and is not subject
They will be useful to you during your training, but I must emphasise that the appropriate
Approved Technical Publications must always be used when you are actually working on the
aircraft.
I trust your stay with us will be informative and enjoyable.
Jim Williamson Training Quality Standards Manager

Modules 3.14, 3.14 & 3.16 Issue 3 Book 1 July 2008
AC Formulae

ADVANTAGES OF AC. SYSTEMS (e) Discharge lamps (fluorescent, sodium, mercury vapour
etc..) operate more efficiently from a.c. supplies, although
There are certain complications which occur when using a.c. filament lamps are equally effective on either type of supply
supplies, which are absent with d.c. supplies; these complications direct current systems are subject to severe corrosion,
are explained later in this chapter. However. the advantages of a.c. which is hardly present with a.c. supplies.
supplies have led to their general use, some of the more important
being
(a) An alternating current generator (often called an

alternator) is more robust, less expensive. requires less
maintenance, and can deliver higher voltages than its d.c.
counterpart.
(b) The power loss in a transmission line depends on the square

of the current carried(P = I R ). If the voltage used is
2
increased, the current is decreased. and losses can be made

very small. The simplest way of stepping up the voltage at
the sending end of a line, and stepping it down again at the
receiving end, is to use transformers, which will only
operate efficiently from a.c. supplies.
(c) 3 phase a.c. induction motors are cheap, robust and easily
maintained.
(d) Energy meters, to record the amount of electricity used. are

much simpler for a.c. supplies than for d.c. supplies.

INTRODUCTION The emf produced by a single coil rotating in a constant magnetic
field is an alternating emf as described previously. A graph of emf
The three main circuit elements, resistors, inductors and capacitors against time gives a sine wave similar to that shown below:
have different properties and effects when used in circuits carrying
alternating currents. In order to describe and understand these
differences, it is necessary to define a number of terms that are
used in alternating current and voltage theory.
ALTERNATING QUANTITIES
Any quantity which reverses its direction at regular intervals is said

to be an ALTERNATING QUANTITY, e.g. the motion of a
pendulum.

On the graph of voltage value against time, reversals of voltages
Nature of Alternating Current are shown by plotting voltage values either side of the time axis.
If the electrons flowing through a substance move backwards and

forwards about a mean position, the current produced is known as Such a graph is called a waveform diagram.
Alternating Current (AC). A common method of producing AC is by
means of an alternator (AC Generator). The three prime factors affecting the generated emf are:
• Flux density
Production of an Alternating Current • Length of conductor
• Velocity of conductor
It should be remembered that the production of any generated
power relies in part on the existence of a magnetic field and the The conductor velocity may be resolved into two component
angle at which a conductor is made to cut across that field. velocities parallel and perpendicular to the flux. The component
parallel to the flux contributes nothing to emf and may be ignored.
In the simple diagram below, consider the conductor A, pivoting The component perpendicular to the flux determines the rate of
about point X and turning anti-clockwise through 360 angular cutting flux and therefore the emf.
degrees.

Referring to the diagram on the previous page: Because of the difference in the nature of ac and DC supplies, the
performance and operating principles of equipment also differs
If the magnetic axis lies N-S, then it follows that the conductor is subject to the type of supply.
travelling along that axis at the instant drawn. As the magnetic
field is not being ‘cut’ no generated power can be expected. In this context, apparatus can be classified under four headings:
As the conductor moves through its first quarter turn it will be
progressively cutting through more of the magnetic field until a DC only – Electrochemical
maximum is reached, the Voltage (V) being proportional to the rate
of change. AC only – Transformers
During the second quarter turn, the cutting of the magnetic field AC or DC equally well - Heaters and Lamps
progressively decreases until once again the movement
of the conductor is aligned with the magnetic axis and the AC or DC subject to different design features - Generators and
generated power returned to zero. Motors etc.
At the end of the third quarter turn, the magnetic field is again being
cut at a maximum and therefore maximum output may be expected.
However, because the magnetic polarity has now reversed the
output voltage must be a maximum in the opposite direction.
The last quarter turn merely returns the conductor to the starting
position, where no output exists.
The value that this output attains throughout its movement will
normally be monitored by a Voltage Regulator, the function of which
is to adjust the strength of the magnetic field by controlling the
exciter current such that the desired output value is maintained.

Terminology associated with Alternating Current Periodic Time
The terms used will be defined in the course of these notes where The time taken for one cycle. Time (t) = Where f is frequency
logical progression dictates their introduction, and in general will Cycle
apply to sinusoidal waveforms only.
A Cycle is the name given to one complete series of values.
The number of cycles in one second is the FREQUENCY,
measured in HERTZ (Hz = c/s)
Frequency
1 1 1
f= PeriodTime = t ∴ t= f ( t is in seconds )
The unit of frequency is the HERTZ (Hz). Thus if 250 cycles are
completed in each second the frequency would be f = 250 Hertz.
e.g.1. If the time taken to complete 1 cycle is 8mS. What is the

frequency?
Ans: Ans.:
1 1
Sine Wave f = = = 125 Hz
t 8 x10 −3
This is the name given to a straight forward output wave form. The
name is derived from the fact that it is produced by a series of e.g. 2. An aircraft uses a frequency of 400Hz. What is the periodic
mathematical values. time?
Ans.
1 1
t= = = 2.5 x10 −3 S or 2.5mS
f 400

It may be noted that the nominal value of aircraft system frequency The RMS value is sometimes called the EFFECTIVE VALUE and it
is 400 Hz (cycles per second). The reason for this choice is that if is derived from the definition that one amp ac has the same heating
greater value had been chosen, larger hysteresis and inductive effect as one amp dc.
reactance losses would result; and if a lesser value had been Alternatively the following equation applies:
chosen, a weight problem would have resulted from the necessity
of having more iron in electromagnetic circuits. Peak Value = RMS Value x 1.414
Amplitude or Peak Value Note; It should be noted that the above, while perfectly true, are
The Amplitude or Peak Value of a sine wave is the maximum value basic statements only and the calculation figures are applicable to
that it attains during a cycle. sinusoidal waveforms only.
Average Value
This is of little practical use but is defined as the area enclosed by
one half cycle divided by the base length of one half cycle. For a
sine wave it can be calculated from:
Average Value = 0.637 x Maximum Value
Mean Value
The difference in value between the positive going and negative
going half cycles. It may be noted, therefore, that the mean value of
a pure sinusoidal or square waveform is zero.
Root Mean Square Value (RMS)

The RMS value of an alternating current is that value of direct
current which would produce the same heating effect. It can be
calculated as:
Peak Value x 0.707
For example, the single phase voltage of 115v as presented on an

aircraft system management panel is an RMS value, the peak value
of which is approximately 162 volts.

Although the sine wave pattern is the most commonly used AC The Frequency of this waveform is calculated by:
waveform, it is not the only type. The figure shows, there are many
different patterns.
e.g. A Square Wave waveform has a pulse width of 10mS,

calculate its frequency
Figure A is commonly referred to as a square wave because its

positive and negative alternations are square in shape. The square
shape of each alternation indicates that the voltage or current
immediately rises to its maximum or peak value, and remains there
throughout the alternation. Then, the voltage immediately changes
polarity (or the current changes direction) and drops to the peak Naturally, each cycle of a square wave contains two alternations.
value of the next alternation. However, they need not be symmetrical (with equal positive and
negative halves) as shown in Figure A. In some cases, the positive
In digital systems, square waves are the norm, because they half may be wider (of longer duration) than the negative half, or vice
represent a binary digit (0 or 1). versa.
Also, some square waves may have a positive peak value that is
higher than its negative peak value or vice versa.The square wave
AC waveform gets its name from the fact that at the
beginning of each alternation, the voltage or current immediately
goes to its maximum value.

Triangular Waveforms are generally bi-directional non-sinusoidal Sawtooth Waveforms are another type of periodic waveform. As its
waveforms that oscillate between a positive and a negative peak name suggests, the shape of the waveform resembles the teeth of
value. a saw blade.
Although called a triangular waveform, the triangular wave is Sawtoothed waveforms can have a mirror image of themselves, by
actually more of a symmetrical linear ramp waveform because it is having either a slow-rising but extremely steep decay, or an
simply a slow rising and falling voltage signal at a constant extremely steep almost vertical rise and a slow-decay,
frequency or rate. In practical terms is that the Sawtoothed Waveform is rich in
The rate at which the voltage changes between each ramp direction harmonics and for music synthesizers and musicians gives the
is equal during both halves of the cycle quality of the sound or tonal colour to their music without any
distortion.

There are times when a current or voltage will vary or fluctuate at a
specific rate, but not change direction or polarity. Such waveforms
cannot truly be called AC waveforms, but they still behave as if they
were AC signals. For example, the waveform below is actually
representing a DC current or voltage that fluctuates in value
according to the sine function.
In this case, the DC signal simply fluctuates or floats above the zero
or ground reference line. The square, triangle, and sawtooth waves
could also be fluctuating DC signals if their negative peak values
were shifted to a level above the zero reference line.
A fluctuating waveform is considered a DC voltage or current if its
polarity or direction never changes.

Since an a.c. quantity is continually changing its value, no one The figure shows a varying half sinusoidal waveform showing
number can indicate fully the values of the quantity. The value of clearly the different values of Peak, Mean and RMS.
the quantity at any instant is called the INSTANTANEOUS value
and is designated by lower case letters, i.e. ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUES (RMS VALUES)
i = instantaneous current. Effective value
v = instantaneous voltage
Since the heat dissipated by a current is proportional to its square
p = instantaneous power
(P = I2R), the average value of an alternating current is not the
If the instantaneous values are added together and an average same as the direct current which produces the same heat or does
taken the AVERAGE or Mean) value of the alternating quantity can the same work in the same time. The equivalent to a direct current
be found. Using integral calculus it can be determined that the is the value we use most in describing and calculating a.c. systems,
average value of one alternation is equal to 0.636 Peak. If a sine and is called the effective or root mean square (rms.) value of the
wave is averaged over one complete cycle it will be found that the system. The rms value is the square root of the average value of
average value is ZERO, since each positive value will have a the squares of the instantaneous values. The symbols used for rms
corresponding negative value. Neither the instantaneous value nor values are V, I etc..
the average value of an alternating quantity is of much practical
When a direct current of ( I ) amperes flows in a circuit having
use.
resistance ( R ) ohms and a potential difference ( V ) volts across it,
then it has been shown that
Power = IV = I 2 R = VR Watts
2

Using the data from the figure to calculate the Average (Mean) By Kirchoff’s the total current is equal to the sum of the individual
value, the voltages represented by each vertical dotted line are currents, therefore:
added together and then divided by the number of points plotted
I 2R = i12 R + i 2 2 R + i 32 Re tc
n ∴I2 = i12 +i 2 2 + i 32 etc
n
∴I = i12 + i 2 2 + i 32 etc
n
If we now apply the same figures used in the Average calculation
previous we get:
I av RMSValue = 452 + 912 +1182 +1852 + 2782 + 300 2 + 2482 +852

8 = 294 , 468
8
= 36,809 I ∴ RMSValue = 36,809 = 191.9 I
Vav = 45 + 91 + 118 + 185 + 278 + 300 + 248 + 85 = 1350 = 169V

8 8
Consider a current having a waveform as shown in the diagram

above. If this current is passed through a resistance R. ohms, the
heating effect of i1 is i12R, that of i2 is i22R etc.
Furthermore, the heating effect is positive during both half-cycles of

the current wave, hence; average heating effect over half a cycle =
i12 R +i 22 R +i 32 R etc
n

Consider the waveform
The peak value of a sin wave can be converted to the

corresponding rms value more simply using the following
relationships for either voltage or current:
Vrms = 0.707V peak andI rms 0.707 I peak

The Peak value can be obtained using:
Vrms I
V peak = = 1.414Vrms or I peak = rms = 1.414 I rms
0.707 0.707
E.g. Mains Voltage is 230-250V, the Peak value will therefore be

230-250 x 1.414 = 325.22-353.5V

Phasor Representation of a Sine Wave If the line XY is taken as a reference such that the rotating line lies
along OY at t = 0 seconds then it follows that:
Wave diagrams as previously shown can be tedious to draw
exactly.
An Alternative method of representing an alternating quantity which

varies sinusoidally is a straight line called a phasor, its length being
proportional to the value represented. The phasor is assumed to
pivot at the end without an arrowhead and revolve anticlockwise
once for every cycle of the system it represents.
Consider such a phasor rotating through a complete revolution
θ in Radians
θ = ωt & t = ω
and the length AB = OA × Sinθ or AB = OASinωt
Now consider a line rotating about a fixed point at a constant
velocity of ω radians per second. By convention phasors rotate anti-
clockwise.

Thus if the length of AB were to be plotted as a graph against time it If the phasor is drawn at an angle to the horizontal datum, the sine
would be a sine wave as shown: wave produced is phase shifted by that angle as shown
This represents a phasor LAGGING a reference by an angle θ
Any alternating quantity which is sinusoidal can be represented by a

PHASOR and it is assumed by convention that the phasor is
rotating in an anticlockwise direction at a constant angular velocity This represents a phasor LEADING a reference by an angle θ
(ωrad/sec). The length of the phasor is taken to represent the peak
value of the sine wave.
If the phasor is shown as horizontal this is taken to represent a sine

wave whose initial value at t = 0 since sin 0° = 0.
Note: The difference between a VECTOR and a PHASOR:

A Vector represents a quantity in magnitude and direction
A Phasor represents an alternating quantity in peak value and
phase.

Phasors may be used to represent two sinusoidal quantities which
may have different amplitudes and phases thus (θ is the angle
between waveforms).

Mathematical Representation of a Sine Wave 1 2π ϖ
t= = Hz then f =
A sine wave may be represented by a mathematical expression If f ϖ 2π
which clearly shows the amplitude and phase of the sine wave.
This is necessary so that circuit calculations can be performed for
∴ϖ = 2πf
circuits which are carrying alternating current.
Therefore the equation v = Vmax Sinθ
Consider:
Can be rewritten as:
v = Vmax Sinθ
θ = ω t ( rads
sec × sec) and ω = 2πf rads / sec
v = Vmax Sin 2πft
1 1 3 1
Note: v now takes the place of AB and Vmax replaces OA in our By substituting the values for time ( t ) , , it may be
original equation
4f 2f 4f f
seen that this equation describes the sine wave shown
Also:
•Remember ω = Angular Velocity
2π = Angle turned through
∴= Angular Velocity x t = ωt rads

angle turned through 2π
Periodic time (t) = = Sec
angular velocity ϖ
0
Note: 2π = 360 and f will lengthen or shorten the sine wave

Now consider the equation: The results give the graph shown:
v = Vmax sin( 2πft + π2 )

By substitution, when t = 0v then
Vmax sin π2 = Vmax

and when
t= 1
4f v = Vmax sin( π2 + π2 ) = 0V
π
t= 1
2f v = Vmax sin(π + 2 ) = Vmax
π
•The + 2 term has the effect of shifting the waveform
π
t= 3
4f v = Vmax sin( 32π + π2 ) = 0V 2 radians (900)to the left.
t = 1f v = Vmax sin( 2π + π2 ) = Vmax If the waveform is taken as a reference then the waveform is said to
LEAD the reference waveform by a phase angle radians i.e. it
reaches its maximum value 900 ahead of the reference waveform.

Consider the equation Any sine wave can be described by a mathematical equation
as shown:
v = Vmax sin( 2πft − π2 )

By substitution as before the graph is plotted so:
v = Vmax Sin(2πft ± θ )
Instantaneous Phase Angle

Value Frequency (Radians)
Amplitude Lead or
Lag
The resulting graph is shifted 2 radians to the right.

This waveform is said to LAG the reference waveform by a phase
angle radians, i.e. it reaches its maximum value 900 later than the
reference waveform.

Phase Difference (Angular Difference)
If two conductors are caused to rotate at the same angular velocity,

then two waves would be generated. Any angle between them is
said to be their phase difference. In the following diagram, the COIL B
phase difference is 90º. As the conductors rotate in an anti-

clockwise direction, the dotted wave is said to lead the solid wave
by 90º. COIL B COIL A
COIL A
When two waves are 90º apart, they are said to be in ‘quadrature’
with each other.
When two waves are 180º apart, they are said to be in ‘antiphase’
with each other.
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330
Figure 3 shows the phase relationship of two voltages produced by
two coils 90° apart.
90° PHASE
DIFFERENCE

Combination of Waveforms Procedure to Draw a Phasor Diagram to Represent v1+v2
The resultant of the addition ( or subtraction ) of two sinusoidal 1 Draw v1 horizontal 50 units long i.e. oa of (b) below.
quantities may be determined either by plotting:
1. the periodic functions graphically.

2. the resolution of phasors by drawing
3. the resolution of phasors by calculations
Of these it is the latter two that are the normal methods used to
calculate the resolution of phasors.
2 Draw v2 to the end of v1 at the appropriate angle i.e. ab of (b).
3 The resultant vR = v1 + v2 is given by the length ob and its phase
Consider two alternating voltages that are represented by:
angle may be measured with respect to v1. Alternatively, when two
v1 = 50 sin ωt & v2 = 100 sin(ωt − π6 ) phasors are being added the resultant is always the diagonal of the
parallelogram as shown in (c) below.
Draw the phasor diagram and find the sinusoidal expression to
represent v1 + v2.
Phasors are usually drawn at the instant when the time (t) = 0.
Therefore v1 is drawn horizontally 50 units long and v2 is drawn 100
π
units long, lagging v1 by 30° ( ) . This is shown in (a) below where
6
O is the point of rotation of the phasors.
From the drawing, by measurement vR = 154v and the phase angle

θ = 20° lagging v1
A more accurate solution is obtained by mathematical calculation,
using Trigonometry and Pythagoras' Theorum.

Mathematical Soloution Examples
Consider the following: Solve by Phasor Diagram & Mathematical
v1 = 50 sin ωt & v2 = 100 sin(ωt − π6 )

v1 = 20 sin ωt & v2 = 45 sin(ωt + π3 )
Both v1 and v2 need to be broken down into Horizontal and Vertical
components. v1 = 200 sin ωt & v2 = 10 sin(ωt + π4 )
Σ Horizontal Components:
= 50 + 100 cos 30° = 50 + 86.6 = 136.6v

v1 = 125 sin ωt & v2 = 33 sin(ωt − π6 )
Σ Vertical Components: v1 = 20 sin ωt & v2 = 45 sin(ωt − π4 )
= 50 sin 0° - 100 sin 30° = 0 - 50 = -50v
Using Pythagoras:
V2res = Hz2 + Vt2 = 136.62 + (-50)2 = 145.46v
Phase Angle: (Using the Tan rule)
− 50
Tan =
136.6
( )
= −0.366 ∴ θ = arctan 10−1 − 0.366 = 20.10

Consider the following voltages associated with a modern aircraft Summary
a.c. generation system:
• Any quantity which reverses its direction at regular intervals is said
to be an alternating quantity, e.g. the output of an alternator.
v1 = 115 sin ωt & v2 = 115 sin(ωt − 2 π3 ) • Amplitude, cycle, periodic time and frequency are terms which are
used to describe the waveform of an alternating quantity.
• The instantaneous value and the average value of an alternating
quantity are of limited practical importance.
Note: 115 sin(ωt − 2 π3 ) = 1200 lagging • The Root Mean Square value of an alternating quantity is the
equivalent of the direct quantity which would produce the
Again both V1 & V2 need to be broken down into both Horizontal & same power in a load.
• Peak value 1.414 x RMS value RMS value 0.707 x Peak value
Vertical Components.
• Unless otherwise stated, all alternating quantities are given as
RMS values.
Σ Horizontal Components: • A phasor is a line which represents an alternating quantity. The
length of the line represents the amplitude and the angle between
( )
= 115 + − 115 cos1200 = 115 + 57.5 = 172.5V the line and a reference direction indicates the phase of the
Σ Vertical Components: quantity.
• A sine wave may be represented mathematically by the formula:
= 115 sin 00 − 115 sin 1200 = 0 − 99.593 = −99.593V
v = Vmax sin (2πf t ±θ)
Using Pythagoras:
V 2 res = Hz 2 + Vt 2 = 172.5 + (− 99.593) = 199.186V

2
Phase Angle: (Using the Tan rule)
− 99.593 θ = arctan(10 −1 ) − 0.577351 = −300

Tanθ = = −0.577351
172.5 ∴Vres = 199.186V lagging by 30 0

RESISTANCE, INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE IN A.C.
CIRCUITS
While resistors, capacitors and inductors do not alter physically

when placed in an a.c. circuit, the way they behave does.
If two alternating currents of the same frequency do not reach the

same value at the same instant of time, they are said to be ‘out of
phase’. The phase difference is the angular separation between
corresponding points on the waveform.
In the same way that sine waves can be drawn for each phase
voltage, so too can similar wave forms be drawn to represent
associated current flows. A set of such wave forms can be
produced to show the phase relationship between voltage and
current in resistive, capacitive and inductive circuits.

Consider a purely resistive a.c. circuit: For each instantaneous value OHM'S LAW still applies, i.e.
v
When a pure resistance is placed in an AC circuit, the
instantaneous voltage divided by the resistance (Ohms Law) gives
=R
the instantaneous current. This means that the current waveform is
i
in-phase with the voltage waveform. If the voltage and current
It follows that
values are known, then resistance may be calculated from:
VMAX V
VPK VRMS = R & RMS = R
IPK or IRMS .
I MAX I RMS
The figure below shows the phase relationship between voltage and V
The ratio or the RESISTANCE of the circuit remains
current in a pure resistive circuit. I
V unchanged if the frequency of the a.c. is increased.
I
V
I = I
R V
PHASORS
OF V & I
A phasor diagram would show both phasors overlapping, i.e. the

PHASE ANGLE (θ ) is ZERO.

Pure Inductance in an a.c. Circuit In a purely resistive circuit the opposition to current flow is called
Resistance (R).
Inductance is the property of an electrical circuit that tends to However, in an a.c. circuit inductors and capacitors also oppose
oppose any change of current in the circuit current flow.
An emf is only induced when a conductor is experiencing a
changing magnetic field e.g. The conductor is moving relative to a This is called Reactance (XL)
stationary magnetic field or the magnetic field is rising or collapsing.
Both are measured in Ohms
As already discussed in 3.10 & 3.11, the unit of Inductance is the
Henry (H) and its symbol is L
An Inductor is said to have 1H when 1 Volt is induced by a current
change of 1 Amp/Sec
Remember the induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of
flux.
In a d.c. circuit the time(t) to reach full current(I) flow is
t= 5L
R
The inductor is said to “PASS d.c.” and “BLOCK a.c.”

An inductance always opposes any change in current flow. When Resistance and Reactance. Here we are using Resistance as the
the current is a.c. and constantly changing in value, the result is that reference.
it always lags behind the supply voltage. In a purely inductance the
angle of lag is 90º. This will cause the current to be zero when the
voltage is at peak or maximum value.
In this Phasor we see the “effective total resistance” in the a.c. circuit. This
is called Impedance and is given the symbol Z. Impedance is measured in
Ohms.
The corresponding Phasor diagrams are below, note the 900 phase
difference between components.
Voltage and Current. Here we are using current (I) as the reference Physically, it not possible to produce a circuit with no resistance (purely
inductive) so a 900 phase shift between current and voltage is not normal.
Z is calculated by:
2
Z = R2 + X L and XL=2πFL
NOTE: The phase angle difference between Vres and I and the
phase angle difference between Z & R are the same.

The most commonly used inductive circuit is a series connected In the circuit the voltage is comprised of two elements. VL and VR.
resistor and inductor Unlike in D.C. circuits the total applied voltage is not the sum of the
This combination is called an RL circuit. Even a circuit containing two BUT the Vector sum.
only an inductor is a series RL circuit because of the resistance of
the inductor e.g. if VL is 3Vac and VR 4Vac the Vres = 5Vac
The diagram shows a resistor and inductor connected in series with
an ac voltage source In this circuit we have a resistor and Inductor in series with each
other. The resistor has a pure resistance of 5Ω and the inductor is
10mH.
The resistor will offer 5Ω of resistance to AC current regardless of

frequency, while the inductor will offer 3.7699Ω of reactance to AC
It should be noted that if XL = 2πfL, a reduction in frequency will lead current at 60 Hz.
to a reduction in XL and therefore of Impedance Z. This could cause
an unacceptable rise in circuit current creating overheating X L = 2πfL = 2π 60 x10 −3 = 3.7699
problems.
The above circuit behaves in a fashion similar to an actual coil The combined effect of the two components (R and XL) is the
containing R and L. The only difference is that in a coil R and L Impedance (Z).
occur together and cannot be separated, thus VL and VR cannot
be measured. 2
Z = R 2 + X L = 5 2 + 3.799 2 = 6.262Ω

The corresponding phase angle between R and Z will be: As with the purely inductive circuit, the current wave lags behind
the voltage wave (of the source), although this time the lag is not as
X L 3.7699 great: only 37.016o as opposed to a full 90o as was the case in the
tan θ = = = 37.016 0 purely inductive circuit.
R 5
Impedance is related to voltage and current just as you might

expect, in a manner similar to resistance in Ohm's Law:
V V
V = IZ , I = , Z=
Z I
In fact, this is a far more comprehensive form of Ohm's Law than

what was taught in DC electronics (V = IR), just as impedance is a
far more comprehensive expression of opposition to the flow of
electrons than resistance is. Any resistance and any reactance,
separately or in combination (series/parallel), can be and should be
represented as a single impedance in an AC circuit.
To calculate current in the above circuit, we first need to give a For the resistor and the inductor, the phase relationships between
phase angle reference for the voltage source, which is generally voltage and current haven't changed. Voltage across the resistor is
assumed to be zero. (The phase angles of resistive and inductive in phase (0o shift) with the current through it; and the voltage across
impedance are always 0o and +90o, respectively, regardless of the the inductor is +90o out of phase with the current going through it.
given phase angles for voltage or current). We can verify this mathematically:
V 10 V = IZ
I= = = 1.5969 A
Z 6.262 V R = I R Z R = 1.5969 x5 = 7.9847V
The voltage across the resistor has the exact same phase angle as
the current through it, telling us that V and I are in phase (for the
resistor only).

Inductive Element: REVIEW:
V = IZ • Impedance is the total measure of opposition to electric current

and is the complex (vector) sum of (“real”) resistance and
V L = I L X L = 1.5969 x3.7699 = 6.020V (“imaginary”) reactance. It is symbolized by the letter “Z” and
measured in ohms, just like resistance (R) and reactance (X).
By Ohms Law, the total voltage in the series circuit is the sum of the • Impedances (Z) are managed just like resistances (R) in series
individual voltages. This means that by our calculations the total circuit analysis: series impedances add to form the total
impedance. ZTotal = Z1 + Z2 + . . . Zn
sum of the voltages would be 7.9847 + 6.020. This would give us
• A purely resistive impedance will always have a phase angle of
14V. This is obviously incorrect as we know we have an applied
exactly 0o
voltage in our circuit of 10V. We need to consider the vector sum of • A purely inductive impedance will always have a phase angle of
the two voltages: exactly +90o
• Ohm's Law for AC circuits: V = IZ ; I = V/Z ; Z = V/I
Vres = VR + VL = 7.9847 + 6.020 = 10V
2 2 • When resistors and inductors are mixed together in circuits, the
total impedance will have a phase angle somewhere between 0o
and +90o. The circuit current will have a phase angle somewhere
The phase angle between VR and Vres is: between 0o and -90o.
• Series AC circuits exhibit the same fundamental properties as
VL 6.020 series DC circuits: current is uniform throughout the circuit, voltage
tan θ = = = 37.016 0 drops add to form the total voltage, and impedances add to form
VR 7.9847 the total impedance.
Note that this is the same phase angle calculated using XL and R

Parallel Resistive-Inductive Circuits: The total current in the circuit will be:
Let's take the same components for our series example circuit and V 10
connect them in parallel: I= = = 3.322 A
Z 3.01
V 10
IL = = = 2.6526 A
X L 3.7699
V 10
IR = = = 2A
R 5
2 2
∴ I = I R + I L = 2 2 + 2.6526 2 = 3.322 A
Note: in the parallel circuit, the total current is the vector sum of the
Because the power source has the same frequency as the series individual currents.
example circuit, and the resistor and inductor both have the same
values of resistance and inductance, respectively, they must also REVIEW:
have the same values of impedance.
• Impedances (Z) are managed just like resistances (R) in parallel
circuit analysis: parallel impedances diminish to form the total
The only difference in our analysis technique this time is that we will
impedance, using the reciprocal formula. ZTotal = 1/(1/Z1 + 1/Z2 + . .
apply the rules of parallel circuits instead of the rules for series . 1/Zn)
circuits. The approach is fundamentally the same as for DC. We • Ohm's Law for AC circuits: V = IZ ; I = V/Z ; Z = V/I
know that voltage is shared uniformly by all components in a • When resistors and inductors are mixed together in parallel
parallel circuit and the current will divide through the components. circuits (just as in series circuits), the total impedance will have a
phase angle somewhere between 0o and +90o. The circuit current
The total Impedance in the parallel circuit is calculated thus: will have a phase angle somewhere between 0o and -90o.
• Parallel AC circuits exhibit the same fundamental properties as
( R1 )2 + ( X1 )2
parallel DC circuits: voltage is uniform throughout the circuit,
1
Z = L
= ( R15 )2 + ( 3.7699
1
)2 = 0.3322Ω branch currents add to form the total current, and impedances
diminish (through the reciprocal formula) to form the total
∴ Z = 3.01Ω impedance.

Power in Inductive Circuits This self-induced voltage then acts as a source that provides
energy to the circuit
The only power actually dissipated in a series RL circuit is the Unlike a capacitor, however, an inductor has resistance
power dissipated in the resistance. Therefore, to calculate the true
power dissipation, you can use any of the three standard power
formulas:
V2
P = IV , P = I R & P =
2
R
The inductor, like the capacitor, is a reactive component that does
not dissipate power in its pure form. The inductor alternately stores
energy in the form of a magnetic field and then releases it. The
consumption and release of energy cancel one another thereby
making the total average power dissipation zero.
For that reason an inductor does dissipate power, but it is the

resistive portion of the inductor that causes the power to be
dissipated
This is called true power
The diagram shows the current, voltage and power curves of a

series RL circuit where the phase angle is 450
The power curve above the zero line represents the power
dissipated in the resistance, true power, and the power consumed
by the inductance
The power curve below the zero line is the power returned to the
Why does this happen? circuit by the inductance.
During one half cycle of ac operation, storage of electrical energy
occurs in the magnetic field that is built up around the inductor
When that magnetic field collapses, it induces a voltage into the
inductor

kVA verses kVAR verses kW
Apparent Power (kVA) - Total power provided by utility or

generation
Reactive Power (kVAr) - Sustains electromagnetic field in
inductive loads (i.e. motors, transformers, ballasts)
Real or True Power (kW) - Performs the actual work (i.e. motors,
lights, heat) Indicator of how effectively power is being used.

Calculating Power in a RL Circuit CIVIL
From our previous example we can now calculate the total power 1. In an inductive circuit, the current flowing in the circuit will
dissipated by the circuit. lag the applied voltage.
2. In a purely resistive circuit the current and voltage will be in
Series: phase.
3. In a purely inductive circuit, the current will lag the applied
Vapplied = 10V voltage by 900.
4. In a series RL circuit, the current will lag the applied voltage
Itotal = 1.5969 A by some phase angle between 00 and 900.
5. The amount of phase shift is a function of the resistance and
Ptotal = IVapplied = 15.969W inductive reactance values.
Presistor = IVresistor = 1.5969 x 7.9847 = 12.75W

Effective resistance in an inductor can be a serious consideration
Pinductor = IVinductorr = 1.5969 x 6.020 = 9.6133W for the AC circuit designer. To help quantify the relative amount of
effective resistance in an inductor, another value exists called the Q
Again it would seem logical that to obtain the total Power from these factor, or “quality factor” which is calculated as follows:
individual values one should add them. However, it is the vector
sum of these two values that are needed to obtain the true values. XL
Q=
R
PT = PR + PL = 12.75 2 + 9.6133 2 = 15.969W
The symbol “Q” has nothing to do with electric charge (coulombs),
which tends to be confusing. For some reason, the Powers That Be
decided to use the same letter of the alphabet to denote a totally
different quantity.
The higher the value for “Q,” the “purer” the inductor is. Because its
so easy to add additional resistance if needed, a high-Q inductor is
better than a low-Q inductor for design purposes. An ideal inductor
would have a Q of infinity, with zero effective resistance.

Because inductive reactance (X) varies with frequency, so will Q.
However, since the resistive effects of inductors (wire skin effect*,
radiation losses, eddy current, and hysteresis) also vary with
frequency, Q does not vary proportionally with reactance. In order
for a Q value to have precise meaning, it must be specified at a
particular test frequency.
Stray resistance isn't the only inductor quirk we need to be aware

of. Due to the fact that the multiple turns of wire comprising
inductors are separated from each other by an insulating gap (air,
varnish, or some other kind of electrical insulation), we have the
potential for capacitance to develop between turns. AC capacitance
will be explored in the next chapter, but it suffices to say at this
point that it behaves very differently from AC inductance, and
therefore further “taints” the reactive purity of real inductors.
*skin effect, which is AC's tendency to flow through the outer areas
of a conductor's cross-section rather than through the middle. When
electrons flow in a single direction (DC), they use the entire cross-
sectional area of the conductor to move. Electrons switching
directions of flow, on the other hand, tend to avoid travel through
the very middle of a conductor, limiting the effective cross-sectional
area available. The skin effect becomes more pronounced as
frequency increases.

Pure Capacitance in an a.c. Circuit Insulating material between the plates (k). Different materials have
different dielectric values.
A capacitor is an electronic component that can store electrical The capacitance of a capacitor is given by:
energy in the form of an electric field
When an emf is applied across the plates the capacitor will charge kA
C=
d
As already discussed in 3.9, the unit of Capacitance is the Farad (F)
and its symbol is C
where A is in square metres, d is in metres, and k is the dielectric
A Capacitor is said to have a capacitance of 1F when 1 Coulomb of
constant for the material used.
Charge (Q) is stored when 1 volt is applied
If the dielectric material used is something other than air, the
The Farad is a very large quantity so capacitors are normally
capacitance will be increased by the approximate factors:
expressed in milli (m), pico (p) or micro (μ) farads.
Paper 3
Remember, in a d.c. circuit the time(t) to reach charge is Mica 5
t = 5CR Ceramic 100 to 1000
The capacitor is said to “PASS a.c.” and “BLOCK d.c.” Capacitors do not behave the same as resistors. Whereas resistors
allow a flow of electrons through them directly proportional to the
Capacitors are understood to have two sorts of losses; voltage drop, capacitors oppose changes in voltage by drawing or
Leak losses, since no dielectric is a perfect insulator supplying current as they charge or discharge to the new voltage
Heat losses, due to electron agitation (not flow) with supply level. The flow of electrons “through” a capacitor is directly
connected. proportional to the rate of change of voltage across the capacitor.
This opposition to voltage change is another form of reactance, but
Factors Affecting Capacitance one that is precisely opposite to the kind exhibited by inductors.
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
depends upon:
Area of Overlap of Plates (A). An increase in overlap increases the
capacitance
Distance between the plates (d). An increase in the distance
decreases the capacitance

A capacitor will always charge up to, or discharge down to, the The operation of the capacitor produces an opposition to the flow of
voltage, which is being applied to it. In other words, it follows the current. It will therefore act in a similar manner to a resistance in a
supply voltage. If we take the point where the capacitor is charged circuit. It is a form of ‘ac resistance’. The opposition to current flow
in one direction, when connected across an ac supply and the ac produced by a capacitor is known as capacitive reactance and
supply voltage starts decreasing, then a discharge current will flow given the symbol XC.
(conventionally) from the capacitor’s positive plate through the
supply source to the negative plate. This current flow will be small Capacitive reactance is dependent on frequency, such that XC
at first as the supply voltage starts to drop but will increase to a varies inversely with frequency. If frequency increases, XC
maximum value when the supply is at zero volts. It will continue to decreases and so the current flow increases. If frequency
flow in the same direction but decrease as the capacitor is charged decreases, XC increases and so the current flow decreases. (This
up in the reverse direction, becoming zero at the point of full is why, after the initial charge current, no current flows through a
charge. capacitor on dc).
1
Capacitive reactance, XC = ohms
2πfC
Ohms Law still applies XC = V/I ohms
It should be clearly understood that, although we refer to alternating

currents and signals flowing ‘through’ capacitors, no current actually
passes through the dielectric between the plates. Electrons
circulate from plate to plate through the circuit, being affected by the
electrostatic fields on the plates.
The figure above illustrates this point and it can be seen that the
current is leading the supply voltage by 90º.

The figure below shows a pure capacitance or capacitor connected The corresponding Phasor diagrams are below, note the 900 phase
in an ac circuit. This cannot actually happen in practice as there difference between components.
must always be some resistance, but we will introduce the resistive
element later in these notes. Voltage and Current. Here we are using current (I) as the reference
VC
CURRENT LEAD
VOLTAGE BY
90°
IS
1
XC = Resistance and Reactance. Here we are using Resistance as the
2πf C θ
Ι
reference.
V
Ι=
XC
= 2πf CV
V
VECTOR
.
OF V & Ι

In this Phasor we see the “effective total resistance” in the a.c. circuit. This The most commonly used capacitve circuit is a series connected
is called Impedance and is given the symbol Z. Impedance is measured in resistor and capacitor
Ohms. This combination is called an RC circuit
The diagram shows a resistor and capacitor connected in series
with an ac voltage source
Physically, it not possible to produce a circuit with no resistance (purely

inductive) so a 900 phase shift between current and voltage is not normal.
Capacitive Reactance is measure in Ω

Capacitive Reactance is given the symbol XC
In a purely Capacitive Circuit XC lags R by 900
Z is calculated by:
2
Z = R2 + X C and XC =
1
2πfC
NOTE: The phase angle difference between Vres and I and the
phase angle difference between Z & R are the same.

The current flow in the circuit causes voltage drops to be produced Previously we learned what would happen in simple resistor-only
across the capacitor and the resistor and capacitor-only AC circuits. Now we will combine the two
These voltages are proportional to the current in the circuit and the components together in series form and investigate the effects.
individual resistance and capacitve reactance values
The resistor voltage, VR, and the inductor voltage, VC, expressed
in terms of Ohm's law are:
V R = IR & VC = IX C
For this discussion, we will assume the capacitor to be a perfect

capacitance. That is, the capacitor has no resistance or the
resistance of the capacitor is included with or is represented by the
resistor R.
The resistor will offer 5 Ω of resistance to AC current regardless of
CIVIL frequency, while the capacitor will offer 26.5258 Ω of reactance to
AC current at 60 Hz.
In a capacitive circuit, the current flowing in the circuit will lead the Because the resistor's resistance is real and the capacitor's
applied voltage reactance is an “imaginary” the combined effect of the two
In a purely resistive circuit the current and voltage will be in phase components will be an opposition to current equal to the vector sum
In a purely capacitive circuit, the current will lead the applied of the two numbers. The term for this opposition to current is
voltage by 900 impedance, its symbol is Z, and it is also expressed in the unit of
In a series RC circuit, the current will lead the applied voltage by ohms, just like resistance and reactance. In the above example, the
total circuit impedance is:
some phase angle between 00 and 900
1 1
The amount of phase shift is a function of the resistance and XC = = = 26.5258Ω
capacitive reactance values. 2πfC 2π 60 x100 x10 −6
2
Z = R2 + X C
Z = 5 2 + 26.5258 2 = 26.993Ω

Impedance is related to voltage and current just as you might In fact, this is a far more comprehensive form of Ohm's Law than
expect, in a manner similar to resistance in Ohm's Law: what was taught in DC electronics (V=IR), just as impedance is a
far more comprehensive expression of opposition to the flow of
V V electrons than simple resistance is. Any resistance and any
V = IZ , I = , Z= reactance, separately or in combination (series/parallel), can be and
Z I should be represented as a single impedance.
The corresponding phase angle between R and Z will be:
To calculate current in the above circuit, we first need to give a
phase angle reference for the voltage source, which is generally
X C 26.5258 assumed to be zero. (The phase angles of resistive and capacitive
tan θ = = = 79.325 0
R 5 impedance are always 0o and -90o, respectively, regardless of the
given phase angles for voltage or current).
As with the purely capacitive circuit, the current wave is leading the
voltage wave (of the source), although this time the difference is V 10
I= = = 370.5 A
79.325o instead of a full 90o. Z 26.993
For the resistor and the capacitor, the phase relationships between
voltage and current haven't changed. Voltage across the resistor is
in phase (0o shift) with the current through it; and the voltage across
the capacitor is -90o out of phase with the current going through it.
We can verify this mathematically:
V = IZ
V R = I R Z R = 370.5 x10 −3 x5 = 1.8525V
The voltage across the resistor has the exact same phase angle as
the current through it, telling us that V and I are in phase (for the
resistor only).

Capacitive Element: • REVIEW:
• Impedance is the total measure of opposition to electric current
V − IZ and is the complex (vector) sum of (“real”) resistance and
(“imaginary”) reactance.
VC = I C X C = 370.5 x10 −3 x 26.5258 = 9.827V • Impedances (Z) are managed just like resistances (R) in series
circuit analysis: series impedances add to form the total
impedance. ZTotal = Z1 + Z2 + . . . Zn
By Ohms Law, the total voltage in the series circuit is the sum of the
• Please note that impedances always add in series, regardless of
individual voltages. This means that by our calculations the total what type of components comprise the impedances. That is,
sum of the voltages would be 1.8525 + 9.827. This would give us resistive impedance, inductive impedance, and capacitive
11.68V. This is obviously incorrect as we know we have an applied impedance are to be treated the same way mathematically.
voltage in our circuit of 10V. We need to consider the vector sum of • A purely resistive impedance will always have a phase angle of
the two voltages: exactly 0o
• A purely capacitive impedance will always have a phase angle of
exactly -90o
Vres = VR + VC = 1.8525 + 9.827 = 10V
2 2
• When resistors and capacitors are mixed together in circuits, the
The phase angle between VR and Vres is: total impedance will have a phase angle somewhere between 0o
and -90o.
• Series AC circuits exhibit the same fundamental properties as
V 9.827 series DC circuits: current is uniform throughout the circuit, voltage
tan θ = C = = 79.325 0
VR 1.8525 drops add to form the total voltage, and impedances add to form
the total impedance.
Note that this is the same phase angle calculated using XC and R

Parallel Resistive-Capacitive Circuits The total current in the circuit will be:
Using the same value components in our series example circuit, we V 10

will connect them in parallel and see what happens: I= = = 2.035 A
Z 4.9135
V 10
IL = = = 0.37699 A or 376.99mA
X C 26.5258
V 10
IR = = = 2A
R 5
2 2
∴ I = I R + I L = 2 2 + 0.37699 2 = 2.035 A
Note: in the parallel circuit, the total current is the vector sum of the
individual currents.
Because the power source has the same frequency as the series
example circuit, and the resistor and capacitor both have the same
REVIEW: Impedances (Z) are managed just like resistances (R) in parallel
values of resistance and capacitance, respectively, they must also
circuit analysis: parallel impedances diminish to form the total impedance,
have the same values of impedance. using the reciprocal formula.
The only difference in our analysis technique this time is that we will ZTotal = 1/(1/Z1 + 1/Z2 + . . . 1/Zn)
apply the rules of parallel circuits instead of the rules for series
circuits. The approach is fundamentally the same as for DC. We
• When resistors and capacitors are mixed together in parallel
know that voltage is shared uniformly by all components in a
circuits (just as in series circuits), the total impedance will
parallel circuit and the current will divide through the components.
have a phase angle somewhere between 0o and -90o.
• The circuit current will have a phase angle somewhere
The total Impedance in the parallel circuit is calculated thus:
between 0o and +90o.
• Parallel AC circuits exhibit the same fundamental properties
1
Z = ( )
1 2
R + ( )
1 2
XC = ( ) +(
1 2
R5
1
)
26.5258
2
= 0.2014Ω as parallel DC circuits: voltage is uniform throughout the
circuit, branch currents add to form the total current, and
∴ Z = 4.9135Ω impedances diminish (through the reciprocal formula) to
form the total impedance.

Power in Capacitive Circuits negative power curves are equal and opposite, the total average
effect is zero
In a purely capacitive circuit, current leads the applied voltage by This means that no power is dissipated in purely capacitive circuit.
900
To calculate the power in the circuit, you multiply the instantaneous
values of current and voltage and plot the resulting power curve.
V2
P = IV , P = I 2 R & P =
R
Unlike the resistive power curve, the power curve in a purely

capacitive circuit is both positive and negative
The power phasor diagram for a series RC circuit

The true power, the power actually dissipated by the resistive
portion of the circuit, is given in watts and is shown as the adjacent
side of angle theta.
What this power curve tells us is that during one half cycle of the
applied voltage, the capacitor appears to consume power. This is
indicated by the positive part of the power curve.
During the other half cycle, the power is negative. It is during this
time that the capacitor actually acts as the supply and furnishes
power to the source.
Why does this happen?

When the capacitor charges it consumes power. When it
discharges, it gives power back to the circuit. Since the positive and

Calculating Power in a RC Circuit Effective resistance in an inductor can be a serious consideration
for the AC circuit designer. To help quantify the relative amount of
From our previous example (series) we can now calculate the total effective resistance in a capacitor, another value exists called the Q
power dissipated by the circuit. factor, or “quality factor” which is calculated as follows:
Series: XC
Q=
R
Vapplied = 10V
Again, the symbol “Q” has nothing to do with electric charge
Itotal = 370.5mA (coulombs), which tends to be confusing. For some reason, the
Powers That Be decided to use the same letter of the alphabet to
Ptotal = IVapplied = 3.705W denote a totally different quantity.
Presistor = IVresistor = 370.5x10-3 x 1.8525 = 686.35mW The higher the value for “Q,” the “purer” the capacitor is. Because
its so easy to add additional resistance if needed, a high-Q inductor
Pinductor = IVcapacitor = 370.5x10-3 x 9.827 = 3.641W is better than a low-Q inductor for design purposes. An ideal
capacitor would have a Q of infinity, with zero effective resistance.
Again it would seem logical that to obtain the total Power from these
individual values one should add them. However, it is the vector
sum of these two values that are needed to obtain the true values.
PT = PR + PC = 0.68635 2 + 3.6412 = 3.705W

Series R-C-L Circuits If the values of capacitance, inductance, and frequency are given,
the reactance's in the circuit can be calculated using the formulas:
RLC circuits are circuits which have resistors, inductors, and
capacitors connected together in some manner
The simplest RLC circuit consists of a resistor, an inductor and a
X L = 2πfL & X C = 1
2πfC
capacitor connected in series
This is called a series RLC circuit.
∴ X L = 2πfL = 2πx60 x1 = 377Ω
& XC = 1
2πfC = (
1
2π (60 ) 10 x10 −6 ) = 265Ω
∴ Z = R2 + (X L − X C )
2
= 200 2 + (377 − 265) = 229Ω

2
The Vector diagram would therefore be thus:
Because XL was 377W and XC was 265 Ω, XL can completely

cancel XC: and still have a value of 112 Ω. That is, 377 Ω - 265 Ω
= 112 Ω.
This would make the circuit effectively inductive by nature and V
would lead a change in I by an angle θ

Calculating the other values in the circuit are conducted thus: In this case, since both L and C carry the same current, and XL is
greater than XC, it follows that VL must be greater than VC.
V 115
IT = = = 502.18mA (VL = ITXL and VC = ITXC).
Z 229
V R = IR = 502.18 x10 −3 x 200 = 100.44V Remember that VC and VL are in anti-phase to each other due to
−3
V L = IX L = 502.18 x10 x377 = 189.323V their 90° leading and lagging relationship with the circuit current (IS).
As VL and VC directly oppose each other, a resulting voltage is
VC = IX C = 502.18 x10 −3 x 265 = 133.078V created, which will be the difference between VC and VL. This is
called the REACTIVE VOLTAGE and its value can be calculated by
Notice something strange here: although our supply voltage is only simply subtracting VC from VL. This is shown below by the phasor
115 volts, the voltage across the capacitor is 133.078 volts and (VL − VC).
189.323 volts across the inductor! How can this be? The answer
lies in the interaction between the inductive and capacitive
reactances. Expressed as impedances, we can see that the
inductor opposes current in a manner precisely opposite that of the
capacitor.
The figure below shows the circuit conditions when the inductive
reactance (XL) is greater than the capacitive reactance (XC).
The length of the phasor (VL − VC) can be arrived at graphically by

removing a portion from the tip of the phasor (VL), equivalent to the
length of phasor (VC).

VS is therefore the phasor sum of the reactive voltage (VL − VC) and
VR.
2
VS = VR + (VL − VC ) 2 = 100.44 2 + (189.323 − 133.078) 2 = 115V
Remember if VC is larger then the formula would become:
2
VS = VR + (VC − VL ) 2
The correcponding phase angle between the current and voltage

can be calculated as follows:
I( X C − X L )
Tanθ = IR = IX
IR = 433.962 −305.04
575 = 0.224213
∴ θ = 0.224213arcTan or 0.224213Tan −1 = 12.637 0

Parallel R-C-L Circuits Calculation of the Impedance however does:
Below is a Parallel R-C-L circuit 1

Z = ( R1 )2 + ( X1
L
− XC)
1 2
= ( 2001 )2 + ( 3771 − 2651 )2 = 5.124 x10 −3
∴ Z = 195.155Ω
Calculating the other values in the circuit are conducted thus:
V 115
IT = = = 589.28mA
Z 195.115
V 115
IR = = = 575mA
R 200
115
IX C = = 433.962mA
265
115
IX L = = 305.04mA
Remember that the Voltage across each of the components in the 377
circuit remains the same. This time the current will divide. Also, the Again it appears that Kirchoff’s first Law is not adherred to but it
active components in the circuit will contain physical resistance must be remembered that IC and IL are 1800 opposed and must be
which we will ignore in this example. subtracted. The total current is then the vector sum of IR and IC or IL
(whichever is the greater).
Calculation of the Reactance’s does not change
X L = 2πfL & XC = 1
2πfC
∴ X L = 2πfL = 2πx60 x1 = 377Ω

& XC = 1
2πfC = (
1
2π (60 ) 10 x10 − 6 ) = 265Ω
2 2
I T = I R + ( I C − I L ) 2 = 575 x10 −3 + (433.962 x10 −3 − 305.04 x10 −3 ) 2
= 589.28mA

Power Factor In a purely Resistive circuit,
“True power = Apparent Power”
Consider the diagram: The ratio of the true power to the apparent power in an ac circuit is
referred to as Power Factor, PF. This is expressed in the formula
below:
True Power
PF =
Apparent Power
The Power Factor is an excellent indication of the relative amounts

of resistance and reactance in a given circuit.
In a purely resistive circuit, the True Power and the Apparent
Both XL & XC are the same value so the circuit would appear as Power will be equal. Therefore the Power Factor will be equal
purely resistive to one.
Power would therefore be calculated using IV
This is termed “Apparent POWER” True or Real Load: Measured in Watts/kWatts and is the power
Suppose, however XL & XC are different values. used to perform useful work
Reactive Load: Measured in kVAR and is the load borne by the
generator which is used to produce electromagnetic fields
Apparent Power: Measured in kVA and is the power assuming a
power factor of 1
The circuit would be predominately Inductive by nature (or

capacitive)
Because of the phase shift between the V & I calculating the power
would be IVCosθ. This is the actual or “TRUE POWER” consumed
This is always less than the apparent power.

Power Factor can be calculated by: •Released system capacity:
•The effect of PF on current drawn is shown below:
Power Factor (PF ) = True Power
Apparent Power = W / kW
VA / kVA
VR
PF = R
Z = Vapplied = IV cos θ
IV
cos θ = R
Z
On an aircraft the maximum accepted PF is 0.73PF
Why apply PF Correction •Decreasing size of conductors required to carry the same
•Power Factor Correction Saves Money! 100kW load at P.F. ranging from 70% to 100%
• Reduces Power Bills
•Reduces I2R losses in conductors
•Reduced Power Losses:
•Reduces loading on transformers
•As current flows through conductors, the conductors heat. This
•Improves voltage drop
heating is power loss
•Capacitors supply, for free, the reactive energy required by •Power loss is proportional to current squared (PLoss=I2R)
•inductive loads. •Current is proportional to P.F.
•You only have to pay for the capacitor! •Conductor loss can account for as much as 2-5% of total load
•Since the utility doesn’t supply it (kVAR), you don’t pay for it! • Capacitors can reduce losses by 1-2% of the total load
•Voltage Improvement:
•When capacitors are added, voltage will increase
•Typically only a few percent
•Not a significant economic or system benefit
•Severe over-correction (P.F.>1) will cause a voltage rise that can
damage insulation & equipment; or result in utility surcharges!
Usually a result of large fixed capacitors at mains!

Resonance Resonance is achieved when the values of XL & XC (in Ohms) are
the same. Effectively, they will then cancel each other out. This will
Everything has a natural frequency at which it will tend to vibrate make the circuit purely resistive by nature. This is true of both
when excited. This natural frequency of vibration depends upon the series and parallel circuits.
shape and size of the object, the material of which it is made and
any stresses in the material.
Any object may be forced to vibrate at a frequency determined by

some outside influence. e.g. The natural vibration frequency of a
telephone wire depends upon the length, diameter, material and the
tension in the wire:
The frequency of forced vibration depends upon the velocity of the
wind. At resonance
Resonance occurs when the frequency of forced vibration coincides
with the frequency of natural vibration.
VL = VC
At resonance the amplitude of vibration increases, and very often XL = XC
results in damage to or destruction of equipment.
2πfL = 1
2πfC ∴ fO = 1
2π LC
For these reasons resonance is never allowed to occur accidentally;
it is definitely avoided unless it is wanted in any particular situation. ⎛ 2πfL 2πfC = 1 ⎞
⎜ 2 2 ⎟
In electrical circuits the natural frequency of vibration depends upon
the values of the circuit components, while the force frequency is
(
⎜ 4π f LC = 1 now divide both sides by 4π 2 LC )⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ f = 4π 2 LC
1
the supply frequency. ⎟
⎜∴ f = 1 ⎟
⎝ 2π LC ⎠

We can apply this formula to any LC circuit to find the frequency at Series Resonance
which it is resonant. The values of L and C are not given, nor is the frequency of the
applied signal. Nevertheless, we know that the circuit is at the
For example, let's assume that a 100mH coil is connected in series resonant condition because XL is equal to XC
with a 22μf capacitor. What is the resonant frequency? The applied ac signal forces current to flow through the series
circuit
L = 100 x10 −3 & C = 22 x10 −6 By Kirchoff’s Laws, the current through each component is the
same, but the voltage divides.
fO = 1
2π LC
= 1
2π (100 x10 − 3 )( 22 x10 − 6 )
f O = 107 Hz
There are many uses for the application of this formulae, notably
tuning circuits, filters and optimum efficiency in frequency conscious
circuits The phase of the voltage is different across each component
The voltage across R is in phase with the circuit current
The voltage across the coil leads the current by 900
The voltage across the capacitor lags behind the current by 900
At resonance VL and VC are 1800 out of phase with each other,
thereby cancelling each other

•The resonant frequency of the circuit below is: The graph below shows the response curves for a Series Resonant
Circuit.
L = 398 x10 −3 & C = 398 x10 −9

fO = 1
2π LC
= 1
2π ( 398 x10 )( 398 x10 − 9 )
−3
f O = 400 Hz
What happens at Series Resonance? The is a point at which XL and XC are the same (marked by the
circle). At that point the current is at a maximum level and the
When f = 0, XL = 0 and XC = ∞ impedance at a minimum level. The voltage drop across each
reactive component will be identical. Above resonance the circuit
When f =∞, XL = ∞ and XC = 0, ∴there will be a frequency when will become capacitive and below resonance inductive. This type of
both XL & XC are the same. circuit is known as an “Acceptor” circuit as it accepts the resonant
This is Resonance. In the series circuit the effect of XL & XC frequency.
are negated

Parallel Resonant Circuit What happens at resonance is quite interesting. With capacitive and
A condition of resonance will be experienced in a tank circuit inductive reactances equal to each other, the total impedance
(below) when the reactances of the capacitor and inductor are increases to infinity, meaning that the tank circuit draws no current
equal to each other. Because inductive reactance increases with from the AC power source! We can calculate the individual
increasing frequency and capacitive reactance decreases with impedances of the 10µF capacitor and the 100mH inductor and
increasing frequency, there will only be one frequency where these work through the parallel impedance formula to demonstrate this
two reactances will be equal. mathematically:
X L = 2πfL = 2πx159.155 x100 x10 −3 = 100Ω
1 1
XC = = = 100Ω
2πfC 2πx159.155 x10 x10 −6
What should be noted here is that XL and XC are anti phase so XC is

negative with respect to XL. This gives:
1 1 1
Z= = = =∞
(X L − X C ) 2
(100 − 100) 2
0
We can't divide any number by zero and arrive at a meaningful

result, but we can say that the result approaches a value of infinity
In the above circuit, we have a 10µF capacitor and a 100mH as the two parallel impedances get closer to each other. What this
inductor. Since we know the equations for determining the means in practical terms is that, the total impedance of a tank circuit
reactance of each at a given frequency, and we're looking for that is infinite (behaving as an open circuit) at resonance.
point where the two reactances are equal to each other, we can set
the two reactance formulae equal to each other and solve for It should be noted that all circuits have some form of physical
frequency algebraically: resistance but our example is ignoring this.
1 1
fo = = = 159.155 Hz
2π LC 2π 10 x10 x100 x10 −3
−6

Another phenomenon is that during the first half cycle the capacitor The graph below shows the response curves for a Parallel
will charge as it is seen as a low resistance path. During the second Resonant Circuit
half cycle the capacitor will discharge across the inductor. When the
capacitor has discharged there will be nothing to support the current
flowing through the inductor so its magnetic field will collapse back
into the inductor causing a current flow that will oppse the current
that originally created it (Lenz’s Law). This will recharge the
capacitor and the whole cycle will repeat itself. This does however
make two assumptions:
1. After initially charging the capacitor, the supply is removed.

2. There is NO physical resistance in the circuit.
The fact that there IS physical resistance means that the signal will
decay to zero unless the supply is kept connected.
Note: The lines for XL and XC have been left off this graph as they
are the same as the previous one and for clarity.
The is a point at which XL and XC are the same current is at a

minimum level and the impedance at a maximum level. The current
through each reactive component will be identical. Above
resonance the circuit will become capacitive and below resonance
inductive. This type of circuit is known as an “Rejector” circuit as it
rejects the resonant frequency.

Series Resonant Properties
Parallel Resonant Properties
1. Current maximum at resonance
2. Z minimum at resonance 1. Line current is minimum at resonance
3. Acts purely resistive at fo 2. Z maximum at resonance
4. At resonance, the source current and voltage are in 3. Acts purely resistive at fo
phase 4. At resonance, the source current and voltage are in phase
5. Below resonance, the circuit acts capacitively 5. Below resonance, the circuit acts capacitively
6. Above resonance, the circuit acts inductively 6. Above resonance, the circuit acts inductively
7. Known as an acceptor circuit. 7. Known as a rejector circuit

Filters The two simple circuits below show by positioning of an inductor
and a capacitor parallel to each other can produce a “High Pass” or
Signal filtering is the process of shaping or modifying electronic “Low Pass” filter.
data signals, and a simple or Passive filter consists of a collection of
passive elements such as capacitors resistors, and inductors in a
particular configuration.
The development of useful Active filters was largely brought about

by the introduction of linear lntegrated Circuits. Included under the
heading of active filters are active R-C networks, gyrator
circuits (which have impedance inverting qualities allowing a
capacitor connected to the output terminals to appear as an
inductor at the input, indicating that the impedance has
‘gyrated’), digital filters, and parametric frequency converters
In this section of the notes, only passive filters are described.
Passive filters using only resistors and capacitors are very

convenient from a circuit design viewpoint since they are cheap and
compact and, below about a few megahertz, have a lower space-to-
weight ratio than do inductors. Active filters using R-C feedback
In the “High Pass” filter the capacitor will conduct as the frequency
networks permit the design of inductorless filters with almost ideal
of the supply increases. At low frequencies the capacitor will block
characteristics and, moreover, they readily lend themselves to
the a.c. supply and the inductor will allow it to pass. As the
integrated circuit techniques.
frequency increases the inductor will start to block and the capacitor
will allow a signal through to the output stage.
Standard types of filter frequency response characteristics are low-
pass, band-pass, bandstop (or band-reject), and high-pass and will
In the “Low Pass” filter the opposite is true. The capacitor will pass
be discussed.
any high frequencies through to the zero volt rail whilst the inductor
will pass low frequencies through to the output stage.

Using a combination of an “Acceptor” and a “Rejector” circuit we
can produce a “Band Pass” or “Band Stop” filter. In both circuits it is
essential that the Capacitors C1 & C2 are the same values and L1 &
L2 must also be the same value.
In the “Band Pass” filter the resonant frequency (fo) will be

presented to the output via the “Acceptor” Circuit. All other
frequencies will be rejected by the “Rejector” circuit. Typical uses
may be in Radio tuning circuits. A band-pass filter works to screen
out frequencies that are too low or too high, giving easy passage
only to frequencies within a certain range.
In the “Band Stop” filter, all frequencies will be presented to the

output with the exception of the resonant frequency (fo).
A band-stop filter or band-rejection filter is a filter that passes

most frequencies unaltered, but attenuates those in a specific range
to very low levels. It is the opposite of a band-pass filter. A notch
filter is a band-stop filter with a narrow stopband (high Q factor).
Notch filters are used in live sound reproduction (Public Address
systems, also known as PA systems) and in instrument amplifier
(especially amplifiers or preamplifiers for acoustic instruments such
as acoustic guitar, mandolin, bass instrument amplifier, etc.) to
reduce or prevent feedback, while having little noticeable effect on
the rest of the frequency spectrum. Other names include 'band limit
filter', 'T-notch filter', 'band-elimination filter', and 'band-reject filter'.

The Graph below shows the typical characteristics for both a Band Q-Factor
Stop and Band Pass filter discussed.
Q-factor is a ratio of the oscillating energy to the lost energy in the
circuit.
Q is therefore the Quality of the Circuit
XC 1 X L 2πfL
Q= = or =
R 2πfCR R R
Vmax will be less than Vin. The sharpness of the peak indicates how
efficient the circuit is at selecting a frequency.
The higher the circuit resistance, the lower the Q factor and the
lower the output voltage.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is 70.7% of VP
f1 − f 2 = Bandwidth
f0 X
Bandwidth = where Q = L
Q R
There is no sudden cut off point where f is passed or blocked.

Between the lower cutoff frequency f1 and the upper cutoff
frequency f2 of a frequency band there is the center frequency f0.

Multi Phase Systems
Delta and Star Connections
Let three identical coils be mounted on the same former with mutual
Where three sets of values are being generated by the same ac
displacement of 1200 between their axes. Let them rotate
generator at almost the same time and separated only by the
anticlockwise at constant speed in a uniform magnetic field.
angular difference between them (a three phase system), they can
The emf’s induced into the windings will be sinusoidal and identical
be connected in either of two ways known as Delta and Star. The
except that there will be mutual phase displacement of
connection used will determine the output voltage and the effect on
120° between them.
the system of a phase line to earth or line to line fault.
These three coils constitute a three-phase system. The phases are
usually identified by colours, RED, YELLOW and BLUE, and the
Star Connection
normal phase sequence is R - Y - B. Other identification is L1, L2 &
One end of each winding is connected to a common, star or neutral
L3.
point. The three output lines are taken from the other ends of the
On aircraft the phases are usually A - B - C.
windings. A neutral, fourth wire, or earth connection (if required) is
If the phases are kept entirely separate then six wires are required,
also made at the star point.
but if the phases are interconnected then only three or at most four
wires are required.
Relationship between Line and Phase voltage

Voltage between any 2 line is the phasor difference between the
phase voltages of those lines
VL = 3Vph & I L = Iph
I neutral = (I R + I Y + I B ) = 0 ( Bal Load )
Associated with LARGER LINE VOLTAGES

Delta Connection If the load is balanced then the phasor diagram is exactly the same
as the voltage phasor diagram in the star case with the same
relationship.
The windings are connected ‘finish of one’ to ‘start of the next’ so as

to form a closed loop.
From the circuit diagram it is seen that
The three output lines are taken from the junctions. There is no
neutral or designed earth.
I L = 3Iph & V L = Vph
At first sight this seems to be a mutual short circuit which would
cause a large current of flow in the loop. However, examination of
the phasor or waveform diagram shows that the sum of the three
voltages is zero at any instant. Thus there is no voltage acting on
the loop and no circulating current.
The current in any line is the phasor difference between the current
in the two phases to which that line is connected.
Also each phase current is the difference between two line currents.
If the load is unbalanced each phase and line current must be found
separately.

If we measure the voltage and current in one phase of a generator
independent of the other phases, we can use those readings to
Why Star or Delta?
calculate what the line voltage and current will be for the generator
connected in either a star or a delta configuration.
Both the Star - and the delta-wound generator have approximately Delta = VL = VP = 115V I L = 3I P ∴ I L = 173 A
the same power capability.
The Star generator is the most favourable generator for aircraft
application. By using the higher voltage and lower current (115 volts Star = I L = I P = 100 A VL = 3VP ∴VL = 199.18V
and 100 amperes), smaller diameter conductors, contacts, and
circuit breakers can be used in the electrical system.
Now, the power in an electrical circuit in watts (W) is equal to the
voltage in volts times the current in amps, So from any two lines.
The following relationships hold for coil and line voltages and
currents in a three-phase delta system: Delta = I L × VP = 173 ×115 = 19.895kW
Phase Voltage = Line Voltage Star = VL × VP = 199.18 × 100 = 19.918kW

3 Phase Current = Line Current When three-phase equipment is added to the distribution system,
within the system's capabilities, few problems are encountered. The
The following relationships hold for coil and line voltages and three-phase motor current draw is distributed over all three
currents in a three phase Y system: generator armature phases equally. There is no unbalanced
condition.
3 Phase Voltage = Line Voltage
Phase Current = Line Current
However, if a single-phase device is added to the distribution
Given those relationships, and the rule of thumb that the line system, an additional electrical load will be imposed on one phase
resistance, (i.e., the resistance measured between any two lines), in of the generator's armature only.
a Y system is typically about 3 times the line resistance in a delta
system, we can make a few calculations and look at differences in The lowered resistance, from another resistance in parallel, means
output from the two. that more current will be delivered by the generator's armature
phase that is involved. This also creates a voltage drop due to the
internal resistance within that generator phase and increases the
inductive reactance within that phase.

This unbalances the generator. If too many single-phase loads are Effects of Earth Faults on 3 Phase Systems
added to the same generator armature phase, overheating will
occur. Moreover, if three-phase equipment is improperly replaced The connection used will determine the output voltage and the
with a single-phase component, the entire generator overall three- effect on the system of a phase line to earth or line to line fault.
phase current demand is reduced and replaced by an equal current
demand on one phase alone. This is extremely detrimental to the Star Connection
generator.
DESIGNED EARTH AT CENTRE POINT
Moreover, because the output of a generator is proportional to the
velocity of the rotor 200 VOLTS BETWEEN ANY TWO PHASE LINES
E = β lv 115 VOLTS BETWEEN ANY ONE PHASE LINE AND EARTH

The Star wound machine can be run at a lower velocity
AN EARTH FAULT WILL AFFECT THE ASSOCIATED PHASE A
GREAT DEAL AND THE OTHER TWO PHASES VERY LITTLE
RPM = 8000 Delta VL = 115 Star VL = 200
8000 It should be noted, however, that this remains true only if the
Delta = = 69.56rpm / volt equipment is considered in isolation. In the context of a complete
115 generation system, for example, such a fault could create
8000 significant effects due to high circulating currents.
Star = = 40rpm / volt
200
Remember though that the Delta wound machine will give a higher
line current so choice is down to needs.

Delta Connection For these reasons three-phase ac supply is now the standard
system throughout the world.
NO DESIGNED EARTH
Power in a three phase system must equal the sum of the individual
200 VOLTS ONLY BETWEEN ANY TWO PHASE LINES phase power values, (Red, Yellow, and Blue Phases). This can be
expressed as:
AN EARTH FROM ANY ONE PHASE LINE WILL HAVE NO
EFFECT
Power = VRIRCosθ + VYIYCosθ + VBIBCosθ
A FAULT BETWEEN ANY TWO PHASES WILL AFFECT ALL Unbalanced Loads
THREE PHASES If the three phases are not equally loaded, the calculation must be
as above.
Advantages of 3-Phase System
Balanced Loads
Saving of copper on transmission/distribution lines.
Polyphase machines self-starting. If the three phases are equally loaded, the calculation can be
Polyphase machines have better utilisation of material. simplified to read:
Power = 3 × VPIPCosθ
Polyphase machines have more power for a given frame size.
Polyphase machines have better characteristics - higher efficiency
and better power factor.
Polyphase machines have smoother torque. Consider this in the context of (a) a star wound system and (b) a
Polyphase machines are simpler and cheaper. delta wound system.
Stroboscopic effect may be eliminated.
Special machines possible - not possible on single phase.
Use of transformers over dc.
Polyphase alternator would have better waveform than a single
phase especially if star connected.
With most of these advantages the gain increases as the number of
phases is increased.
However, small gain in going above three is more than offset by the
increased complexity of the system.

The Star System The Delta System
If VL = 3VP
Then VP = VL
If IL = 3IP
3
Also IPH = IL
Then IP = IL
3
Also VPH = VL
Substituting these transposed features into the original on the
statement now becomes:
Substituting into the original equation, the statement will now read:
Power = 3 × 3 × IL × Cosθ Power = 3 × VL × IL3 × Cosθ
∴ Power = 3 × VL × IL × Cosθ ∴ Power = 3 × VL × IL × Cosθ
or 1.732VLILCosθ
3
Note 1
× 1
3
= 3
OR 1.732VLILCosθ

A i r c r a f t M a i n t e n a n c e L i c e n c e T r a i n i n g
Part 66 - Module 3 - Electrical Fundamentals - Book 4 of 4
These notes have been prepared by British

Airways Engineering Training to provide a source
The information presented is as correct as

possible at the time of printing and is not subject
They will be useful to you during your training,

but I must emphasise that the appropriate
Approved Technical Publications must always be
used when you are actually working on the
aircraft.
I trust your stay with us will be informative and

enjoyable.
Jim Williamson
PART 66 B1 - ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

MODULE 3.09-3.12 28 SEPT 08 - ISSUE 3 1
Electrical Fundamentals
Contents
Direct Current Generators ............................

Direct Current Motors
DC Actuators
B1 - ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS PART 66

2 28 SEPT 08 - ISSUE 2 MODULE 3.09-3.12
Direct Current Machines
This section will cover the following topics:
• Basic Laws and Principles of DC

Generators & Motors.
• Types, Control and Characteristics of DC
Generators & Motors.
• Faults and Testing.
DC Generators
Earlier studies of electromagnetism, confirmed

that a loop of wire rotating in a magnetic field
has a continuously changing flux through it and
so long as the rotation continued, an induced
voltage would be maintained in the wire. The
magnitude of this induced voltage depends on
the rate at which the flux changes. This principle
forms the basis of any rotating electrical
generator, (ac or dc). The method by which the
generated electricity is actually connected into
the external circuit will determine the ultimate
generator function. The methods are either a
Commutator (dc generator) or Slip Rings (ac
generator), with “collection” provided by carbon
brushes. Later notes will consider the topic of
Brushless Generators.
A generator converts mechanical energy into

electrical energy. It does so by producing relative
motion between loops of wire and a magnetic
field so that an induced voltage is set up in the
loops of wire.
The simplest form of generator consists of a

single loop of wire able to rotate freely between
the poles of a permanent magnet. Connection
is made from the loop to the external circuit (or
‘load’) by carbon brushes pressing on 2 copper
slip rings that are connected to the ends of the
loop and rotate with it (as shown overleaf).

Basic Generator Principle
SIDE B
ARMATURE
CONDUCTOR
MAGNETIC
LINES OF
FLUX
SLIP RINGS
SIDE A
BRUSHES
RESISTOR

ARMATURE POSITION
B
B A
N A B B A A B
S
A B A
+
0
90 180 270 360
INDUCED VOLTAGE
WAVEFORM
-
(c) (d) (e)

(a) (b) (f)
LOOP POSITIONS
Suppose this loop is rotated as shown above.

The magnetic flux as it affects the loop is The magnitude of the induced voltage depends
continuously changing. At positions a), c) and on the rate at which the flux through the loop is
e), there is no relative movement between loop changing, (Faraday’s Law), and varies between
and field and the output wave form correctly zero and maximum twice during each revolution.
shows zero magnitude.
It is worth remembering that this magnitude (e)
At positions b) and d) there is maximum relative is directly related to the length of the loop, the
movement between loop and field and maximum flux density of the field, and the perpendicular
output is obtained. Intermediate positions are component of velocity.
represented in output terms by appropriate
magnitudes. Thus, as the loop rotates the The expression is:
change of flux sets up an induced voltage.
e = blv

The direction of the induced voltage reverses The right-hand rule for generators is a method
as the loop passes through the zero voltage for remembering the direction in which
points, because it obeys Lenz’s Law in that the conventional current would flow in a closed
direction will be such as to oppose the change circuit as a result of the induced voltage.
(in this case the motion) which created the
induced current in the first instance. The current The Right Hand Rule for Generators
direction will be dependent on the direction of
motion with respect to the direction of the field, The right-hand rule states:
and the relationship between the three elements
can be shown by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule. The thumb, the first finger and the second finger
of the right hand are held at right angles to each
One complete rotation of the loop gives rise to other. With the thumb pointing in the direction in
one ‘cycle’ of alternating voltage. Thus we should which the conductor has been Moved, and the
note that any generator in the first instance, First finger in the direction of the magnetic Field
produces AC. (N to S),the seCond finger indicates the direction
in which conventional current would flow in the
The polarity of the induced voltages in each of conductor; this in turn gives the polarity of the
the straight sides of the loop are opposite, but induced voltage across the loop.
as the two sides are joined together at their ends, Note: This rule is applicable to conventional
the two voltages are in series and combine to current flowing from the positive to
set up a current in the closed external circuit. the negative terminal of a source of
electricity.
ROTATING LOOP
SIDE A
PERMANENT
MAGNET
S COMMUTATOR
SEGMENT A
N +VE BRUSH
COMMUTATOR
SIDE B SEGMENT B
-VE BRUSH
BRUSH SPRINGS
LOAD RESISTOR
SECOND
DIRECTION OF CURRENT IN LOAD
CURRENT
FIRST
THUMB FIELD
MOTION

Production of Direct Current
We can obtain direct current in the external Each end of the loop is connected to a segment
circuit by substituting a form of automatic of the commutator and the load is connected to
reversing switch, known as a COMMUTATOR, the loop by brushes on opposite sides of the
for the slip rings. The commutator automatically commutator as shown below.
reverses the connection between the loop and
the external circuit as the voltage in the loop As the loop rotates, an alternating voltage is
reverses, thus maintaining the direction of induced in it. We get a DC output from this
current in the load, as shown below. alternating voltage by using a commutator. Since
the commutator rotates with the loop, the
A simple commutator for a single loop generator brushes bear on opposite segments of the
consists of the 2 halves of a slip ring suitably commutator during each half cycle.
insulated from each other.

The right hand brush is in contact with that If we use two separate, rotating loops, mounted
segment which is always positive and the left at right angles to each other, a commutator with
hand brush with that segment which is always FOUR segments is needed.
negative, the change over taking place at the
instants when the voltage induced in the loop
is zero. The current in the external circuit is
therefore always in the same direction and is
called a UNI-DIRECTIONAL current and is the
first step towards obtaining a true DC output
such as we get from a battery . The variations
in brush voltage and external circuit current
during one complete revolution of the loop are
shown in the previous diagram.
The voltage at the brushes and the current in

the external circuit of a single loop DC generator
fall to zero twice during each revolution.A more
constant brush voltage and a smoother flow of OUTPUT
current can be obtained by placing additional
loops symmetrically round the axis of rotation.
Additional segments are also needed on the
commutator to cater for the extra loops.
The brushes now pick off the voltages from the
Broadly speaking it could be said that the length
rotating loops so that as the voltage in one loop
of the loop conductor determines the
decreases, the brushes make contact with the
fundamental magnitude of the emf, but that the
other pair of commutator segments and pick off
smoothness and therefore ultimate magnitude
the voltage from the other loop, which is
of the resultant unidirectional current is
INCREASING at this instant. The resulting output
determined by the number and disposition of
wave form is shown below.
loops into which the length is divided.
GENERATOR TERMINAL VOLTAGE
LOOP VOLTAGE
ANGLE
0
90° 180° 270° 360°

There is still a variation in output voltage (a ripple)

but the variation is much less than that with only
one loop. The ripple can be reduced to a very
small amount by having a large number of loops
and a commutator with a correspondingly large
number of segments, the loops being so
arranged that each loop is connected between
adjacent segments, the end of one loop being
connected to the same segment as the
beginning of the next loop as shown
schematically below.
RESULTANT OUTPUT VOLTAGE

A VOLTAGE
F
6 2
E OUTPUT B
5 3
D C
0 90° 180° 270° 360° 450° 540°
(a)
Resultant EMF Produced By Adding More The voltage at the brushes comprises the sum
Loops of the emfs induced in the loops connected in
series between the brushes. Thus, in the
For inst ance, loop A is connected between diagram loops A, B & C are in series between
segments 1 & 2, loop B between segments 2 & the brushes on the right and loops D, E & F on
3 and so on. With this arrangement, the emf the left, the two branches being IN PARALLEL
induced in each loop will reach its maximum with each other. The graph showing the resultant
value when the emf in the preceding loop is voltage between the brushes is shown in the
already decreasing, and that in the succeeding diagram. Only three loops have had to be
loop still increasing. Thus at the instant in Fig considered as the arrangement is symmetrical
a), if the emf induced in loop E is a maximum, and loops A, B, C, in parallel with loops D, E, F,
the emf in loop F is decreasing and that in loop give the same voltage at the instant shown. As
D increasing. the number of loops is increased the ripple in
the brush voltage becomes smaller and the
magnitude of the output voltage increases.

DC Machines
DC Generator Construction In recent years the generator has been

reintroduced into aircraft systems as a starter
Aircraft dc generators have for the most part generator. A starter generator is illustrated. The
been replaced by alternators on modern aircraft starter generator is by far the most
However, there are still several dc generators technologically advanced and complex of all the
currently in operation in older aircraft. Examples dc generators. Even so, there are many
of generators are illustrated in the diagram. One similarities in construction with the basic
of these is a high output generator used on large generators used for light aircraft.
aircraft with heavy electrical loads; The other is
a dc generator typical of those found on smaller
light aircraft.
TERMINAL CONNECTOR
INTERPOLE COIL
AIR BLAST COVER INTERPOLE SPLINE DRIVE AND
SPRING ASSEMBLY
HOUSING
BEARING
FIELD RING
MAIN POLE
BEARING SHUNT FIELD COIL
BRUSH RIGGING
HOUSING
HIGH OUTPUT
BLAST TUBE
STARTER GENERATOR
TERMINALS COMMUTATOR
COMMUTATOR
BALL END FRAME
BEARING
WOODRUFF KEY
BRUSH
DRIVE END
FRAME POLE SHOE
ARMATURE COVER
BAND
FIELD COIL LOW OUTPUT

DC Machines
In a practical dc generator we obtain high The end housings contain the bearings for the
voltage outputs by: armature which rotates at high speed, and one
of these housings also holds the brush gear.
Using a large number of coils of many turns
instead of single loops. The armature (the rotating part of the machine)
is made up of shaft, armature core, armature
Rotating the coils at high speed. windings or coils, and commutator. The armature
core is laminated to reduce eddy current losses,
Using electromagnets to provide a strong and the armature windings rest in slots cut in
magnetic field and mounting the coils in which the core, but insulated from the core.
the voltage is to be induced on a soft iron core,
the air gap between this core and the The commutator is made of copper segments
electromagnet pole pieces is very small. insulated from each other , and from the shaft ,
by mica. The ends of the armature windings are
The electromagnets used to provide the soldered to their appropriate commutator
magnetic field require a dc voltage source to segments. By high temperature connections
pass current through the winding. In small and solder, in fact a type of brazing.
machines such as those used in aircraft, the
design of the machine is simplified by using the The brushes ride on the commutator and carry
output voltage of the generator itself to provide the generated voltage to the load. They are
this current. usually made of carbon and are held in brush
holders in such a way that they can slide up and
Basic DC Generator Construction down against a spring so as to follow the small
irregularities in the surface of the commutator.
A dc generator consists of two main assemblies:
The STATOR or fixed portion. This carries the

FIELD MAGNET SYSTEM, the BRUSH GEAR
and the BEARINGS. The Brush GearAssembly
and end frame may be considered as a separate
major sub assembly.
The ROTOR or armature assembly . This

carries the COILS, COMMUTATOR and of ten
COOLING FAN BLADES.
Since a generator converts mechanical energy

into electrical energy, mechanical energy must
be supplied to the generator to turn it. The ‘prime
movers’ used to drive generators include steam
engines, petrol or diesel engines, electric motors,
steam turbines and water turbines.
The frame or yoke is the main chassis of the

generator and it also serves to complete the
magnetic circuit between the pole pieces. The
pole pieces are laminated to reduce eddy current
losses, and the field coils or windings are
mounted on the pole pieces as shown.

How Lamination Reduces Eddy Current
You have learnt that a current flow can be This is done by having the cores made up of
induced in a conductor when it cuts through a laminations, or thin plates of metal, rather than
magnetic field. If a solid piece of metal cuts out of one solid piece. These laminations are
through a magnetic field instead of a single wire insulated from each other (though sometimes
conductor, current will also be induced inside only by the coating of oxide they receive during
the solid piece of metal. manufacture), and this limits the eddy current
to that which can flow in the individual lamination.
But a large, solid piece of metal has a large The diagram illustrates the effect of laminations
cross-section, and so offers little resistance to on limiting the magnitude of eddy currents.
current flow.
Since wire conductors used in motors and

generators are always wound around metal
cores, eddy currents would (unless something
were done about it) be induced in these metal
cores just as useful current is induced in the
wires of the generator. But eddy currents flowing
in the core material of rotating machinery are
waste currents, since they have no useful
purpose and only heat up the metal cores.
Consequently, the machine operates at low
efficiency. It is therefore import ant that eddy
currents in core material be kept to a minimum.
Eddy Current Reduction
N S
EDDY CURRENTS IN SOLID CORE
N S
EDDY CURRENTS IN LAMINATED CORE

DC Machines
LEAD ASSEMBLY
TERMINALS
TERMINAL/SUPPRESSOR BOX
CAPACITOR INTERPOLE
CABLE ENTRIES BALL BEARING

DRIVE SHAFT
WINDOW STRAP
ARMATURE
END FRAME
END FRAME
COMMUTATOR
FIELD COILS
STATOR
BALL BEARING
COMPENSATING
WINDING
BRUSH SPRINGS
RETAINING BRUSH
CAP
BRUSH HOLDER
END COVER
1 OUTPUT
4
+
SHUNT FIELD
2
COMPENSATING
WINDING

The Stator
Field Magnet System
POLE PIECE
N
POLE N +
+
SHOE +
+
+
S S S N
S S
+
+
+
+
ARMATURE +
N +
CORE YOKE
N
SALIENT POLE FLUSH POLE
a) b)
Except for very small machines in which The salient pole piece may be laminated to
permanent magnets are used, the magnetic field prevent eddy current heating, or it may be solid,
is produced by electromagnets in such a way with a laminated pole ‘shoe’ fitted to the end.
that the armature conductors pass under North
and South poles alternately. The poles may be It should be noted from the diagram that the yoke
salient, as shown in figure a), in which case the is an essential part of the magnetic circuit, and
armature emf wave form has a flat top, or it may must therefore combine permeability with
be flush pole, as shown in figure b), which gives structural strength. It is normally of cast or rolled
an almost sinusoidal wave form. Salient poles steel.
are the most common in aircraft dc generators.

Field Frame Assembly or Yoke

Brush Gear
Brushes are made of specially treated carbon Lack of lubrication of the brush-to-commutator
which is self lubricating; thereby causing little contact surfaces at high altitudes and the
commutator wear. They are carried in small reduction of brush-contact resistance
open ended boxes called BRUSH HOLDERS. experienced at increasing altitudes, are largely
Brush pressure is maintained on the eliminated by using brushes which have been
commutator by SPRINGS. Connection to the specially developed for high-altitude operation.
external circuit is made by copper braid
‘PIGTAILS’. Two distinct categories of high-altitude brushes
are in general use, brushes of one category form
The term ‘brush’ is a relic of the time when a constant resistance semi-lubricating film on
current was collected by a bundle of copper the commutator or slip-rings, whilst those in the
wires arranged somewhat like a brush. other category are self-lubricating brushes which
do not form a film.
Electro-graphitic brushes of normal constitution,
although generally reliable in performance, when Film Forming Brushes
used in ground equipment and low-altitude
aircraft generators, tend to wear very rapidly at The composition of these brushes allows such
high altitudes. This wear can be of the order of chemicals as barium fluoride to build up
half an inch per hour and it is attributable to progressively, a const ant-resistance semi-
the following factors: lubricating film on the surfaces of commutators
or slip-rings. Brushes of this category do not
At low altitudes the moisture content of the wear abnormally at altitudes up to 60,000ft,
atmosphere affords a substantial degree of providing that generators to which such brushes
lubrication between the contact-surfaces of the are fitted are previously run at low altitude for
brushes and the commutator or slip-rings on some hours, to allow the formation of the
which the brushes are bearing; at high altitudes protective film. This film once formed, is very
the moisture content of atmospheric air is dark in colour and to the inexperienced eye may
negligible and with little or no lubrication at the well give the impression of a dirty commutator
‘rubbing contacts’ there is considerable friction. or slip-rings; learn to recognise it as a safeguard
Rapid wear of the soft electro-graphitic brushes against high altitude brush erosion and do not
is therefore inevitable. disturb it unnecessarily.
Normally the contact resistance between brush- Non Film Forming Brushes
faces and commutator (or slip-ring) surfaces is
Items in this category contain a lubricating
appreciable because of the existence of a
ingredient such as molybdenum
resistive film formed on the metallic surfaces
disulphide,which is often packed in cores
by the electrolytic decomposition of the moisture
running longitudinally through the brush. Since
content of the atmosphere.At high altitudes this
the brush is itself self-lubricating, there is no need
film is removed by frictional wear and cannot be
for the preliminary formation of film, therefore
made good because of the dryness of the
there is no necessity for running generators fitted
atmosphere. Hence the contact-resistance
with these brushes at low altitude before
between brush surfaces and metallic surfaces
operating at high altitude.Against this advantage
becomes negligible. This reduction in contact
of immediate availability for high altitude
resistance, in the case of a dc generator, gives
operation, must be set the disadvantage of
rise to heavy reactive sparking which
appreciably shorter life, due to somewhat more
accelerates brush erosion.
rapid wear when compared with film-forming
brushes.

Brush Gear and Brush Holder
BRUSH HOLDER

Brush Gear and Bearings
The following precautions must be observed Sealed-type grease-lubricated bearings are pre-
when using high-altitude brushes: packed with lubricant by the manufacturer and
require no further lubrication during the life of the
Film-forming brushes must not be used at bearing. Non-sealed grease-lubricated bearings
altitudes in excess of 40,000 ft until the generator are assembled during production, with sufficient
has been in operation for a specified period after lubricant to last for the period of the normal
fitting the brushes to a machine with a ‘clean’ servicing cycle of the generator. After this period
commutator or slip-rings - this period is essential has elapsed, the bearing must be re-lubricated
to allow the film produced by brush action on in accordance with servicing instructions.
the commutator or slip-ring surface to attain a
serviceable thickness. In oil-lubricated bearings the lubricant is
introduced into the bearing through the medium
Under no circumstances should non-film forming of oil baths, oil impregnated felt pads, or splash-
brushes be run on films created by film-forming feed from the engine-drive gearbox. In all
brushes, nor should film forming and non-film- generators fitted with oil-lubricated bearings, the
forming brushes be used simultaneously in the escape of oil from the bearing into the interior of
same machine. When changing from film- the generator is checked by the use of oil seals.
forming to non-film forming brushes the existing
film must be completely removed by cleaning It is of the greatest importance when servicing
the commutator or slip-ring with a rag moistened the bearings of generators, that the specified
in lead free gasoline. grade of lubricant is used. They must never be
rotated at speed unless adequately lubricated,
The Bearings nor may generators be run with dry oil seals.
The rotors of all aircraft engine-driven
generators, irrespective of whether these rotors
are the armature of dc machines or the rotating-
field systems or inductors of ac generators, are
supported in high-efficiency ball or roller bearings,
or in a combination of the two, which have been
developed to withstand the extremely arduous
conditions of service under which generators
must operate.
Where combinations of ball and roller bearings

are used in a single machine, (this arrangement
is in fact, very widely used), it will be found that
the ball bearing is invariably fitted at the drive
end of the rotor shaft, with the roller bearing at
the ‘tail’ end. This arrangement permits lateral
expansion of the rotor shaft, arising from
temperature increase in the generator, without
exposing the bearings to risk of damage.
Lubrication
All bearings used in aircraft generators are

lubricated either with High Melting Point grease
or lubricating oil, both of a specified grade.

The Rotor
The rotor or Armature Assembly consists of the The windings are wedged into the slots with
shaft, the iron core, the output windings and the Mycalek or glass melamine insulating material
commutator. to prevent them from being thrown out by
centrifugal force.
The iron core provides a low reluctance path
between the field pole pieces giving increased All coil connections are silver soldered to
flux density, ensuring that the largest emf withstand local hot spot temperatures.
possible is induced into the output windings. The
core is constructed as a laminated soft iron Wave Winding
drum with longitudinal slots into which the output
windings are fitted. The core is laminated to Another feature of multi-pole machines is the
reduce eddy currents and thus heat. manner in which the coils of the armature
winding are connected together to provide the
The output windings are placed in longitudinal required output conditions. One method, called
slots in the iron core to reduce the magnetic wave winding, provides increased output voltage
circuit air gap. The armature and coil windings by arranging for the voltages induced by each
are vacuum impregnated with silicone varnish pair of poles to be added in series. Therefore,
to maintain insulation resistance under all the output voltage is twice (four pole) and three
conditions and the coils are also insulated with times (six pole) that of the equivalent two pole
ptfe. machine. With wave winding the output voltage
may be obtained across one pair of brushes.
1 1A 8 8A 2 2A 9 9A 3 3A 10 10A COIL SIDES
1 8 2 9 3 10
COMMUTATOR SEGMENTS
Z Y X
Z Y X N
17 18 1 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1213 1415 16 17 18 16 3
S
15 2 4
1
N S N S 9 -
3
14
8 4
+ 5
13 7
5
17 6 6
15
12
S
11 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 10 9 8
N
+ -
FOUR POLE WAVE
WINDING

Lap Winding
The other armature winding method is called lap brushes to the three negative brushes.
winding and this method is most useful when The provision of additional parallel paths makes
high output current is required. In lap winding, the lap wound generator suitable for high output
groups of series connected coils are connected current.
in parallel by the provision of additional brushes
at equipotential points around the commutator. NB.
In a four pole machine this results in the Wave winding is used for dc generators of high
provision of four parallel current paths from the output voltage.
two positive brushes to the two negative
brushes: in a six pole machine there are six Lap winding is used for dc generators of high
parallel current paths from the three positive output current.
12A 1 1A 2 2A 3 3A 4 4A 5 5A 6 6A 7 7A 8 8A 9 9A 10 10A 11 11A 12 12A

COIL SIDES
COMMUTATOR SEGMENTS
Z Y X B A B A Z Y X
N
17 18 1 2
1 23 45 6 7 8 9 1011121314151617 18 1920 21 22 24 16 3
S
15 4
1112 1
10 -
N S N S
2 3
14 9 + +
8
13 4 5
7
6 5 6
2, 3
12
S
2
A
11 7
8
12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 N 10 9
+ - +
-
- +

Commutation
The Commutator The commutator and brush gear of a dc machine

have two distinct functions:
This is a cylinder mounted at one end of the
armature and consists of a large number of • Collection - the transference of current
copper segments. The segments are wedge- between the moving armature and the
shaped and a large number are assembled side fixed external circuit.
by side to form a ring, each being insulated from • Commutation - the periodic reversal of
the other by a mica insulating strip. The current during transfer between the
segments are shaped so that they can be armature and the external circuit.
clamped securely between a fixed V-ring and a
variable position V-ring. The variable position V-
ring is clamped by means of a circular nut.
TIGHTENING NUT
IRON RING
MICA V-RING
FRONT V-RING
COMUTATOR COMMUTATOR BAR

BARS
MICA
MICA
INSULATION IRON SHELL
BETWEEN
BARS
BLACK V-RING
SLOTS WITH MICA INNER AND
OUTER RINGS FOR
INSULATION
The V-rings are part of the cast iron shaft and

therefore the copper segments are insulated
from it by collars of mica. These collars project
beyond the ends of the segments to reduce the
segment to shaft leakage current. Each
segment forms the junction between two
armature coils, the wires being soldered into
risers at the ends of the segments.

Armature Connections and Brush Types
TUBE TYPE BRUSH
BOX TYPE BRUSH

Brush Positioning & Armature Reaction
When the armature coils are perpendicular to

the magnetic field, NO emf is induced into the
coils and therefore NO current flows.At this point
in time the brushes are in contact with more than
one segment of the commut ator, effectively
short-circuiting the coils. This creates no
problem as there is no current flow . This is
known as the NEUTRAL PLANE or GNA
BRUSH COIL
N S
NO SPARKING COMMUTATOR
PROPER COMMUTATION
Should the brushes be moved a few degrees Since an armature is wound with coils of wire, a
from their correct position however , they will magnetic field is set up in the armature whenever
short circuit coils when they are cutting through a current flows in the coils. this field is at right
the field. A voltage will be subsequently induced angles to the generator field and is calledcross
in the short circuited coil. A short circuit current magnetisation of the armature.
will flow and sp arking will occur , seriously
damaging the coils and burning the commutator.
SHORT-CIRCUITED
CURRENT
N S
IMPROPER COMMUTATION SHORT-CIRCUITED

SPARKING COMMUTATOR

Reactive Sparking
Faulty collection or incorrect commutation Ideally and without side effects, this reversal
produce similar results, i.e. the formation of a should take place while the coil is short circuited
destructive spark or arc between the trailing by the brush.
edges of the brushes and the commutator
surface. However, as the coils are embedded in the
armature and are highly inductive, the rapid
Faulty Collection change in current induces a very high emf. If full
reversal has not been achieved by the time the
Normally the result of poor brush fittings and coil emerges from behind the brush, the current
maintenance. S parking occurs between the due to this emf will cause a spark between the
brush trailing edge and the commutator surface brush and the commutator segment which is
and is very destructive. leaving it.
Commutation Problems (General) If allowed to continue, this sparking would rapidly

destroy the commutator.
In addition to the problems associated with actual
collection, two problems which are associated
with the electromagnetic functions in the
generator also exist. Though having similar
effects, they are created by different things and
may be compensated for by different design
features and should be treated as separate
entities.
Reactive Sparking
As each coil undergoes commutation, it is

shorted out by a brush just before the current
flowing through it is reversed. As the coil
approaches the brush, the current in the coil
creates a field around it. When the coil is short
circuited by the brush, the current collapses and
so does the field produced by it. The collapsing
field induces a volt age which, by Lenz’s Law ,
will be acting in a direction to oppose the
collapse. Due to the highly inductive nature of
the windings, it may be many times greater than
the original voltage.
Consider the diagram opposite,
As the armature rotates, coils pass in turn from

one side of the brush to the other . Since, in
passing, the coils leave the influence of one pole
and come under the influence of a pole of opposite
polarity, the process involves a reversal of the
induced emf.

Reactive Sparking Schematics
LAP DRAWN (WAVE SAME EFFECT)

DIRECTION OF
POSITION 3
NEW FIELD INFLUENCE PRODUCES ROTATION
NEW (REVERSED) DIRECTION OF
INDUCED CURRENT 3
MAX VALUE UNDER IDEAL CONDITIONS
POSITION 2
IN IDEAL CONDITIONS EMF
CURRENT WOULD BE ZERO 2
BRUSH
POSITION 1
OLD FIELD INFLUENCE PRODUCES
INITIAL (FORWARD) DIRECTION OF
INDUCED CURRENT 1
COMMUTATOR
SEGMENTS
MAX VALUE UNDER IDEAL CONDITIONS
ARMATURE
COILS
LAP DRAWN (WAVE SAME EFFECT)
DIRECTION OF
POSITION 3
NEW FIELD INFLUENCE PRODUCES ROTATION
NEW (REVERSED) DIRECTION OF
INDUCED CURRENT
3
POSITION 2
HIGH INDUCED EMF IN ORIGINAL
DIRECTION DUE TO RAPID 2
CHANGE (COLLAPSE) OF CURRENT
BRUSH
POSITION 1
1
OLD FIELD INFLUENCE PRODUCES COMMUTATOR
INITIAL (FORWARD) DIRECTION SEGMENTS
OF INDUCED CURRENT
ARMATURE
COILS

For Your Notes

Reactive Sparking - Solution
The problem can be resolved by any one of a

number of design features.
The use of wide brushes. These will allow the

necessary reversal to occur more slowly by
overlapping several segments. This method has
obvious practical limitations.
The use of High Resistance brushes. These will

limit induction current but will also limit normal
current. This will obviously impair generator
efficiency and in any case is only practical if the
induced emf is relatively small.
The desired effect can be achieved by physically

altering the position of the brush gear with
respect to the field, (by moving the brushes
forward in the direction of armature rotation).
However, since the problem has been created
by current flow , it must be allied to load. This
remedy would be ideal if the load remained
constant.
With varying load, such a change in position

could recreate the sparking that it was intended
to cure.
The remedy which meets all requirements is the

fitting of interpoles.
These are small poles, connected in series with

the armature and fitted between the main poles.
They are wound to produce the same polarity
as the next main pole ahead in the direction of
rotation. They induce an emf into the coils being
commutated which is exactly equal and opposite
to the inductance emf thus enabling the coil
current reversal to take place quite freely . The
emf balance is maintained at all loads because
both inductance emf and interpole flux vary with
load current.

Reactive Sparking - Solution
Interpoles
ELECTRICALLY CONNECTED IN SERIES WITH THE ARMATURE
THEREFORE ARE EFFECTIVE UNDER ALL LOAD CONDITIONS
POLARITY IS THE SAME AS THAT OF THE NEXT MAIN

POLE AHEAD (GENERATORS) IN THE DIRECTION OF ROTATION
EFFECT IS EQUAL AND OPPOSITE TO THE FIELD WHICH

PRODUCES INDUCTANCE EMF.
INTERPOLE AND WINDING
YOKE
MAIN ARMATURE MAIN

POLE POLE
ARMATURE GENERATOR
FIELD
INTERPOLE
WINDING

Armature Reaction
With the load current flowing in the armature, a

magnetic field is produced around it which reacts
with and distorts the main field. This is called
armature reaction.
Since good commutation depends upon the

brushes being placed in a position where they
are connected to a coil undergoing reversal of
the induced current, the field must be corrected
or the brushes moved to a new position. Moving
the brushes is not very satisfactory as the
distortion of the field depends upon the load
current and the ideal brush position alters with
variation of load. There would be an inevitable
tendency if this was done, to recreate the same
Reactive Sparking which the designer has spent
a good deal of effort in minimising. It will however
suffice where the load is fairly constant. Where
the load is going to vary, armature reaction can
in fact be successfully reduced automatically.
Consider the following diagrams.

Armature Reaction
GEOMETRIC
NEUTRAL AXIS
Flux Distribution due to main
poles
N S GNA = MNA
DIRECTION OF
ROTATION
Flux distribution due to current

carrying conductors
+
+
N + S
+
+
DIRECTION OF
ROTATION
MAGNETIC
NEUTRAL
AXIS Flux distribution due to
ROTATED resultant magnetic forces
THROUGH
AN ANGLE
N S
Magnetic Neutral Axis
rotated through an angle
DIRECTION OF
ROTATION

Armature Reaction - Solution
Armature reaction is caused by the armature Under all conditions of load, the armature flux is
field interacting with the main field. Since this cancelled out by the compensating flux. The
armature flux plays no useful part in generator brushes can now be left on the magnetic
operation, the logical approach to preventing neutral axis and the point of commutation
armature reaction would be to reduce the effect remains static.
of armature flux. This can be done by fitting
compensating windings. In some generators, interpoles are magnetically
strengthened by the addition of a few extra turns
These windings are placed in slots in the pole to counteract the ef fects of Armature Reaction
faces. The current flowing in them travels in the as well as those of Reactive Sparking. It should
opposite direction to that in the armature however be remembered that this is purely a
conductors. By connecting these windings in practical expedient. The two characteristics,
series with the armature, the current flowing in present in motors as well as generators and both
the armature is the same as that flowing in the being electromagnetic in origin, are nevertheless
compensating windings. similar but essentially different. In consequence
therefore, optimum remedial action must be by
essentially different methods.
Consider the following diagram.
ARMATURE REACTION - (SOLUTION)
GEOMETRIC AND MAGNETIC

NEUTRAL AXIS
Electrically connected in series

with the armature
+
+ Therefore are effective under all
+ load conditions
+
+ Installed such that the
compensating winding current
+ resultant flux is equal and
+ opposite to the field due to the
+ armature windings
+
Therefore main field remains
undistorted
Note: That modified

interpoles are sometimes used
instead
COMPENSATING WINDINGS

Reactive Sparking
The causes and effects of this destructive For constant load conditions, the same effect
problem have already largely been stated, and could have been achieved by physically moving
various possible solutions have been offered for the brushes towards the next main pole, ie, in
consideration. the same direction as armature is rotation. The
result would have been similar . In this case it
The best and most effective solution has proved would have been part of the main pole
to be the fitting of interpoles. These are small electromagnetic capacity which generated the
pole pieces, located between the main poles, emf to oppose the inductance emf.
and wound to give a polarity which is the same
as the next main pole ahead in the direction of Whichever method had been adopted , the
armature rotation. principle is the same.T o counteract the
destructive effect of the generated inductance
With respect to the position of the brushes, this emf in the armature windings, an emf of equal
appears to be moving the effect of the pole and opposite proportion is generated in the same
towards the brush. This is in the opposite windings. This is achieved in both methods by
direction to that of armature rotation, and bringing the applicable winding under the
advances the effect of that next main pole on influence of the next magnetic pole earlier in time
the armature windings. and rotational terms, by a electromagnetic phase
advance procedure.
The effect being considered is the generation of
an emf in the armature windings, which is equal However, since this problem has been created
and opposite to the emf created in those same by current flow in the armature, it is clearly allied
windings as the field collapses. This is the result to load, and while a given brush gear position
of the dramatic reduction in current as the would be ideal for one set of load conditions,
armature windings left the influence of the any other load condition would result in the re-
preceding pole and become short circuited by emergence of the reactive sparking which the
the brush. original brush gear repositioning had hoped to
minimise.
The result of these two opposing emf’s causes
a dramatic reduction in the level of reactive By using interpoles and connecting them in
sparking experienced. series with the armature, the strength of the
interpole field becomes automatically responsive
to the load current flowing at any instant.
It may of course be noted that motors also suffer

from the same problem and is dealt with in a
similar way. The only difference in this context,
is that as a motor is a generator ‘backwards’,
the interpoles for the motor take the same polarity
at the next main pole behind in the direction of
rotation.

Armature Reaction
The Geometric Neutral Axis (GNA) in a DC In a motor, armature current flows in the opposite
generator may be described as a line lying at direction to that in a generator.The resultant field
right angles to the main field. Located on it are distortion is therefore in the opposite senseand
the centres of carbon brushes, which are to rectify the problem in motors, the brush gear
bridging two coils which are undergoing a would have to be moved in the opposite direction,
reversal of induced emf. i.e. against the direction of armature rotation.
While no armature current is flowing(generator In reality, movement of the brushgear is not a

supplying no load), it can also be described as satisfactory solution to the problem for two
the Magnetic NeutralAxis (MNA). reasons:
In other words, so long as the generator remains • Movement of the brushgear would tend to
on no load, the GNA and the MNA are in re-create the reactive sparking with which
alignment. the interpoles have successfully dealt.
When armature current flows, (generator • Since the angle of MNA displacement is
supplying a load), the effect of the interaction proportional to current flow , brushgear
between the main field and the armature field is repositioning could only be effective for one
to displace the MNA from the GNA, in the direction set of load conditions.
of armature rotation, by an angle which is
proportional to the value of armature current. The use of compensation windings which, by
providing electromagnetic opposition to the
This effect is called armature reaction. armature windings, effectively nullify the force
which creates the shift of MNA from GNA in the
In theory, though clearly not in practice, one first place. They are located in the main pole
solution could be to move the main field in the faces, carry armature current constructionally
opposite direction until the MNA and GNA are in the reverse direction to that in which it flows
realigned. in the armature windings themselves, (hence the
nullifying effect) and by being connected in series
Clearly, the effect of armature reaction shifting with the load, are effective under all load
the MNA, without any complementary movement conditions.
of either main field or brush gear position is not
acceptable.This would mean that the brushes
are left bridging coils that are electrically ‘live’.
The neutral plane with no current flow is not the
same under operating conditions.
If a change in brush gear position is to solve the

problem, it must be moved in a way which will
restore the original alignment This of course,
means moving from the GNA, (the position of
which does not change), forward in the direction
of armature rotation until the brushes once again
are aligned with the MNA and they bridge the
neutral coils.
As with Reactive Sparking, it may be noted that

motors also suffer from Armature Reaction.

Auxiliary Interpoles/Generator Losses
Wide speed range generators present problems shoes and Hysteresis in the armature.
affecting armature reaction and reactive sparking Frictional losses are purely mechanical and
Due to the rapid reversal and collapse of flux at include:
the point of commutation at high generator
speeds, armature reaction is much more • brush - commutator friction.
pronounced at high speed than at low speed. If
the interpole is strong enough to overcome the • bearing friction.
effects of armature reaction at the top end of
the generator speed range, it will over • wind resistance to armature rotation.
compensate at lower speeds.
Although these losses are listed as those to
To ensure tot al compensation for reactive which a generator is subject, the same losses
sparking over the complete speed range, an are in general terms also applicable to motors.
auxiliary pole (bias winding) is included. This They will therefore not be repeated.
winding is connected in series with the generator
field circuit and is wound on the same core as Each loss will contribute to a reduction in
the main interpole. The flux due to the bias efficiency, and should be kept to a minimum.
winding will oppose the flux due to the main Methods used are mainly in the area of
interpole. component design, but good maintenance
practices will assist.
Since the bias winding carries field current, its
effect at high generator speed will be negligible. Copper losses can be kept down by
At low speed, when field current is high, the consideration of the diameter of the winding wire,
auxiliary winding will oppose and weaken the flux and by ensuring adequate cooling to restrict the
produced by the main interpole and prevent generation of heat.
overcorrection of armature reaction.
Iron losses are restricted by correct choice and
construction of materials, ie, laminated soft iron
Generator Losses for the magnetic circuit. Adequate cooling is
important as well.
When a generator converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy certain losses occur , the
Frictional losses can be limited in the design/
lost energy being dissipated in the form of heat.
maintenance by keeping air gaps to a minimum,
choice of component parts (bearings), correct
These losses may be grouped under two
lubrication and brush spring pressures.
headings:
• Electrical losses (Copper and Iron losses).
• Frictional or rotational losses.
Electrical Losses
Copper losses are due to current flowing through

the conductor resistances causing heat (I 2R)
Iron losses are due to heat derived from Eddy

Currents developed in the armature and pole

Cooling Systems/Drives
The maximum output of any generator, assuming Drives

no limit to input mechanical power , is largely
determined by the efficiency by which heat The fundamental requirements of the element
(arising from hysteresis, the thermal effects of through which torque is transmitted to the rotor
armature and field windings current, etc), can shaft of the generator may be summarised as
be dissipated. With large bulk generators of follows:
relatively low output, the natural processes of
heat radiation from the extensive surfaces of the Effective transmission of torque up to a specified
machine case may well provide sufficient maximum.
cooling. Such ‘natural’ cooling is hopelessly
inadequate for the lightweight high-output Effective interruption of torque transmission if
generators used for aircraft electrical supply and the torque demand of the generator exceeds the
must therefore, be supplemented by forced permitted maximum. This condition can arise
cooling. as a result of seizures of the generator rotor ,
etc.
The majority of aircraft generators in current use
are blast-cooled by slipstream air. Air is forced Quick and simple removal and replacement of
at high speed into duct intakes located in the the torque-transmission element.
aircraft’s slipstream and is led, through light-alloy
piping, to the generator casing at points The requirements quoted above are satisfied
immediately above the brush gear . The air almost entirely by ‘weak-link’ devices known as
discharges first over the brush gear , then a quill drive. It is basically a ‘necked’ metal shaft
passes through the length of the machine to with serrations or splines, either of which may
exhaust through apertures at the other end. be male or female and can be fitted at one or
Hollow rotor shafts and interconnecting air both ends. The serrations or splines mate with
passages through various static and rotating corresponding formations on the driven rotor
parts, often assist in the unobstructed shaft to transmit the torque delivered by the drive
movement of cooling air through the generator, unit, and the ‘necked’ portion is designed to shear
thereby improving the efficiency of the blast- in the event of rotor seizure, etc thus interrupting
cooling system. In many cases a fan is fitted to the drive and protecting the components against
the rotor shaft to assist in the blast-cooling and further possible danger.
also provide limited cooling when generators are
being ground tested. The quill drive, as a general rule, is short and
rigid, but a longer form of quill drive, with one
Generators fitted to the Concorde are oil cooled. end mating with female serrations formed deep
in the hollow rotor shaft, enables the drive to
Adequate cooling may be self induced, absorb much of the mechanical vibration which
separately induced, a ram air function, or oil heat is otherwise passed to the generator from the
exchanger system. ‘auxiliaries’ gearbox. This ‘long quill’ is not
however, used very extensively , since there is
difficulty in procuring adequate lubrication of the
coupling serrations and fretting of the serrations
is liable to develop in service.

Mounting Arrangements
Originally, engine-driven generators were

bracket-mounted on the side of the aero-engine
and a semi-flexible drive from the engine
provided the mechanical input to the machine.
This rather crude form of mounting was soon

superseded by flange-mounting the generator
to an auxiliaries’ gearbox on the engine. A rigid
drive connected the output shaft of the gearbox
to the generator rotor , and this basic method,
with various modifications, has continued in use
up to the present time.
Unfortunately, the removal or replacement of a

flange mounted generator tends to be a rather
cumbersome process because of the number
and/or comparative inaccessibility of the
securing nuts. The ‘manacle ring’ method of
mounting, which does not rely on stud-and-nut
fastenings, has more recently been introduced
to simplify generator servicing.
Very heavy generators, whether mounted

primarily by flange or manacle-ring, are further
supported by brackets that are secured around
the generator yoke.

Visual Inspection
Carry out a visual inspection of the generator • proud insulator between the segments.
for satisfactory condition. • score marks from worn or damaged
brushes.
1. When you visually inspect the generator • signs of excessive arcing, burning etc.
prior to any cleaning, you are looking for • security of segments.security of the
signs of: armature windings, local hot spots or
thrown solder.
• oil leaks from mounting and engine ( engine
oil ) Brush & Brush Gear
• fretting of bolts or electrical cables or other Inspect each brush for satisfactory condition.
components in contact with the Release each brush from its housing, to ensure
generator each brush is returned to its original position,
remove and refit each brush in turn. Do NOT
• any other signs of damage, cracks etc.. handle the contact surface of the brush.
Note: these signs of damage will be Inspect each brush for:

removed by the action of cleaning the
• a free sliding fit, not too tight or having side
machine.
play. If tight, clean brush box with a cloth
moistened with lead free petrol and blown
2. Then visually inspect again after the
out with low pressure clean dry air.
generator has been cleaned, again looking
• adequate cont act with the commut ator,
for signs of damage.
you are looking at the shape and the area
that contacts the commut ator.
3. Clean the outlet cooling screens and
• its length on the longest side, ensure that
ensure cooling ducts are free and not
sufficient length is available until the next
damaged. Inspect outlet for signs of oil
routine inspection. The minimum length will
having entered the generator , if oil is
be found in the approved
present it is possible that oil seals have
maintenance manual.
failed and the generator should be
• the security of the brush pigtails ( the
removed for further
flexible connector that is moulded into the
inspection.
brush ) also check for damage. They carry
the armature current and therefore, the
Security
load current.
Check for security of the generator, cooling duct • contamination with oil or grease.
and cables. • the brush spring tension must be checked,
with a spring balance, to ensure that it is
Commutator within the specified limits as laid down in
the respective maintenance manual.
1. Remove the commutator cover.
Generator Cables
2. Inspect for satisfactory condition. For this
we are looking at the condition of the Inspect the generator cables for satisfactory
commutator: condition. This means looking for:
• colour, should be light brown ( some have • damaged terminals and ensure cables are
high altitude brushes fitted which give a on the correct terminals.
different colour to the commutator). • chafing of cable insulation.

Visual Inspection - continued
Audible Check Final Function Check
Turning the generator by hand may highlight other Carry out a functional check of the generator in
problems: accordance with the approved maintenance
schedule.
• field pole pieces fouling on the armature.
• dry bearings On completion of all the work, record all work
• brush, commutator or insulation faults done and issue a CRS ( Certificate of Release
to Service ).
Note: Ensure the armature is turned in the
correct direction of rotation. Note: Always use the approved
Maintenance Schedule and the
Insulation Check: Approved Maintenance Manual,
remember to keep the manuals up
This is carried out either as a routine item or to date with the latest technical
due to a fault. Carried out when the generator is information.
warm.
TYPICAL COMMUTATOR FAULTS

BRUSH
GOOD PROUD MICA BURRED SCORING SOLDER DAMAGED

TRAILING EDGES BY OVERHEATING
TYPICAL BRUSH FAULTS
GOOD CHIPPED SCORED FACE TOO SHORT

LEADING EDGE
LEAD ‘BLUED’
BY OXIDATION
DUE TO
OVERHEATING
TYPICAL COMMUTATOR AND BRUSH FAULTS

Types of DC Generators
DC generators are usually classified according The four field coils, each of high resistance, are
to the method by which the magnetic circuit of connected in series to form the field winding.
the machine is energised. The coils are wound and connected in such a
way that they produce alternate North and South
BCAR’s state the following, with regard to poles. The ends of the winding are marked Z
generator excitation: and ZZ (or Z1) and are brought out to separate
terminals, similarly marked, in the terminal box.
Generators shall, when used in conjunction with A high resistance winding of this type is suitable
their appropriate control equipment, be capable for connection across the brushes of the
of building up their output voltage and connection machine or across an independent supply and
to their busbar , without the need of a supply is known as a shunt winding.
separate from the machine.
This requirement is often satisfied by the

designed inclusion of permanent magnets into
the generator construction.
ARRANGEMENT OF FIXED STATOR WINDINGS POLE
TERMINAL BOX
YOKE
A
BRUSH
A1
Z1
COMMUTATOR
The three classes are: In more complicated machines each main pole
may carry more than one type of coil, e.g. a coil
• Permanent Magnet Generators. composed of a few turns of heavy copper wire
• Separately-excited Generators. or copper strip, capable of carrying the whole or
• Self-excited Generators. a portion of the armature current, may be fitted
to each pole. A low resist ance winding of this
Arrangement of Stator Windings nature, intended for connection in series with the
armature winding, is termed a series field
The illustration shows the arrangement of the winding; its ends are also brought out to the
fixed windings of a simple four pole machine with terminal box in most cases, and they are marked
energised magnets, suitable for use as either a Y and YY (or Y1). The winding of the interpole
separately excited or self-excited generator. The circuit if fitted, is likewise separate, with the ends
fixed portion of the armature circuit consists of marked H and HH (or Hl).
the four brushes, shown resting on the surface
of the commutator, the links connecting together Note: Similar markings are used for the windings
brushes of like polarity and the final cables of dc machines designed for use as a motor.
connecting the linked brushes to the terminals
in the terminal box. The ends of the armature
circuit and the terminals to which they are
connected are marked A and AA (or Al).

Generator Characteristics
The relationship between the current flowing in Other forms of permanent magnet generator
the external circuit connected to a generator have an armature of conventional type, with
(usually termed the load current or load) and the multiple coils and multi-segment commut ator.
voltage at the generator terminals is called the These machines are incorporated in the more
external characteristic or total characteristic of elaborate high-voltage test-equipment, and in
the machine. The relationship between the load tachometers.
current and the actual emf generated in the
armature windings is known as the internal The open-circuit or no-load emf of a permanent
characteristic. These relationships are generally magnet generator is proportional to the speed
shown in the form of graphs, which is drawn for of rotation of the armature, since the field strength
one particular speed of the machine. In the case is constant. With a load applied, current flows
of separately excited machines, for one in the armature winding, the voltage at the
particular value of exciting current. generator terminals falls slightly and the machine
is said to have a falling characteristic. This fall
Permanent Magnet in terminal voltage is due to,
The simplest form of dc generator in general use Weakening of the main flux by armature reaction,
is found in certain types of insulation tester. The set up by the current in the armature winding.
main flux is provided by high-grade permanent
magnets and the armature consists of an iron Voltage (IR) drop in the armature winding and
core carrying a single coil whose ends are brushes.
connected to the two segments of a split ring
commutator.
VOLTAGE
IDEAL OUTPUT
TERMINAL
VOLTAGE
N
LOAD CURRENT
LOAD
S

Generator Characteristics
Separately Excited The potentiometer method of control shown in

the illustration enables near-zero voltage to be
Separately excited generators have their main obtained without opening the field circuit.
field winding connected to an independent source
of dc supply such as a battery or small dc Machines of this type are particularly suitable for
generator known as the exciter. The field winding purposes in which complete control of voltage
is usually of fairly high resistance and provision over a very wide range is essential.
is made for regulating the exciting current e.g.
by a variable resistor. The armature is of normal Self Excited
construction and armature reaction is
neutralised, in most cases, by compensating Self Excited generators may be series, shunt
windings rather than by interpoles. or compound wound.
In a series generator the field coils are
Connection of a load to the generator does not connected in series with the armature, so that
affect the field current,which remains constant. the whole load current flows through them. They
A slight fall in terminal voltage occurs as the load consist of a few turns of thick wire. If the load is
is increased; this is due to voltage (IR) drop in disconnected, the circuit is incomplete and no
the armature coil, brushes and compensating current flows through the field coils.
windings or interpole windings, if these are fitted.
A further small drop in voltage will be caused by In a shunt generator , the field coils are
the weakening of the main field, due to armature connected in parallel with the generator output.
reaction, if not neutralised by compensating They contain many turns of fine wire and divert
windings or interpoles. only a little of the armature current because of
their high resistance. This generator is excited
At constant speed the generated emf is even with the load disconnected.
determined by the strength of the magnetic field.
The terminal voltage can therefore be controlled A compound generator contains both series and
by variation of the field current. If the effect of shunt field windings. There is enough residual
residual magnetism in the pole shoes is magnetism in the pole pieces to enable a self-
neglected, the voltage at constant speed can be excited machine to provide initial excitation As
varied from zero, with no field current, to a soon as a little armature current flows, the
maximum when the field current has been magnetic field builds up until the total excitation
increased to a point where it causes magnetic is reached, allowing full generator output.
saturation of the field.
TO EXCITER SUPPLY
VOLTAGE
IDEAL OUTPUT
GENERATED EMF
F
I TERMINAL PD
E TO
L GEN
LOAD
D
IR DROP
LOAD CURRENT

For Your Notes

Series Wound Generators
In series generators, the field current is also the At first the increase in terminal voltage is almost
load current, or at least is proportional to it. The proportional to the increase in load current, but
field coils, composed of a few turns of heavy as saturation of the magnetic circuit is
wire or copper strip of large cross-sectional area approached the rise in terminal voltage becomes
and very low resistance, are connected in series progressively more gradual. Maximum terminal
with the armature and the external load circuit. voltage is attained when the magnetic circuit is
saturated.
Any further rise in current beyond this point will

not result in a rise of generated emf, since the
flux is already at maximum, but it will cause an
increase in voltage drop in the armature and field
windings.
SERIES FIELD WINDING

IDEAL OUTPUT
If VOLTAGE VOLTAGE INDUCED
IN THE ARMATURE
WINDING
IL
OUTPUT
ARMATURE V VOLTAGE
WINDING
RESISTANCE
IA
LOAD
IL
No current flows through the field winding until Since the terminal voltage is the difference
an external load is connected and on open circuit between generated emf and this voltage drop, it
the only emf generated is the small amount due follows that the terminal voltage will begin to fall.
to residual magnetism in the magnetic circuit.
The voltage of a series generator may be
As the resistance of the external circuit is controlled by a series diverter, i.e. a resistance
decreased, an increased current flows through connected in parallel with the field winding so
the armature and the field windings. The as to divert some of the current from it.
increased current in the field winding causes an Decrease of the diverter resistance reduces the
increase in flux density in the magnetic circuit, current in the field winding reducing the flux
leading to an increase in generated emf and density and thus causing a fall in the generated
terminal voltage. emf.
Series wound generators have limited

application, such as for boosting the voltage on
long transmission lines.

Shunt Wound Generator
All self-excited generators obtain the necessary In such machines the armature current divides
field current from their own armatures. When into two branches, one portion of the current
the field winding is connected in parallel with the passing through the field winding, the remainder
armature, as shown, the machines are said to through the external circuit. It is therefore
be ‘shunt wound’. advantageous to keep the current in the shunt
field winding as small as possible, thus avoiding
expenditure of electrical energy in the machine
itself. The necessary flux can be created by the
ampere-turns produced by a small current in
coils consisting of many turns of fine wire.A shunt
field winding is consequently of high resistance
and since it is iron-cored, of high inductance.
If IL
ARMATURE
WINDING
RESISTANCE
1a
LOAD
SHUNT FIELD G
WINDING
V
IDEAL OUTPUT VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE INDUCED IN THE ARMATURE WINDING
OUTPUT VOLTAGE
IL

Build-up of Terminal Voltage
When the armature is rotated, the conductors excitation, being solely due to residual
cut the weak magnetic flux which is due to magnetism.
residual magnetism in the magnetic system. A
small emf is induced in the armature winding The voltage collapse point will occur with only a
and is applied to the ends of the field winding, small current in the load circuit, so the voltage
causing a current to flow through the latter and will build up only sufficiently to support the load
so increasing the magnetic flux. current to this figure and will then collapse.
In this way, a progressive increase in induced The generator thus fails to excite. It is therefore
emf and in field current occurs until the induced essential that shunt generators are allowed to
emf and the voltage at the terminals reach the build up to their correct voltage before connecting
steady open-circuit maximum. the load circuit.
Characteristic
With increasing load current the terminal voltage The terminal voltage at a given speed can be
tends to fall owing to voltage drop in the armature controlled by varying the field current. This is
winding and in the absence of interpoles or achieved by inserting a variable resistant in
compensating windings, to weakening of the series with the field winding. By increasing the
main flux by armature reaction. This reduction resistance of the field circuit the field current is
of voltage reduces the field current, thus reduced, causing a reduction of flux, hence of
weakening the main flux and producing a further generated emf and terminal voltage.
fall in terminal voltage. Provided the field system
is normally excited (i.e. there is a considerable Uses
degree of magnetic saturation in the magnetic Shunt generators are extensively employed for
paths) the decrease in terminal voltage will be general supply purposes on aircraft, marine craft
relatively small and constant over the whole and vehicles, largely because of their simple
working load range of the generator. voltage control and effective performance when
operating in parallel, together with their
If the process of increasing the load is continued outstanding suitability for battery charging.
after full working load condition has been
reached, the terminal voltage will fall at an When used for such purposes a form of
increasing rate until a point is reached when the automatic voltage control is essential, as neither
characteristic graph becomes vertical. At this speed or load is likely to be constant. They are
point the generator shuts down; the collapsing also suitable for unattended operation on steady
voltage can no longer sustain the load current, loads, provided that the prime mover is fitted with
and both voltage and load current fall to zero. a speed governor.
Effect of Load Current on Voltage Build Up
With reduced excitation the external

characteristic of a shunt generator falls much
more rapidly than it does when the generator is
normally excited. The voltage collapse or
shutdown point is therefore reached with a much
smaller load current. Consider now the case of
a shunt generator starting up on load.
The degree of excitation at the outset is extremely
small, probably less than 5 percent normal

Compound Generators
Compound Wound Generator Differential Compound
This is a combination of shunt and series The series field is wound to oppose the main
windings. Each pole piece carries a shunt and shunt winding and the volts/load characteristic
a series winding which may assist or oppose falls steeply with increased load. This type of
each other. generator tends to give a constant current output.
Cumulative Compound
The series field, consisting of a few turns is

wound to assist a main shunt field. If the number
of series turns is arranged so that terminal pd at
no load and at full load is the same, the
generator is said to be level compounded. If the
number of series turns is increased so that the
voltage increases with load, the machine is said
to be over compounded.
If IL
ARMATURE
W INDING
RESISTANCE
IA
LOAD
FEEDER
CABLE
RESISTANCE
G
OVER COMPOUND
IDEAL
OUTPUT
V
VOLTAGE
LEVEL COMPOUND
FULL LOAD CURRENT
IL

Voltage Regulation
Voltage Regulation Different types of generators have been designed

to perform p articular t asks. A generator of a
Since in most compound generators the shunt specific size, will normally develop a certain
field is the main field, the greatest voltage control power output. With dc we cannot easily transform
is achieved by placing a regulator resistance in from one voltage to another whereas with ac we
series with the main shunt field. can. The dc generator has to be designed with
a given output voltage in mind. We may require
Uses a high voltage low current output or a low voltage
high current output. The terms high and low are
Level compounded-constant voltage supply to
relative, but the requirement gives rise to two
short feeder installations.
classes of machine.
Over compounded-constant voltage supply to
When we discussed the interconnection of
long feeder installations.
batteries, we found that a greater voltage could
be applied to a circuit by connecting the batteries
Differential compounded - Arc lighting, welding,
in series whereas when we connected the
where constant current is more important than
batteries in parallel more current was available
constant voltage.
for the circuit (in as much as current would flow
for a longer period of time before the batteries
A compound generator utilises residual
were discharged).
magnetism in the pole pieces to build up the field
emf. With large applications such as electronic
By winding the armature so that the coils are in
bay power supplies etc the generator may take
parallel (lap winding) the current output is high
20-30 seconds to ‘build-up’ to full voltage.
and the voltage output is low. If the windings are
connected in series (wave winding) the
DC Generator Output and Control
induced voltages in each coil are added together
The efficiency of the dc generator is improved giving a high terminal voltage but a low output
by: current.
• Placing a large number of conductor loops Note 1: Further details concerning DC

on the armature. Generators may be found in CAAIPs.
• Using a field produced by an Note 2: Consideration of the Maintenance

electromagnet rather than a permanent Practices associated with DC
magnet. Machines is included at the end of
the section
• Lamination of the armature and poles to
minimise eddy currents.
• Keeping the air gap between poles and

armature as small as possible.

Generator Fault Chart
Defect Possible Cause Appropriate Action
1.Failure to excite Loss of residual magnetism Remagnetise. Disconnect

shunt field winding and connect
battery across the winding;
positive of battery to positive end
of winding.
2.Voltage fails to build up a. Dirty commutator Clean as described
b. Glazed contact surface on Clean contact surface of brushes

brushes owing to prolonged with Grad 00 glass paper
“off load” running
c. Brushes not in contact with If result of sticking brushes, treat

commutator as described
d. Incorrect brush position Check position and correct as

necessary
e. Disconnection in field circuit Check all connections, test field

winding for continuity
f. Reversed field connections Reconnect correctly
g. Incorrect direction of rotation Reverse drive
h. Machine run up on load (shunt Disconnect load, run up “off load”

machines only)
3. Reversed Polarity Residual magnetism reversed Remagnetise. See 1 above
4. Insufficient Voltage a. Excessive load Reduce load

b. Weak field Reduce resistance of shunt field
rheostat
c. Insufficient speed Increase speed of prime mover
5. Excessive Voltage a. Excessive field strength Increase resistance of shunt field

rheostat
b. Excessive speed Reduce speed of prime mover
6. Uniform sparking at all a. Dirty commutator Clean commutator

brushes
b. Excessive load Reduce load
c. Incorrect brush position Check position. See 2d above

DC Motors
An electric motor is a machine for converting The diagrams show the magnetic field between
electrical energy into mechanical energy . It s the poles of a magnet and the magnetic field
function is the reverse of that of a generator . round a wire that is carrying a current. If the wire
There is little difference between the construction is placed in the magnetic field the overlapping
of dc motors and dc generators, both have field pattern would seem to be as shown in (c).
essentially the same parts and they look alike. Of course, as we have seen earlier, lines of flux
In fact, in many cases, a dc machine can be cannot cross and this pattern cannot exist. The
used either as a motor or a generator. resultant field is as shown in (d). The lines of
(a) MAGNETIC FIELD BETWEEN POLES
flux reinforce each other in the space above the
conductor and oppose each other below it. Lines
of flux act as if they are pushing away from each
other and also tend to straighten out. In this way
N S they apply a force to the conductor tending to
move it downwards.
THE TWO FIELDS (a) AND (b)

SUPERIMPOSED SHOW (c)
(d) RESULTANT FIELD
(b) MAGNETIC FIELD CAUSED BY

CURRENT IN CONDUCTOR
(c) FLUX COMBINES (FIELD STRENGTHENED)
FORCE
N S
The force with which the conductor moves is

clearly dependent upon the strengths of the two
interacting magnetic fields. In turn this force
THIS CANNOT EXIST
FLUX OPPOSES (FIELD WEAKENED)
relates to the speed at which a motor containing
the current carrying conductor will turn.
Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic
Field It may therefore be appropriate to remember that
the force is directly proportional to the Flux
A current flowing through a wire placed in a Density (B) of the major field, the current (I) in
magnetic field causes the wire to move; a motor the conductor (producing the minor field), and
works on this principle. It is the reaction of two the length of the Conductor (L).
magnetic fields that produces the motion, that
produces the torque, that we see as the output This is expressed as:
of the motor.
F = (β
β) x (I) x L) (
Force = Flux Density x Current x Length of Conductor
F = βIL
DC Motors
The direction in which the conductor moves To change the direction of rotation of the motor
depends on the direction of the current in the we need to reverse the direction of the current
wire and also on the direction of the magnetic in the armature OR the direction of the current
field. The direction of the motion is given by in the field.
Fleming’s LEFT HAND RULE for motors:
MOTION
THUMB - FOR MOTION

FIELD
MOTION
FIRST FINGER - FOR FIELD
SE COND FINGER - FOR CURRENT

FIELD
CURRENT
CURRENT
“The first finger, the second finger and the thumb

Changing the supply connections to the motor
of the left hand are held at right angles to each
will not have any effect; the current being
other. With the first finger pointing in the direction
reversed in direction in both the armature and
of the field (N to S) and the second finger in the
the field, the motor continues to run in the same
direction of conventional current, the thumb
direction.
shows the direction of motion of the wire

Commutation
The simplest form of motor has a single loop of

wire able to rotate freely between the poles of a
permanent magnet.
Connection is made from the dc supply voltage

(battery) to the loop by brushes bearing on a
commutator, the 2 segments of which are
connected to opposite ends of the loop.
BRUSH
LOOP
S
+ DC
SUPPLY
- VOLTAGE
N COMMUTATOR INSULATION
BRUSH
PERMANENT MAGNET

Commutation
Consider the diagram below: When the loop is in the vertical position the forces
acting on the loop do not cause rotation any more
By applying Fleming’s left hand rule, we can see than do the pedals on a bicycle in the vertical
that when the loop is in position (a) side ‘P’ of position. However, just as inertia carries the
the loop tends to move downwards and side ‘Q’ bicycle pedals over the vertical dead spot, so
upwards. the loop is carried through the vertical position.
The forces acting on the 2 sides of the loop Since the current is reversed at this instant,
combine to apply a ‘torque’ that turns in a rotation is maintained.
anticlockwise direction.
With a single loop dc motor we shall not be able
As the loop passes through the vertical position to turn heavy loads.To obtain a large mechanical
(b) the direction of the current flow must be output, with smooth running, the same
reversed to keep the loop rotating in the same improvements are made as in the case of the
direction. The commutator does this. Thus from dc generator . That is, a laminated iron core
positions (b) to (d) the direction of current through carrying a number of armature coils is used with
the loop is such that side ‘P’ is now moving a corresponding number of commutator
upwards and side 'Q’downwards. At position (d), segments. The magnetic field is produced by
the commutator again reverses the direction of an electromagnet and its field coils and the
current through the loop and the loop rotates so spacing between the armature and pole pieces
long as the supply voltage is connected. is kept as small as possible.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
N S N S N S N S N S
CURRENT REVERSED CURRENT REVERSED

BY COMMUTATOR BY COMMUTATOR
Q P
P 0° Q Q 180° P P 360° Q
+ 90° + 270° +
P Q

Back EMF and Speed Control
The movement of a conductor in a magnetic Remember the Eb is Always lower than the
field, induces an emf which we know from Lenz’ applied voltage Vs. It can therefore be said that:
law will oppose the motion producing it. That is
to say, the induced volt age will oppose the Eb = k x N x If or kNIf
supply voltage. It is therefore called theback emf. where k = a constant ( hysteresis )
N= Speed of rotation
The back emf can never be as great as the
supply input voltage. The difference between the and If = Field Current
applied emf and the back emf is always such
that current can flow in the conductor and Remember this as it is important later on.
produce motion.
The back-e.m.f. plays an all important part. The
The value of this current is dependent upon the internal resistance of the armature of a d.c. motor
value of voltage across the conductor . This is usually very low, sometimes less than 1 ohm.
voltage, often referred to as the EFFECTIVE If this resistance were all that limited the
voltage and equals the APPLIED VOLTAGE armature current (Ia), this would be very high.
minus the BACK EMF.
Consider our previous example:
Back e.m.f.: The magnitude of the back e.m.f.
depends on the same factors as the generated Vs = 28V and Ra = 0.8 Ω
e.m.f. in the generator. Then by Ohms Law Ia would equal 28 = 35A
BACK-EMF (Eb)
0.8
- + This could damage the armature windings.
BUT, as the Eb works in opposition to Vs it will

S
limit the value of Ia thus:
N Ra Ia
Vs = 28V and Eb = 24V

then the Effective Applied Voltage = 4V
RESISTANCE OF
COMMUTATOR
ARMATURE COIL
WIRE AND BRUSHES
therefore Ia = = 5A
- +
+E VOLTAGE
However, when the motor is just starting and the
- a SOURCE back e.m.f. is too small to limit current flow
BRUSHES effectively. A temporary resist ance called a
starting resistance may be put in series with the
a. Speed (V) where V is Velocity (frequency) armature in order to keen current flow within safe
that the magnetic field is changing. limits.
As. the motor speeds up, the back e.m.f.
b. Field Strength (β) increases and the starting resistance can
gradually be reduced, allowing a further increase
c. Length of Conductor (l) in speed and Eb. At normal speed, the starting
resistance is shortened out of the circuit
The stronger the field the faster the rotating altogether.
speed, the larger will be the back - e.m.f.

Back EMF and Speed Control
Imagine a 240 volt shunt motor with an armature

resistance of 0.25 Ohms and a field resistance Ia = 52 - 2 = 50 amps
of 120 Ohms. The motor takes a current of 6
amps on no load.You are asked to find the back E b = 240 - (50 x 0.25)
emf.
= 227.5 volts
The back emf is produced by the armature; so
first of all we have to find the armature current. Notice how the back emf falls as the load is
increased on the motor . The back emf
Armature current Ia = Total current I - Field current determines the armature current and makes the
current Ish dc motor a self-regulating machine.
Ish = 240 This is entirely reasonable. Consider the feature

from an alternate point of view.
WITHOUT STARTING RESISTOR.....

I = 230 = 230 AMPERES
I
ARMATURE RESISTANCE
= 1 OHM 230V DC
120 = 2 amps
When the motor is “loaded”, it will tend to slow
Ia = 6 - 2 = 4 amps down, and as generated emf is directly
proportioned to the rate of change of flux linkage
Back emf Eb = Supply voltage - Armature voltage (Faraday’s Law), the value of back emf will be
drop reduced. In turn, the Effective V oltage will be
increased, Armature Current will increase and
= V - IaRa the motor speed will be restored.
= 240 - (4 x 0.25)
= 239 volts
The current drawn by this motor when on load

is 52 amps.
What effect does this have on the back emf?
The field current remains the same:
Ish = 2 amps

Motor Starters
Looking at the worked example on back emf,

one can appreciate that the current flow in the
motor can be excessive when starting because
the back emf is yet to be built up.
i.e. 240V supply with Armature resistance Ra of

0.25 Ohms.
1a = V = 240 = 960 amps

Ra 0.25
This current could burn out the armature. T o

prevent this, a stepped resistance is placed in
series with the armature which is progressively
removed as the motor speeds up.
This principle would provide a very simple st

arter,
and in practice the system would have a number
of refinements including an automatic connect/
disconnect of the starter resistor.
A starter resistance is not needed on very small

motors because the armature resistance is
sufficiently large to limit the current. Also, since
these motors rapidly reach full speed, any
overload of armature current is only momentary.

Armature Reaction and Reactive Sparking
The back emf produced in a motor is equivalent Similarly, Reactive S parking is minimised in a
in direction to the emf produced by a generator. similar way to that employed in generators.
The applied emf in a motor opposes the back
emf but the effective voltage resultant is in the
same direction as the applied emf. In
consequence the armature reaction is opposite
to that in a generator.
GEOMETRIC NEUTRAL
AXIS (GNA)
MAGNETIC NEUTRAL ANGLE

AXIS (MNA) OF LAG
ROTATION
TRAILING TIP LEADING TIP
LEADING TIP TRAILING TIP
The Magnetic Neutral Axis is retarded from the In this instance the polarity of the Interpole will
vertical. be the same as the next main pole behind with
respect to the direction of rotation.
Armature reaction correction can be achieved
by the use of compensating windings or
interpoles, as with a generator.

Torque
Torque is the term used to express the turning A constant speed with an increased load can be
or twisting effect of a force about an axis. In a obtained only by increasing the power output of
DC motor each conductor lying in the influence the motor.
of a pole face exerts a torque tending to turn the
armature. The torque of each conductor being Torque in a DC Motor
determined by the force exerted on the conductor
multiplied by the distance of the conductor from Since the purpose of an electrical motor is to
the axis of the armature. The sum of these impart mechanical energy to a load, it must
torques is termed the ARMATURE TORQUE. cause a shaft to rotate with sufficient torque to
drive the load.
The whole of the armature torque is not available
for doing useful work. Friction in the bearings, This torque is measured in Newtons/metres.
the opposition to magnetic change in the
armature core and air resistance to the rotating The turning force produced by a d.c. motor is
armature all act as a load on the machine and given by the formula:
must be overcome before any useful work can
be done. The torque required to overcome these pz
losses is termed the LOST TORQUE, while the T= x ΦIa = k ΦIa
2π a
difference between the armature torque and the
lost torque, i.e. the torque available for useful
work, is generally known as the SHAFT Where:
TORQUE.
p = Number of poles in the motor
The power developed by a DC motor is z = Number of conductor wires
proportional to the product of the shaft torque a = Number of parallel paths in which current
and the speed in revolutions per minute. It follows is able to flow to the motor
that FOR A GIVEN POWER any increase in Φ = Ammount of flux per pole
speed can be obtained only at the expense of Ia = Armature current
torque and vice versa, thus at low speeds the k = Constant, e.g. design, construction and
torque will be high and at high speeds the torque materails.
will be low.
It can be seen from the equation that the torque
A mechanical load exerts a torque opposing the produced by a given motor can be controlled by
motion and this LOAD TORQUE is constant for either:
a given load, irrespective of the speed at which
the load is driven.At low speed, the shaft torque a. Varying the amount of flux produced
of the motor will be high and in excess of the (change the value of field current ).
load torque. The motor will therefore accelerate b. Vary the armature current
and as its speed rises, the shaft torque will fall
until the shaft and the load torques are equal. Note: p, z, and k cannot be changed only
The motor then continues to drive the load at a Φ and Ia are changeable.
steady speed.
If the load is increased, the load torque rises to

upset the torque balance. The motor will
therefore slow down, thereby increasing the shaft
torque until the balance is once more restored
and the speed is again stabilised.

For Your Notes

Motor Speed Control
The back emf developed in the armature of a If we consider the normal speed of a motor to
DC motor , determines the current in the be that speed at which it runs when connected
armature and makes the motor a self-regulating direct to the supply, then any form of field current
machine in which speed and armature current control will produce speeds above normal. To
are automatically adjusted to the mechanical control the speed of the motor below normal
load. speed, control of the armature current is
necessary. A reduction in armature current
At small values of load the shaft torque exceeds causes the motor to slow down.
the load torque; the armature therefore
accelerates and gives rise to a larger back emf. The series motor is never run ‘off load’. The
The increased back emf cuts down the armature armature current is also the field current and
current thus reducing the shaft torque until without a load, the current will be small and the
eventually a state of balance between the two field weak causing the motor to race resulting in
torques is obtained and the speed is stabilised. damage to the bearings and possible
disintegration of the armature undercentrifugal
With increasing load the load torque is force.
increased, exceeding the shaft torque and
causing a fall in armature speed. Reduced Similarly, the shunt motor should never have its
armature speed results in reduced back emf and field open circuited when running off load
increased armature current. because it too will race with a weakened field
provided by the residual magnetism only.
The increase in armature current produces an
increase in shaft torque restoring torque balance In general terms the speed of a series motor
and stabilising the speed again. The variation of varies considerably with load and is essentially
speed with armature current (i.e. with a variable speed motor. With shunt motors, the
mechanical load) is known as the SPEED speed drops only slightly with increasing load
CHARACTERISTIC of the motor. and for all practical purposes shunt motors are
constant speed machines. The compound
Although many motors run at a constant speed motor has characteristics between those of
it is sometimes necessary to be able to vary the series and shunt machines.
speed. The speed of any dc motor can be varied
by controlling its field strength. If the field
current is reduced, the magnetic field is
weakened and the speed of the motor rises.
This is because the weaker field produces a
smaller back emf so that the effective voltage
and hence the armature current have been
increased.
The increased armature current causes the

motor to speed up until the back emf rising with
the increasing speed, restores the balance
between the applied voltage and the back emf.
At this point the motor runs steadily at its higher
speed. Conversely, an increase in the strength
of the magnetic field reduces the speed of the
motor. (See diagrams)

Motor Speed Control
AS RESISTANCE IS
INCREASED MOTOR
SLOWS DOWN
M
SUPPLY
SPEED CONTROL BELOW NORMAL
AS RESISTANCE IS
INCREASED MOTOR
SPEEDS UP
M
SUPPLY
SPEED CONTROL ABOVE NORMAL

Shunt Wound Motors
Introduction Speed variation from ‘no-load’to ‘full-load’ is about

With a single loop dc motor we are not able to 10% of the ‘no-load’ speed. Shunt motors are
turn heavy loads. To obtain a large mechanical regarded as constant speed motors.
power output, with smooth running, the same
improvements are made as we discussed in dc At start up, the starting current is small due to
generators. This is, a laminated iron core the starter resistance and therefore the starting
carrying a large number of armature coils of torque is small.
many turns is used and a corresponding number
of commutator segments. The windings are
appropriately lap or wave wound. Like
generators, motors are classified according to
their method of excitation. They may be
permanent magnet excited,separately
excited or self excited via series, shunt or
compound windings.
SHUNT
FIELD
FULL LOAD
SPEED
TORQUE
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF SHUNT
Shunt Wound Motors Shunt motors are used where constant speed
under various loads are required and where the
The torque developed is determined by motor can start under light or ‘no-load’
interaction of the armature field with the main conditions.
field. Any variations of armature current or main
field will affect the torque.
In a shunt wound motor , the field is directly

across the voltage source, so eliminating
variations of field strength.

Series Wound Motors
Field windings of thick wire with few turns in A series motor must never be run under ‘no-load’
series with the armature. conditions as there is no load torque to oppose
the initial starting torque.
A series wound motor has a very high starting

torque and rapid acceleration. S pecial
applications requiring a high starting torque and
high rate of acceleration include: Electric trains,
trams, hoists, starter motors and equipment
actuators.
SERIES FIELD
SERIES MOTOR
SPEE D
TORQUE
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF SERIES MOTOR
The entire current flows through the field winding Summary

therefore the field strength varies with the
armature current. The motor speed therefore will Tremendous starting torque.
vary with the load. Rapid Acceleration.
Heavy load - high torque - low speed.
Light load - low torque - high speed.

Compound Wound Motors
+
SERIES FIELD
SHUNT FIELD
COMPOUND MOTOR
SPEED
TORQUE
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF COMPOUND MOTOR
When a motor has both a series field and a shunt Compound motors are used to operate
field it is called a compound motor. This type of machines subject to a wide variety of loads. In
motor combines the features of series and shunt aircraft they are used to drive hydraulic pumps
motors ie, it has a strong starting torque like the which operate from a no-load condition to a
series motor but will not overspeed when the maximum-load condition. Neither a shunt nor a
load is light This is because the shunt winding series motor would satisfactorily fulfil these
maintains a field which allows the back emf to requirements.
increase sufficiently to balance the applied emf.
When the load on a compound motor is
increased, the speed of the motor will decrease
more than it does in a shunt motor , but it
provides speed sufficiently constant for many
practical applications.

Motor Construction
Characteristics of Aircraft Electric Motors Continuous and Intermittent Duty Motors
As in aircraft generator, the power-to-weight ratio Many electric motors used in aircraft are not
of electric motors in aircraft must be high; that required to operate continuously. Because the
is, a small motor must deliver a maximum heat developed in a short time is not sufficient
amount of power for a minimum of weight. A to cause any damage, a motor in this type of
commercial motor may weigh as much as 100 service is designed to deliver more power for its
lb/hp (60.8 kg/kW), but for aircraft purposes there weight than a motor used for continuous service.
are motors which weigh less than 5 lb/hp (3 kg/ If such a motor were used continuously, it would
kW). overheat and burn the insulation and thus
become useless. Motors designed for short
Reduced weight is obtained by operating the periods of operation are called intermittent duty
motors at high speeds, high frequencies and motors, and those which operate continuously
with relatively high currents. This necessitates are called continuous-duty motors.
the use of heat-resistant insulation and enamels
in the armature and field windings and perhaps The type of duty for which a motor is designed
ram air or cooling fans to help dissipate the is sometimes stated on the nameplate, or in the
motor’s heat. in the manufacturer ’s specifications.
Some fractional-horsepower motors used in

aircraft rotate at over 40,000 rpm (4138 rad/s)
with no load and at about 20,000 rpm (2069 rad/
s) with a normal load. Since horsepower means
the rate of doing work, it is apparent that a motor
turning at 20,000 rpm develops twice the power
of a similar motor turning at 10,000 rpm (1035
rad/s).
To reduce the effect of centrifugal force on the

armature of the motor rotating at a very high
speed, the armature diameter is made to be
relatively small compared to it's length.

Motor Efficiency
Motor Efficiency
Before motor efficiency can be discussed, the

term efficiency must be thoroughly understood.
Efficiency is the ratio of the amount of power
obtained from a machine to the amount of input
power required to operate it. Therefore,
efficiency is a ratio of the power output to the
power input of a system. This statement can be
written as follows:
Eff = Po
P1
If a system requires 1,000 watts at the input
while delivering 800 watts at the output, its
efficiency is:
Po 800
Eff = = = 0.08 or 80%
P1 1,000
Efficiency is usually expressed as a percentage.

In a motor , the output (mechanical power) is
measured in horsepower (HP) while the input
(electrical power) is measured in watts. The
output is multiplied by 746 in order to obtain its
equivalent in watts.
For example:
1 HP 746 W, so 2 HP 2 x 746 = 1,492 W

.

Motor Efficiency
What is the Efficiency of This Motor?
I = 20 AMPS
110V DC
POWER OUTPUT
= 2.5 hp
To find the ef ficiency of the motor above, you Motor Losses That Affect Efficiency
must calculate the power input (in watts) and
power output (in watts), and then use the formula Now that you know how to calculate efficiency,
to find efficiency. the question of why the output power is smaller
than the input power should be answered. A
motor has several electrical losses. There are
P1 = V x I = 110 x 20 = 2,2000 W armature losses, losses in the field windings,
and losses in the shunt-field rheostat.
P0 = hp x 746 = 2.5 x 746 = 1,865 W
There are also mechanical losses in the form of
Po 1,86 friction. The armature runs on bearings, and the
Eff = = = 0.85 or 85%
P1 2,200 brushes “rub” against the commut ator. In
addition, the entire armature has to overcome
air friction while spinning. The power necessary
to provide for these friction losses must be
supplied from the input source.A fan is connected
to one end of the armature to cool some motors.
This amounts to an additional loss due to air
friction. All these mechanical losses depend
mainly on the speed. Motor efficiency increases
as the physical size of the motor increases. For
fractional-horsepower motors, efficiencies are
about 40-50 %. In the 10-HP range the efficiency
is about 85 %. This is because the mechanical
losses do not increase with the motor size at
the same rate as power output.

Reversible DC Motors
Motors used for the operation of landing gear ,

flaps, cowl flaps and certain other types of
apparatus must be designed to operate in either
direction and are therefore called REVERSIBLE
MOTORS. Actuators are split into two basic
classifications:
1. ROTARY MOTOR COVER ARMATURE
ELECTRO MAGNETIC
BRAKE
SPIGOT MOUNTING
PLATE
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTION
REDUCING GEAR
TRAIN
POSITION INDICATOR
SHUT-OFF SWITCH
VALVE HOUSING
2. LINEAR
CLUTCH DISC
BRAKE DRUM
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTION ‘OUT’ LIMIT
‘IN’ LIMIT SWITCH
SWITCH
COMMUTATOR
END BEARING
RAM
SCREW SHAFT
BRUSH GEAR SUN GEAR

ARMATURE
BEARING PLATE

Essentially actuators consist of the following Split Field Motors

components:
Reversing the direction of rotation is achieved
a. MOTOR by reversing the direction of the current flow in
the field windings, resulting in the polarity of the
b. BRAKING DEVICE field reversing, or by reversing the current in the
armature. ( Remember, reversing both currents
c. LIMIT SWITCHES the direction remains the same ).
d. CLUTCH The most common method used in series

wound motors is by splitting the field windings
e. ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKE into two electrically separate sections.
Motors used in actuators require a good starting Operation

torque on load, since the load being moved may
need a sudden reversal of motion in a response 1. Switch to position a. Current will flow through
to a pilot “ flicking a switch “, or a control unit the armature and through field winding A. The
demanding a change in direction. polarity of the field produced causes the
armature to rotate in direction A.
The motor meeting this requirement is a:
2. Switch to position b.Armature current remains
SERIES WOUND MOTOR in the same direction but current through the field
winding B will reverse the polarity of the field so
In addition to this, the actuator must switch itself that the armature now rotates in the opposite
off once the motor has been driven to its direction.
mechanical stop. This is achieved with the use
of micro-switches on the actuator output shaft
assembly.
a
-VE ARMATURE
b
+VE

The voltage polarity applied to the field and Reversing a motor by this method would require
armature windings of any motor will determine a complex external circuit such as illustrated in
the motor ’s direction of rot ation (clockwise or the diagram. A simpler method is normally
counterclockwise). To reverse the rotation of a employed that provided a double field winding
dc motor containing an electromagnetic field the known as a SPLIT FIELD. A schematic diagram
polarity of the voltage applied to the field or the of the circuit for a S plit-field motor. Note that a
armature must be reversed. This will reverse separate circuit is provided for each field winding.
the magnetic field of one of the two coils and This makes it possible to change the direction
change an attractive force into a repulsive force of the motor at will, by placing the switch in the
(or vice versa); hence, reversing the motor ’s desired position. The motor is reversed by
rotation. changing field polarity in relation to the armature
polarity when the different field windings are
energised.
REVERSIBLE DC MOTOR WITH EXTERNAL SWITCHING

Reversible dc motors are controlled directly by The brush holders are inserted through openings
double-throw single-pole switches or indirectly at the end of the housing and are insulated from
by relays controlled by similar switches. The use the housing by composition bushings. Each
of relays is dictated by the amount of current brush assembly consists of the brush, a helical
which the motor draws while in operation. Any spring, a flexible connector inside the spring, and
motor requiring more than 20 to 30A will operate a metal contact. When a brush is installed in
more satisfactorily with a relay-controlled circuit. the motor, it is held in place by a screw plug.
The separate field coils of a reversible motor are

usually wound either in opposite directions on
the same poles or on alternate poles. Since the
field coils are in series with the armature, they
must be wound with wire of a size large enough
to carry the entire motor current.
INSULATED
BRUSH HOLDER
BRUSH
SPRING
CONNECTOR
METAL CONTACT
SCREW PLUG
CAP SCREW
BRUSH AND HOLDER ASSEMBLY FOR SMALL MOTORS
Remember that the entire load current passes On some light-duty dc motors the field coil is
through both the field and the armature. replaced by a permanent magnet. T o reverse
the rotation of this type of motor, one need only
The brushes in a reversible motor are usually reverse the polarity of the applied voltage. This
held in box-type holders in line with the centre of will reverse the magnetic field of the armature
the motor shaft. With this arrangement the (not the field), therefore the motor will reverse
brushes are perpendicular to a plane tangent to its direction of rotation. Permanent-magnet
the commutator at the point of brush contact and reversible motors are commonly used to power
the brushes will wear evenly regardless of the light aircraft flap systems.
direction of motor rotation. On small motors the
field and brush housing is sometimes made in
one piece.
Brakes
Many motor-driven devices used in aircraft must A disk-type brake, commonly used in actuator
be designed so that the operated mechanism motors, consists of a rotating disk mounted on
will stop at a precise point. For example, when the armature shaft and a cork-lined braking
landing gear is being retracted or extended, it surface on the stationary structure of the motor.
must stop instantly when the operation is A magnetising coil is used to release the brake
complete. when the motor is energised, and a spring
engages the brake when the current to the
If the driving motor is connected directly to the motor is turned off. A small amount of end play
operating mechanism, a great amount of strain is allowed in the armature assembly mounting
will be imposed on the motor when it is forced to provide clearance when the brake is released.
to stop because of the momentum of the When the brake coil is energised, the entire
armature and other moving parts. In installations armature assembly moves slightly in a direction
requiring an instantaneous stop, a clutch and which will move the brake disk away from the
brake mechanism is employed to prevent braking surface. When the current is turned off,
damage when the mechanism is stopped. a spring moves the assembly in the opposite
direction and the friction produced between
thebrake disc and the cork-lined brake surface
One type of brake mechanism for actuator causes the armature to stop very quickly.
motors is illustrated. This brake consists of a
drum mounted on the armature shaft and internal
brake shoes controlled by a magnetising coil.
The coil is placed inside the brake shoes, and
when the motor current is turned off, the coil is
de-energised and the brake shoes are forced
against the drum by spring pressure.
Conversely, when the power is turned on, the
coil pulls the brake shoes away from the drum.
BRAKE
SHOE
BRAKE
DRUM

Clutch Assemblies
Several types of clutch have been designed for This coil, when energised, magnetises a driving
the purpose of disengaging the motor from the disk attached to the armature shaft. A driven disk
load when the power is cut off. All such clutches is keyed to the output shaft, and when power is
are engaged by magnetic attraction when the turned on, this disk moves against spring
power is turned on and disengaged by spring pressure until it engages with the driving disk.
action. A typical magnetic clutch is shown. Two When the current is cut off, the driven disk is
clutch faces are located within the clutch coil. pulled away from the driving disk by the spring
One of the faces is mounted solidly on the and is pressed against the brake plate at the
armature shaft and the other is connected opposite face, thus causing the driven
through a diaphragm spring to the drive mechanism to stop immediately.
mechanism.
Motors subject to sudden heavy loads are
When the clutch coil is energised, the two faces usually equipped with overload release clutches.
are magnetised with opposite polarities, hence A clutch of this type is called a slip clutch, and
they are drawn together firmly. The friction thus its function is to disconnect the motor from the
produced causes the driven mechanism to turn driven mechanism when the load is great enough
with the motor. When the power is cut off, the to cause damage. This clutch consists of two
diaphragm spring separates the faces, thus groups of disks, alternately arranged, with one
disengaging the motor. group splined to the motor drive and the other
group splined to the motor-driven mechanism.
Some actuating motors are provided with a These disks are pressed together by one or
combination brake and clutch.A magnetising coil more springs designed to create sufficient
is located in the end of the motor housing as pressure to cause the disks to rotate as one unit
shown. when the load is normal. When the load
isexcessive, the disks slip, thus preventing
damage due to excessive torque.
ARMATURE
SHAFT
COIL DRIVING
DISK
SPRING
DRIVE
DRIVEN DISK

Magnetic Clutch
COIL
DIAPHRAGM
SPRING
BEARING
NEEDLE
BEARINGS
STUB SHAFT
ROTOR SHAFT
STUB CLUTCH
FACE
ROTOR CLUTCH
FACE

Limit Switches and Protective Devices
Because of the limited distance of travel Some actuating motors are provided with a
permitted in the driven mechanism, reversible thermal circuit breaker, or thermal protector, to
actuating motors are usually limited in their protect the motor from overload and excessive
amount of rotation in each direction. It is heat This device is mounted on the motor frame,
essential, therefore, that the motor circuits be and when heat reaches a predetermined limit,
provided with switches which will cut off the the circuit breaker will open and cut off the current
power when the driven mechanism has reached to the motor . After the motor has cooled
the limit of its travel. Switches of this type are sufficiently, the circuit breaker will automatically
called limit switches and are actuated by cams close, thus permitting normal operation.
or levers linked or geared to the driven
mechanism. The adjustment of these switches The diagram is a schematic diagram of a
is critical because severe damage may result if reversible motor circuit with a thermal protective
the motor continues to run after the limit of device and a coil for operating the clutch and
operation is reached. Stripped gears and broken brake. A circuit of the type shown would be used
shafts are often the result of improperly adjusted for operating APU doors, oil cooler shutter , air
limit switches. If the driven mechanism is strong valves, and a variety of other devices. Both the
enough to withstand the torque imposed by the limit switches shown are normally closed. Since
motor, the fuse or circuit breaker in the motor they open only when the motor has reached the
circuit will usually cut off the current to the motor. limit of travel in one direction or the other , it is
readily apparent that there will never be a time
Adjustment of the limit switches is accomplished when both switches are open together . Notice
by running the motor to the limit of travel ‘and that the thermal circuit breaker and the clutch
then adjusting the switch-actuating mechanism coil are both in the ground (negative) side of the
so that it has just opened the switch. The circuit and will therefore be in operation for either
switches should be adjusted to open slightly direction of travel.
before the extreme limit is reached.
LIMIT SWITCH
CW FIELD COIL
CW THERMAL CB
CCW CLUTCH
COIL ARM
CCW FIELD
LIMIT SWITCH COIL
+ -

DC Actuators
An exploded view of a typical dc actuator motor The field for the motor is provided by two poles
is shown. The principle sections of the motor formed to fit around the armature with a
assembly are the armature, the field coils and clearance of about 0.01 in (0.025 cm). The field
field frame, the brake assembly , and the coils are double-wound to provide for the
thermal-protector assembly. reversal of field polarity necessary to reverse the
motor rotation. Thermal protectors are
The armature is a standard drum type wound connected in the circuit for each field.
on a laminated soft-iron core. Also mounted on
the armature shaft is the commutator at one end The brake assembly consists of a coil, a brake
and the brake lining disk at the other. armature, and a brake lining mounted on the lining
disk on the motor armature. The brake armature
is a disk held in place by the motor studs, which
pass through slots on the outer periphery of the
armature, it is held against the brake lining of
the motor armature by a coil spring. This prevents
the motor from turning. When the motor is
energised, the magnetic brake coil draws the
brake armature away from the brake lining and
the motor is free to turn.
RED CW
THERMAL FIELD
PROTECTOR WINDING
ARMATURE
BLACK BRAKE COIL

CCW
WHITE

DC Actuator Construction
34 1
30 33 2
36 8 39
31 32
35 6
37
38 38
5 18
29 4
3
7
40 20
39
25 19
26
18
28
10 29
11
27 12
13
14
9 11
16
17
22
24
21
23
15
Exploded View of a DC Actuator Motor (21) motor assembly stud; (22) brake-coil
assembly; (23) base-registering pm; (24)
(1) Screw; (2) name plate; (3) brush retainer; motor-base assembly; (25) ball bearing; (26)
(4) brush assembly; (5) nut; (6) washer; (7) shim washer; (27) brake lining; (28) armature
shim washers; (8) motor cap; (9) brake assembly; (29) motor lead grommet; (30)
armature; (10) insulating sleeving; (11) spacer thermal-protector-case screw; (31) washer;
washer; (12) shim washer; (13) ball bearing; (32) thermal-protector retainer; (33) thermal
(14) shim washers; (15) motor assembly stud; protector; (34) thermal-protector case; (35)
(16) insulating sleeve; (17) wire; (18) brake thermal-protector gasket; (36) insulating
armature spring ; (19) brush connector; sleeving; (37) field-pole screw; (38) field pole;
(20) insulating sleeving; (39) field winding; (40) motor housing.

Summary of Speed Controls
The method is outlined in the circuit diagrams

which shows a tapped field winding and a four
position speed control switch. Moving the switch
from position 1 to position 2, connects the supply
to the complete field winding of N turns in series
with the armature winding. The diagram
represents this situation by showing a field of
resistance 4 ohms series with an armature of
resistance l ohm. For maximum power output,
the induced armature voltage always equals one
half of the supply voltage. Therefore, the current
through the motor is 3A and the power output
from the armature is 45W (3 x 15 = 45W). The
power output of the armature develops sufficient
shaft torque to rotate the load at a certain speed
(n rad/s) - the speed at which the shaft torque
and the load torque are in balance.
By moving the speed control switch to position

3, the number of turns in the field winding is
reduced along with its resistance, but for
maximum power output from the armature to
be maintained, the induced armature voltage
must remain at 15V . Therefore, the current
through the motor rises to 3.75A, however ,
despite this rise in field excitation current, the
magnetic field strength is reduced to 0.94H
because of the decreased number of turns. The
power output from the armature, nevertheless,
rises to 56.25W and hence the shaft torque is
increased. Thus the armature and the load
speed up to 1.25n rad/s in order to maintain the
induced armature voltage at 15V in a field of
reduced magnetic strength.
At speed control switch position 4, the number

of turns and the resistance of the field winding
are reduced still further. This further decreases
the strength of the magnetic field even although
the field excitation current rises to 5A.
However, the power output and the shaft torque

are increased, which in turn increases the speed
of the armature and the load to 1.66n rad/s.
To increase the speed of a series dc motor ,

DECREASE the field excitation.

Summary of Speed Controls
OFF SLOW - FAST

SOURCE ON/OFF SPEED 1 2 3 4
CONTROL SWITCH TAPPED FIELD WINDING
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
+30V
-15V M 45W
3A
0V
POSITION 2
0.94H
+30V
-15V M 56.25W
3.75A
0V
POSITION 3
0.84H
+30V
-15V M 5W
5A
0V
POSITION 4

Shunt Motor Speed Control
This method of speed control is similar to that

described for series motor speed control. The
circuit diagram shows a tapped field and a four
position speed control switch. For shunt motor
speed control, an extra contact is required to
connect the armature to the supply when the
motor is switched on.
For the purpose of comparison, the shunt motor

uses the same armature and produces the same
shaft torque at the same speeds as the series
motor. Once again we see that thespeed of the
motor is increased when the strength of the
magnetic field is decreased.

Shunt Motor Speed Control
SOURCE ON-OFF OFF SLOW - FAST

SPEED CONTROL 1 2 3 4
TAPPED FIELD WINDING
SWITCH
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
1.69A 0.11A
+30V
270 Ω
1.58A
1Ω
-28.4V M 45W
0V
POSITION 2
2.13A 0.13A 0.78H

+30V
230 Ω
2A
1Ω
-28V M 56.25W
0V
POSITION 3
0.56H
214 Ω
2.75A
1Ω
-27.3V M 75W
0V
POSITION 4

Examples of a Starter Generator Circuit
Example 1 Operation
Starter Generator Placing the master switch to on, opens the fuel
valve and energises the fuel pump relay allowing
A starter generator is a machine that utilises the the pump to run. It also allows a supply to pass
fact that there is very little difference in the to the start switch.
construction of a motor and a generator. So the
starter generator is used as a starter motor Placing the Battery/S tart switch to start,
during the engine start, then once the engine is energises the battery isolation relay and energise
up and running switches its role to act as a both the start and isolation relays.
generator. So the following circuit is an example
of how this can be achieved. The start relay closing takes a supply from the
bus bar through the Cut Out relay to the series
The starter circuit is an Engine Master Switch, winding of the Starter Generator.
Start Switch and relay that controls the operation
of fuel pumps, ignition circuits and supply the The starter motor now cranks the engine and
start circuit. Other relays provide hold on circuits the cut out relay energises that provides a hold
and isolation circuits. on circuit for the st art relay, ignition relay and
battery isolation relay. The start switch can now
be released.
The system is now controlled by the cut out relay

.
The generator is isolated at this point.
When the engine reaches self sustaining speed

the back EMF from the starter causes the cut
out relay to de-energise, removing the supply to
the series coil of the starter by de energising the
start relay.
It also de - energises the ignition and battery
isolation relays. This allows the battery to be
used if required.
The generator output now builds up due to the

residual magnetism of the shunt field. The
armature through the regulator increases the
field current to give an output of 28 volts dc for
connecting to the bus bar.
Connecting the generator output to the bus bar

would be through a typical generator switching
circuit. This would ensure that the output was
sufficient so as to prevent any reverse current
from the bus bar to the generator , causing the
generator to act as a motor.

82
BATTERY
BUS
A i r c r a f t
BAR
MASTER SW
ON FUEL
VALVE
OFF START CUT OUT
RELAY RELAY
START ON
Starter Generator Circuit
OFF
OUTPUT TO
BUS BAR AND
BATTERY VOLTAGE
RELAY
M a i n t e n a n c e
REGULATOR
START
28 SEPT 08 - ISSUE 2
OFF SERIES
HEIU FROM
MAIN COIL
BATTERY IGN VOLTAGE
B1 - ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
RELAY SHUNT REG
TO COIL
FUEL
L i c e n c e
BATTERY PUMPS
ISOLATE FUEL
RELAY PUMP STARTER/
RELAY GENERATOR
T r a i n i n g
MODULE 3.09-3.12
PART 66
Starter / Generator Circuit
Example 2 During engine starting, current flows through the

low-resistance series field and the armature; the
Starter-generators are designed to provide shunt field is de-energised. At this time the
torque for engine starting and generate dc starter-generator operates identical to a
electrical power for the aircraft’s electrical conventional starter motor. There is no engaging
systems. The starter-generator, previously mechanism required for engine starting since
illustrated, contains a self-excited four-pole the armature shaft is always connected to the
generator. Four interpoles and a compensation engine drive gear through the friction clutch.
winding are used to help overcome armature
reaction. An integral fan is used to draw air
through the unit during rotation. The cooling air
is required to maintain temperature limits during
high power generation. A clutch damper is
employed to connect the armature to the starter-
generator’s drive shaf t. This clutch provides
friction damping of any torsional loads which may
be applied to the armature during operation.
Changes in torsional loads occur whenever the
aircraft’s electrical equipment is turned on or off.
If the armature is connected directly to the
engine, without a clutch, the torsional loads may
overstress the drive shaft and cause generator
failure.
28V DC (LEFT) GENERAL BUSBAR
LEFT BATTERY
CONNECTOR
28V DC LEFT
(LEFT) CURRENT
BATTERY TRANSFORMER
BUSBAR
LEFT BATTERY AIR INTAKE
OVERHEAT CIRCUIT HEATING
LEFT TO
MAIN LEFT
BATTERY LEFT CDU
STARTER LEFT LINE
CONTACTOR CONTACTOR
SERIES
S
STARTER/ H ARM
GENERATOR U
LEFT ENGINE N COMP
T
INTERPOLE
TO LEFT STARTER
CONTACTOR

Rotary Transformer
This is a single machine combining the functions The power input to the motor is:
of dc motor and dc generator - the motor part in
effect ‘driving’ the generator part. It has a single 24V x 7A = 168 Watts
field system and an armature on which the motor
and generator windings are wound separately. The power output is: 1200V x 100mA= 120 Watts
On supplying the dc input, the armature rotates Thus, in the conversion of energy some 48 watts
and the voltage induced in the generator windings have been lost and this machine has nothing
is converted to dc by the commutator and like the efficiency of a st atic transformer .
applied to the external circuit as the dc output. Machines of this type were commonly used in
aircraft to provide the necessary operating
It is possible to ‘step up’ or transform the dc input voltages for electronic and radio equipment.
voltage to a higher value in this way by choosing
the motor and generator windings correctly ,
hence the term ‘ rotary transformer’. For
example, a typical rotary transformer operates
from a 24V dc input at 7 amps and gives a dc
output of 1200V at 100mA.
FIELD COIL
POLE PIECE
BRUSH BRUSH
ARMATURE
DC INPUT DC
VOLTAGE CONTAINS BOTH MOTOR OUTPUT
AND GENERATOR WINDINGS
BRUSH BRUSH
GENERATOR
COMMUTATOR
MOTOR COMMUTATOR

For Your Notes

Part 66 - Module 3 - Electrical Fundamentals - Book 4 of 4
These notes have been prepared by British

Airways Engineering Training to provide a source
The information presented is as correct as

possible at the time of printing and is not subject
They will be useful to you during your training,

but I must emphasise that the appropriate
Approved Technical Publications must always be
used when you are actually working on the
aircraft.
I trust your stay with us will be informative and

enjoyable.
CONSTANCE KEENAN

AC Generators
Objectives Introduction
When you have completed this section you will We have discussed dc generators in a previous
be able to: section of these notes, let’ s take a look at ac
generators used on aircraft.
• Identify the basic differences between ac
and dc generators, An ac generator can also be referred to as an
alternator, this is usually to prevent confusion
• Describe what is meant by the term when an aircraft is fitted with both dc and ac
‘synchronous alternator’, generators.
• Use Fleming’s right hand rule on either a As the name implies, the ac generator produces
rotating armature alternator or a rot ating an alternating current which can be either a
field alternator, single phase or a three phase output.
• Explain the difference between a rotor and The prime mover is normally the aircraft engine
a stator in an alternator, directly via the engine gearbox or via a Const ant
Speed Drive (CSD). The generator output can
• State which type of alternator, the rotating be used for electrical anti-icing or de-icing or
armature or the rotating field, is normally even the main electrical power source.Another
used in aircraft systems, prime mover can be a dc motor as in the rotary
invertor. We will cover these systems later.
• Describe the purpose of the slip rings in
the rotating armature and the rotating field
alternators,
• List three factors that control the volta ge

of an alternator,
• List two factors that control the

alternator’s frequency and be able to
calculate the frequency using these two
factors,
• Use a simple drawing to describe the effect

of armature reaction in an alternator with
a resistive load, an inductive load and a
capacitive load,
PART 66 ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

MODULES 3.13 - 3.18 SEPTEMBER 08 - ISSUE 2 77
AC Generators
AC Generator Principle
A simple loop rotated in a magnetic field has an

alternating emf induced in it. W e saw this with
dc generator principles earlier . You will
remember that we used a commutator to convert
the generator alternating emf into a dc output.
The operation of all electrical generators

depends action of a conductor being cut by a
magnetic field. as there is relative motion
between a conductor and a magnetic field an
emf is induced in the conductor.
With a dc generator it is always the armature,

(the conductors), that is rotated. In the alternator
this is normally reversed, the conductors are
stationary and the magnetic field is rotated.
We will be discussing two basic types of

alternator, the:
• Rotating armature type,

• Rotating field type
Some of the advantages of the rotating field type

are:
• The rotating field is an electromagnet fed

with direct current, this excit ation current
is much smaller than the output current so
the slip rings are smaller than would be
necessary for the output current.
• More efficient cooling is achieved on the

stationary output windings allowing higher
loads to be carried.
• With a greater current the output windings

must also be larger; stationary conductors
are not subject to centrifugal forces.
ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS PART 66

78 SEPTEMBER 08 - ISSUE 2 MODULES 3.13 - 3.18
AC Generators
Synchronous Alternators Simple AC Generator
Aircraft alternators are sometimes referred to as We have already considered the simple ac
synchronous alternators. This only means that generator when we studied the basic dc
the frequency is synchronised to the rotational generator, rot ating a coil in a magnetic field
speed of the rotor , or the rotor magnetic field produced an alternating emf.The same relative
rotates at the same speed as the rotor. (It does motion can be produced by rot ating the
not slip). magnetic field while the coil (output winding)
remains stationary.
Fleming’s R/H Rule for Generators
This relative motion is shown below; both (a)
• First finger points in direction of field (north with stationary magnet and moving coil, and (b)
to south) external of magnets with rotating magnet and stationary coil, produce
the same output as shown in (c). Use Fleming’ s
• Second finger points in direction of current right hand to confirm this statement. Note that
flow. (Conventional current applies) in (b) it is relative motion of the conductors that
must be considered.
• Thumb point s in direction of motion i.e.
rotation Rotor/Stator
The terms rotor and stator apply to ac machines

where the rotor is the assembly that is rot ated
while the stationary section is the ‘stator ’. In a
later section we shall consider the st ator
construction in more detail.
S N S N
(a) (b)
0 π 2 π
(c)
RELATIVE MOTION

AC Generators
Alternator Types Rotating Armature Alternator
There are two basic types of alternator , the Below is a schematic diagram of a rot ating
rotating armature type and the rotating field type. armature alternator.
The rot ating armature type is similar in
construction to a dc generator , the armature The rotating armature cut s the magnetic field
rotates through a steady magnetic field. The and produces an alternating emf in the armature
rotating field type has st ationary armature windings.
windings and a rotating field.
The main load current is carried by the slip rings.
The advantages of the rotating field type will be
seen as we progress. This type of alternator is not normally used on
aircraft systems.
DC
EXCITER
AC OUTPUT
MAGNETIC
WINDINGS
FIELD
N S
AC
OUTPUT
ROTATING ARMATURE ALTERNATOR

AC Generators
Rotating Field Alternator The field is rot ated and cut s the st ationary
windings. An alternating emf is produced in the
The rotating field or fields do not change their stator windings.
flux direction with respect to the rotor. Below is
a schematic diagram of a rotating field alternator. The slip rings only carry the field supply which
is the smaller dc voltage and current.
The rotating magnetic field can be:
This type of alternator is used on some aircraft
A permanent magnet, this would only allow a systems.
very small volt age output as in a tachometer
indicator.
DC wound coils, as in a majority of aircraft ac

generators (alternators). The basic ac generator
therefore cannot be a true self-excited generator.
It requires a separate dc power source, normally
incorporated within the generator it self and
called the Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG).
AC
OUTPUT
MAGNETIC
AC OUTPUT
FIELD
WINDINGS
DC
EXCITER
ROTATING FIELD ALTERNATOR

Recap
Voltage Frequency
From previous study we know that the faster a The frequency of the alternating output of a
conductor is cut with a magnetic field the higher generator is directly proportional to the rotational
is the induced emf. So we can st ate that the speed of the rotor. The faster the rotor turns the
voltage is proportional to the speed; increasing higher the frequency.
the rot ational speed of the rotor will increase
the induced emf. The number of pairs of rotating poles will also
affect frequency , we can see this in these
Yet another method of increasing the output daigrams.
voltage is to increase the number of rotor
windings.
The third method of increasing the voltage is to

increase the rotating magnetic field strength.
1 CYCLE
EMF
TIME
N S N
S N N S
S N S
ONE PAIR OF POLES

Rectification
Since one of the main purposes of the alternator These forms of rectifier can be damaged by:-
is to keep the battery charged, it is necessary to
change the output from an alternating form to a 1. The application of too high a volt age in
direct form. This process is called rectification the conducting or ‘forward’ direction. This
and involves the use of a device which will a pss causes too much current to flow and overheats
current in one direction only . The rectifier can the diode, destroying it.
be compared to a non-return valve in a hydraulic
system. 2. The application of too high a volt age in
the non-conducting or ‘reverse’ direction. This
The early rectifiers used were “met al” types causes the diode to rupture or break down and
consisting of a series of plates coated with again destroys it.
copper oxide or selenium and arranged in st
acks
with air spaces between each plate. 3. Overheating, which results in the current
flow increasing cat astrophically, completely
As can be seen from the typical assembly destroying the diode.
shown, these rectifiers were large and had to
be mounted separately from the alternator in a All these failures can happen very quickly and
position where there was a good flow of clean, without any change in the external appearance
cooling air available. They were dif ficult to of the diode.
protect from water, salt and dirt.
However, if reasonable care is t aken when
The modern semi-conductor rectifier , is much working with these component s, they are
smaller and can be mounted as an integral part mechanically robust, reliable and have a long
of an alternator. operating life.
The common symbol used to represent all

rectifiers is shown, botom.
SEMI-CONTUCTOR
RECTIFIER
PLATE TYPE RECTIFIER
COMMON RECTIFIER
SYMBOL

Rectification
The simplest form of rectifier circuit is the “half

wave” connection as shown. When an
alternating voltage is applied to the rectifier , it
conducts for only one half of the alternating cycle
and the output is pulsating D.C.
HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION
This is an inef ficient method of rectification as

only one half cycle provides useful power. It is
usual, therefore, to employ what is termed “full
wave” rectification, the “bridge” system being
most commonly used with alternators. Fig.
illustrates a single phase circuit, the arrows
indicate the direction of the current flow through
the diodes and show that it is always in the same
direction through the load. Most alternators
employ a three phase system but the principle
is the same as that shown.
FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION

The Pratical Alternator (Brush Type)
Construction Basically an alternator is made up of the

following component parts:-
The general construction of a typical example
is shown and apart from minor dif ferences in I. Cooling fan.
the mounting arrangement s and physical
appearance, all alternators follow the same 2. Brushes.
general pattern. The individual components will
now be considered in more detail. 3. Slip rings
4. A rectifier assembly.
5. Diodes.
A & D. End frames.
B. Rotating electro-magnet, the ROTOR
C. Stationary winding assembly, the STATOR

The Stator Assembly
The st ator is composed of a cylindrical,

laminated iron core, with three sets of windings
inserted in slots on the inside. A typical assembly
is illustrated

The stator windings are arranged in such a way As previously discussed, although the
that a separate alternating current waveform is alternating current could be used for lighting or
induced in each winding as the rotating magnetic heating, it is necessary to provide direct current
field cut s it. The windings can be connected to charge the battery hence a rectifier assembly
either as shown below (“Y” or “Star”) or opposite is required.
(“Delta” connected). Whichever system is used, In the modern alternator this is incorporated as
the resultant three phase output waveform is the an integral part of the construction and a typical
same. assembly is illustrated. Six diodes are needed,
they are connected as shown when a ‘S tar’
connected stator is used and as shown for a
‘Delta’ connected stator. The operation of both
systems is identical and results in a D.C. output
to the battery.
CURRENT FLOW WHEN PHASE G 6 3

A B +
F1 A IS POSITIVE WITH RESPECT
TO PHASE C 4 1
B
2 5
- +
LOAD
C
6 3
A CURRENT FLOW WHEN PHASE G B
F1 +
B IS POSITIVE WITH RESPECT
TO PHASE A 4 1
B
2 5
- +
LOAD
C
CURRENT FLOW WHEN PHASE 6 3
A G B +
F1 C IS POSITIVE WITH RESPECT
TO PHASE B 4 1
B
2 5
- +
LOAD
The Rotor Assembly
This is usually an electro-magnet and a

common form of construction is illustrated
below. It consist s of a coil wound on an
iron core, pressed on a shaf t. When
current is p assed through the winding, it
establishes a north and south pole at the
ends of the iron core and shaf t. An iron
segment is fastened on each side of the
coil assembly so that the projections FIELD COIL
interlace. These projections then take on
IRON ‘POLE PIECE’
the same polarity as the end of the shaft SEGMENTS
on which they are mounted, thus forming
pairs of north and south poles around the COIL
rotor circumference as illustrated. WIRES
CARBON
BRUSHES
The rotor rotates within the stator leaving S
a very small air gap between the two in
order that as much of the rotor magnetic
field as possible cut s the stator windings SHAFT
and the maximum possible current is
induced in the windings.
N
As illustrated, the ends of the rotor coil are
connected to insulated slip rings mounted SLIP RINGS
on the shaf t. A current is supplied from
the battery through the brushes and slip
rings, to energise the rotor winding and
hence produce the magnetic field.
MAGNETIC
FIELD
COIL WIRES
CURRENT

In order to handle the power it is essential that A fan mounted on the front end of the shaf t
the operating temperature of the diodes is kept ensures that there is a flow of cooling air at all
below a certain level. To achieve this, they are times. It should be noted that the machine will
mounted in a piece of met al which is a good probably overheat if operated without the fan.
conductor of heat and is known as the “heat
sink”. It is important that no attempt is ever made
to operate the rectifiers out of their “heat sink”
as this would result in their being destroyed.
F1
6 3
C A CURRENT FLOW WHEN PHASE G B +
B A IS POSITIVE WITH RESPECT
TO PHASE C 4 1
2 5
- +
LOAD
F1
6 3
C A CURRENT FLOW WHEN PHASE G B +
B B IS POSITIVE WITH RESPECT
TO PHASE A 4 1
2 5
- +
LOAD
F1
CURRENT FLOW WHEN PHASE 6 3

C A G B +
B
C IS POSITIVE WITH RESPECT
TO PHASE B 4 1
2 5
- +
LOAD
Single Phase, Two Pole A.C. Generator
The diagram below shows the arrangement of

a two pole ‘single phase’ a.c. generator of the
rotating field type; The stator windings consist
of five coils connected in series and inserted in
slots cut in the inner surface of the laminated
stator. The rotor is driven by a prime mover , and
carries the exciter field windings which are fed
from a d.c. source, via a p air of slip rings and
(b) shows the circuit arrangement.
STATOR
START OF
WINDING
ROTOR COIL SLOT

N
EXCITER
FIELD
SLIP
RINGS
FINISH OF
WINDING
(a) EXCITER
FIELD
COILS E
DC OUTPUT
1-5
ROTOR
STATOR
(b)

The emf’s generated in each coil complete one

cycle as it is passed by a p air of poles and (a)
shows how the voltage varies for one complete
revolution of a two pole rotor . AC. generators
can however have more than one pair of poles
and (b) shows the effect of using an 8 pole rotor.
In one revolution of this rotor the emf will
complete four cycles.
N
N S S
N N
S
S S
N
THROUGH COIL
2 POLE 8 POLE
360° MECH 360° MECH

360° ELEC 1440° ELEC
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
(a) (b)

Frequency
The frequency of the alternating volt age Since the number of poles are constant for a
generated will depend upon: particular generator then clearly the frequency
is dependent on the speed only and this speed
1 The number of poles. is termed “synchronous speed”; it is the speed
2 The speed of rotation of the rotor. at which the generator must be run to generate
the required frequency.
Thus for every 2 poles, (N and S), 1 cycle is
generated, therefore, frequency (f) = NSyn = f X 120rev/min
P
P N
2 x
60
where P = number of poles

N = revolutions per minute
Example; Find the frequency of an alternator

fitted with a four pole rotor which is
driven at 1500 rev/mm.
PN 4x1500
2x60 = 120 = 50Hz

Two Pole, Two Phase AC. Generator
If a second group of coils is inserted in the st ator The amount of power available from a finite
at right angles (90 ) to the first group, the rotating
0
quantity of copper and iron, used together with
magnetic field will induce an emf in these rotation to construct an a.c. generator , can be
windings also. This emf will have the same optimised by employing a good design. If the
waveform, frequency, and amplitude as that output is single phase, the power is delivered to
developed in the first winding, but will dif fer in the load in pulses; two pulses per cycle. Two
phase by 90 0 as shown. This arrangement phase generators deliver four pulses per cycle
represents a two phase machine which can and three phase machines deliver six. Thus,
deliver more power than the single phase over any period of time, a polyphase supply will
generator with no increase in physical size. transmit a more evenly distributed power ,
resulting in more ef ficient operation of the
system.
+ EMF 90°
A B
A
S N B
0° 90° 180° 270° 360°
S
- EMF

Two Pole, Three Phase A.C. Generator
The three phase generator, as the name implies, The advantage of a polyphase generator can
has three single phase windings spaced so that be appreciated if we refer back to the single
the voltage induced in any one is displaced by phase generator waveform. As can be seen,
1200 from the other two. The diagram illustrates voltage is supplied to a load in half wave pulses
the position of the rotor relative to the three hence, current will flow in like manner , being
separate set s of windings and the volt age reduced to zero every half cycle, thus the power
waveforms generated across each phase which demanded from the prime mover will be in similar
are identified as RED, YELLOW, BLUE or A, B, manner. This pulsing present s problems in
C respectively. The three phase generator is maintaining the speed of the prime mover and
essentially three single phase generators hence frequency . With the three phase
contained in one machine, the generated emf’s generator however , because of the phase
are out of phase by 1200, and the three outputs differences, the power demanded from the prime
are electrically independent of each other. Each mover is almost constant over each revolution,
phase could be made to supply its own single thus giving good frequency stability.
phase load when the total output power would
be more than that of a single phase machine. The advantages of the three phase generator
can be summarised as follows: -
1. For a given size the power rating of an

a.c. generator increases with the number of
phases.
2. The 12R loss for a given power transmitted

and line volts drop are both less than if the same
power was transmitted from a single phase.
3. Load drawn from the generator is at a

uniform rate, not pulsing as in single phase.
A B C
+V
A B
N
0
S
-V
C

Interconnection of Phases.
There are two methods of connecting the stator Delta Connection. These three phase windings
windings of a.c. generators: are connected in series to form a MESH as
shown botom, the Finish of one winding being
1 “star” or A connected to the S tart of the next. This
2 “delta” or A configuration produces larger line currents. Both
types of connection are in common use and will
Star Connection. It is st andard practice to be discussed later.
identify the two ends of each phase as the
START and FINISH (S and F). The diagram
below shows how a STAR configuration is
achieved, by connecting the S tarts of each
phase to a common point and providing the three
phase output from the Finishes at terminals L1,
L2 & L3. This produces larger line volt
ages than
the delta configuration.
L1
F
RED L1 L2 L3
S S +
YELLOW
-
S
F
BLUE
L3 F L2
STAR WOUND
L2
S F
RED YELLOW
F S
L1 BLUE L3
S F
DELTA WOUND

Star Connections
If the voltage is to remain constant at all loadings

then some form of automatic regulator must be
fitted in the exciter field circuit, which will vary
the field current to provide the required flux,
since;
E ∝ Φ N is ‘synchronous’ (i.e. constant).
This diagram shows the circuit of a three phase
star connected a.c. generator supplying a st ar
connected load.
A L1 LINE
PHASE VOLTS LINE VOLTS

STAR e1 VP VL LOAD
POINT
A NEUTRAL
C
B e2
e3
L2 LINE
C B
L3 LINE

Star Connections
By connecting together the starts (or the finishes) phase current.

of the windings on the alternator as a common We notice the following important points from
point, a star connected circuit is obtained. The the phasor diagram :
common point of the three windings is called (a) the line voltages are 120° apart,
the neutral or star point, and the line joining the (b) the line voltages are 30° ahead of the
common point of the star connected loads to phase voltages,
this point is the neutral line. (c) the angle between the line currents and
the corresponding line volt ages
Let e1 , e2 and e3 be the phase voltages and let (30°±θ )
i1, i 2 and i 3 be the respective phase currents . is lagging for +θ , leading for -θ .
The voltage between any pair of lines is equal
to the phasor dif ference between two of the Example. ‘What is the line voltage on a system
phase volt ages. Let the phase volt ages be where the phase voltage is 240 V?
represented by the 120 0 sp aced phasors V p
shown opposite. VL = 3VP = 1.732 x 240 = 415V
Then the line voltages are represented by the It may have occurred to you that the neutral line
sides of the equilateral triangle and the neutral is unnecessary if the loads are exactly balanced.
point is at the centre of the triangle. The line-to- For since the line current is equal to the phase
neutral voltage has a horizontal projection, current, the three currents meeting
3
VP Cos 30° or VP volts
2
Since the base length is the sum of two such

projections it follows that;
3
VL = 2VP 2 = 3VP
So the line voltages are equal to 3 times the
phase voltage. Also, the line current equals the
VL VP VL
N
VP VP
30° VL
VP COS 30°
3VP
Delta Connection
Connection of coil termination’s A to B’, B to C’ Then since

and C toA’ results in the alternative form of three-
phase connection shown in Figure 17c. This is I 1 = I 2 = I 3 = I L, the line current
the delta or mesh connection. Here again the
load is assumed to be balanced and this time
there is no neutral point or neutral line. The
I 1 = i 1 − i 2 = 2I p cos 30
voltage between any pair of lines VL is this time
equal to the volt age across a phase of the I 1 = 2 Ip
3
= 3 I p and
2
alternator, VP hence VL = VP
similarly for I 1 and I 2
The line current s are each made up of two
components, one flowing to the load and one So line currents are equal to 3 times the phase
flowing from the load. So, for a situation that is current. As for the star connection, you should
very similar to that for line volt ages in st ar make note of the following points:
connection, the line current equals the phasor
difference between two of the phase current s. (a) the line currents are 120° apart,
(b) the line current s are 30° lagging of the
phase currents,
(c) the angle between the line current s and
the corresponding line voltages is (30°±θ )
I1 = i1 - i2
A B’
i1
LOAD
VL = VP
e1 e2
i2
e3
A’ B
C i3 C’
I2 = i2 - i3
I3 = i3 - i1

Power in a 3 Phase System
Power in a three phase system must equal the The Delta System
sum of the individual phase power values, (Red, IL
Yellow, and Blue Phases). This can be If IL = √3 IP Then IP =
expressed as: √3
Also VP = VL
Power = VRIR Cos θR+VYIY Cos θY+VBIB Cos θB
Substituting into the original equation, the
Unbalanced Loads statement will now read:
If the three phases are not equally loaded, the Power = 3 x VL x IL x Cos θ
calculation must be as above. √3
Balanced Loads
Note again 3 x 1 = √3
If the three phases are equally loaded, the 1 √3
calculation can be simplified to read:
∴ Power =√3 xVL x IL x Cos θ or
Power = 3xVPIP Cos θ
1.732 VLIL Cos θ
Consider this in the context of (a) a star wound
system and (b) a delta wound system.
The Star System

VL
If VL = √3VP then VP =
√3
Also IP = IL
Substituting these transposed features into the

original on the statement now becomes:
Power = 3x VL IL Cos θ
√3
Note 3 x 1 = √3
1 √3
∴ Power =√3 xVL x IL x Cos θ or
1.732 VLIL Cos θ

AC Generators - Effects of Applied Loads
Resistive Loads
The main effect is a tendency for the speed to

reduce.
Increased Real Load
To maintain constant speed and frequency it is

necessary for the prime-mover to supply more
driving torque to the generator shaft,
Explanation
Increased real load increases theIR drop in the

stator windings, causing a slight loss of voltage
which is easily regained in practice by a small
increase in field excitation.
The main ef fect is a tendency for speed to
reduce. The field distortion created by the
combination of rotor and st ator fields
concentrates the flux at the trailing edge of the
rotating pole piece. By resolving flux line 0-B
into two components, 0-A and A-B, it can be seen
that the latter , which is proportional to load
current, represents a torque acting in opposition
to the shaft input torque.
STATOR
B A
O
N
DIRECTION
OF
ROTATION

Reactive Loads Capacitive Reactive Load
Inductive Reactive Load Maximum cap acitive current flows when the
generated emf is zero, but this time current leads
Maximum inductive current, lagging voltage by voltage by 90°. It can be seen that the st ator
90°, flows when the generated emf is zero. It and rotor fields are additive and the volt age
can be seen that the stator field is directly output tends to rise. On sensing this, the volt
age
opposing the rotor field. This results in a regulator reduces excitation in order to maintain
considerable loss of field strength which, in constant voltage. There is no effect on torque.
practice, is made up by increased field excit
ation
as the voltage regulator senses a falling volt
age.
There is no effect on torque, but the increased
rotor current produces extra heat which must
be dissipated
ROTOR POSITION FOR

R MAX. EMF FOR RED R ROTOR POSITION FOR
PHASE MAX. EMF FOR RED
PHASE
Y1 B1
N Y1 B1
S
N S N S
S S N N
STATOR
S FIELD
N STATOR
B
Y B FIELD
Y
ROTOR POSITION
R1 WHEN MAX. INDUCTIVE
CURRENT FLOWS IN R1 ROTOR POSITION WHEN
RED PHASE MAX. CAPACITIVE
CURRENT FLOWS IN RED
INDUCTIVE REACTIVE LOAD PHASE
CAPACITIVE REACTIVE LOAD

Power Factor Note: The purpose of rating being to

ensure that the generator is not
Power factor is a convenient way of describing overheated when operated into a
the nature of an ac generators load circuit, (i.e. given load circuit, whether
ratio of resistance to impedance) continuously or intermittently , at it s
maximum real load.
Power factor (Cos ø) = R
Z
Where ø is the phase angle
Power factor also identifies that proportion of

Apparent Power, available from an ac generator,
which does the useful (REAL) work of pumping
fuel, heating meals etc.
Real Power = Apparent Power x Power Factor
(Kilowatts) = ( Kilo-volt-amps) (Cos ø)
Typically, an air-cooled, ac generator is rated at

4OKVA into a load circuit whose power factor
should be between 0.75 lagging and 0.9 leading.
pf = 0 LEADING
TERMINAL
VOLTAGE
pf = 1
pf = 0.8 LAGGING
pf = 0 LAGGING
LOAD CURRENT
EFFECTS OF LOAD POWER FACTOR ON THE TERMINAL

VOLTAGE OF AN AC GENERATOR

AC Generators - Field Excitation
Various methods can be used for providing The development of practical semi-conductor
excitation of the field windings but they all (silicon) rectifiers has made possible the design
depend upon dc excit ation to produce a uni- of a 3 Phase brushless ac generator . In these
directional field. The methods include: the commutator, slip rings and brush gear are
replaced by an ac exciter and rotating full wave
• separate excitation from the dc bus rectifier bridge assembly. Initial excitation supply
system can be obt ained by rectifying the output of an
• using an inbuilt or integral dc exciter integral Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG).
• using the rectified output from an integral
ac exciter As the performance of silicon rectifers is critically
affected by high temperatures the rot ating
The disadvantages associated with separately rectifiers on the rotor assembly are mounted in
excited and integral dc exciters are heat sinks and the rotor assembly temperature
must be maint ained below a specific value by
• dependency of generator on dc supply an efficient cooling system.
from a separate dc source.
• problems associated with the commutator
and brush gear of a dc exciter.

The generator is driven from the engine at 8000 rev/mm and the PMG (Permanent
Magnet Generator) delivers 120 volts at 800 Hz to the PMG rectifier unit.
This consists of a full wave three phase rectifier bridge the output of which is 28 V
d.c. and this is fed via the voltage regulator panel to the primary exciter field.
The primary exciter field will induce into the three phase star connected rotor
winding, an a.c. which will be rectified by shaft mounted diodes and finally fed to the
main exciter field.
The Brushless AC Generator
The permanent magnets provide initial excitation The resultant DC is fed to the main rotating field.
for the three phase exciter armature whose Voltages induced in the output winding of the
output is rectified by the shaf t mounted silicon stator are fed to the bus bars and the volta ge
rectifiers. regulator. The latter senses the value of output
voltage and controls the exciter field current so
that the required output voltage is obtained.
TO BUS BAR
VOLTAGE
REG
STABILITY
WINDING
ROTOR 8000 RPM T3 T2 T1
N S
S N
3Ø EXCITER
ARMETURE SILICON
300 Hz RECTIFIERS
6 POLE 6 POLE
EXCITER FIELD MAIN FIELD T6 T5 T4
THERMISTOR
BRUSHLESS AC GENERATOR SCHEMATIC

The Brushless AC Generator
BRUSHLESS AC GENERATOR

Constant Frequency AC Systems
Most modern civil aircraf t use generators

operating at constant frequency because:
• the generators may be operated in parallel
• it is suitable for a wider range of load than

a variable frequency supply
• generator loading does not vary with

engine speed
• loads may be designed for optimum

efficiency at the chosen frequency
• induction motors (e.g. fuel pump s, gyro

motors etc.) operate at almost constant
speed.


Alternating Current Machines
Broadly speaking this subject would normally Most large ac motors do not have commut ators;
cover ac Generators and ac Motors. However , some do not even have slip rings. Because of
in some respect s, it is more appropriate to this they give far less trouble in operation than
consider ac Generators within the context of ac dc motors. AC motors are also suit able as
Generation Systems and therefore only ac constant speed motors, since their speed is
Motors will be covered in this section. determined by the frequency of the ac supply .
This speed characteristic is true for the majority
AC Motors of ac motors, but it is not true for the Series Motor
which has a characteristic similar to that of a dc
In aircraf t employing constant-frequency Series Motor and is of a Variable Speed type.
alternating current either as the primary or
secondary source of electrical power , it is of AC motors may be operated from single-phase
course logical to utilise ac motors and although or polyphase supplies; the basic principles of
they do not always serve as a complete operation are the same for both inputs.
substitute for dc machines, the advantages and
special operating characteristics of certain types The synchronous and induction types of ac
are applied to a number of systems which rely motor work on the principle that ac applied to
upon mechanical energy from an electromotive the st ator produces a rot ating magnetic field
power source. which causes the rotor of the machine to turn in
sympathy with the field.
There are three main types of ac motor - the
synchronous motor, the induction motor and the As the production of this rotating magnetic field
series or commut ator motor . Of these, the is fundamental to the operation of the majority
induction motor is the commonest on aircraft and of ac motors, this topic will be det
ailed, for single
in industry; the commut ator motor is the and multiphase machines.
commonest in the home.
Since the Synchronous Motor suf fers from a

significant design disadvantage in that it cannot
be self-starting, a compound type of motor is
often encountered which utilise the best
characteristics of the Synchronous and Induction
Motors in the one unit.
Also included in this section are the Hysteresis

Motor and the shaded Pole Motor.

For Your Notes

Production of Rotating Field Further note the two flux paths B1 to C1 and C to
B are the lines of least reluctance, and the two
A rotating magnetic field may be produced by paths magnetically form a single resultant axis,
applying a three-phase supply to a three-phase with which any permeable material located within
stator. The field produced is of unvarying its sphere of influence would tend to align.
strength and its speed of rotation depends upon
the frequency of the supply. Developing the same procedure throughout the
diagram shows how the magnetic fields add to
The diagram below lef t shows a typical three- give a result ant magnetic field which
phase stator. The two windings in each phase continuously shif ts in direction. After one
(e.g. A and A1) are connected in series and are complete cycle of ac input, the result ant
so wound that current flowing through the two magnetic field has shifted through 360 °, or one
windings produces an N pole at one of them revolution. Thus although the coils are stationary,
and an S pole at the other . Thus, if current is the application of three-phase ac produces a
flowing in theA phase in the direction from theA magnetic field that rotates at the frequency of
to the A1 terminals, pole-piece A becomes an N the supply.
pole and A1 an S pole.
In operation, the three-phase stator is connected

in delta as shown below right, so that only three
terminals, each common to two of the windings,
are provided for the three-phase ac input.
3 C1 A
PHASE
At any instant the magnetic field generated by SUPPLY
one p articular phase is proportional to the
current in that phase; as the current alternates, C A1
so does the magnetic field. Since the current s

in the three phases are 120 ° out of phase with
each other, the three magnetic fields will also B1 B
alternate 120° out of phase with each other and
the resultant magnetic field is the vector sum of
these three.
A
From earlier studies of Magnetism it will be C1

remembered that the flux p ath follows the line
of least reluctance. In this it is of course B1
analogous of an electrical circuit.
A
In the context of an electrical motor it is B1 C1
specifically not the case that this line of least C B

reluctance coincides with the polarity of the two A1
halves of given phase winding. On the diagram
right, note that at Position 1, PhaseA of the input C
supply is inactive. Phases B and C are both
providing an output. B
A1

The development of this rotating field is detailed The current in C is now zero,A is positive and B
in the following paragraphs. is negative. The result ant magnetic field is
produced in the same way as described above.
At position 1, the current in theA phase is zero, The other positions show the conditions at
as shown by the graph; the current in the C intervals of 600.
phase is positive and flows in the direction C to
C1; that in the B phase is negative and flows in Thus the magnetic field rotates one complete
the direction B 1 to B. Equal current s therefore revolution (in a clockwise direction in this case)
flow in opposite directions through the B and C during one complete cycle of the three-phase
windings and magnetic poles are established as supply. It is therefore in time with, or
shown. (The polarity may be checked using the synchronous with, the ac input. An input
diagram on page 40). B is an S pole and B 1 an frequency of 50 c/s produces a field rotating at
N pole; C is an N pole and C 1
an S pole. Magnetic 50 revolutions per second, i.e. at 3000 rpm.
lines of flux take the shortest path between poles
so that lines leaving B1 (an N pole) go to C1 (an
The synchronous speed of a motor is
S pole); similarly for C and B. Since the magnetic
determined by the number of poles for which
fields of the B and C phases are equal in the stator is wound, and the frequency of the
power supply . This synchronous speed is
amplitude (equal currents), the resultant field lies
in the direction shown by the arrow. calculated by:
60 x F = synchronous Speed
Position 2 shows the condition when the supply P
cycle has advanced 60 .
0
where F = Supply Frequency in Hertz
RESULTANT P = Number of Pairs of Poles
FIELD
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
A A A A
B1 O C1 B1 N C1 B1 B1 O C1
N S
S C1
O N S O N S
N S S O N N S
O
O B A A A
C C S
B C N B C O B
A1 B1 N C1 B1 O C1 B1 S C1
N O A1 S A1 A1
N O S
O S S N N O
C S
B C O B C N
B
A1 A1 A1
POSITION 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
C
C
+
PHASES
THREE
PHASE A
A
INPUT
CURRENTS
-
B
B
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

The Synchronous Motor If the rotor is energised with dc it acts like a bar
magnet and will therefore try to line self
it up with
The a.c. generator , like the dc generator, is a the magnetic field produced by the stator. In the
reversible machine; if supplied with electrical synchronous motor the three-phase st ator is
energy, it runs as a motor . Thus synchronous supplied with three-phase ac and hence
motors have the same construction as rotating- produces a rotating magnetic field, which causes
field ac generators. the rotor to follow the field, (assuming that the
motor is already running).
The input alternating current is applied to the
stator and the rotor carries the magnetic field The synchronous motor will not start of its own
windings which are supplied with dc from a accord, because the rot ating magnetic field
separate source. moves too quickly to provide a starting force.
The inertia of the rotor does not allow it to
Note that the rotor may in theory (and practice) respond to the rapidly rotating field. It has to be
be either a permanent magnet or a wound rotor started and run up to speed by another motor ,
separately excited from a dc source. usually a small induction motor. When the speed
of the driven rotor approaches that of the rot
ating
magnetic field, the rotor and the field ‘lock
together ’ and the rotor then rotates
synchronously with the field of its own accord.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
A A A A
B1 O C1 B1 N C1 B1 B1 O C1
N S
S C1
O S N S O N S
N
S N S N
N S S N O S N S
O N
O B A A A O
C C S
B C N B C B
A1 B1 N C1 B1 O C1 B1 S
C1
N O A1 S N A1 A1
S O N S
N S
O N S S N N S O
C S
B C O B C N B
A1 A1 A1 THE ROTOR
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
N
C
C
+0
+ DC
-0
A
A
S
- LINES UP WITH
ROTATING MAGNETIC
B
B FIELD AND ROTATES
CLOCKWISE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

The Synchronous Motor - continued
The synchronous motor is a ‘single-speed’

machine, its speed of rotation being determined
by the speed of the rotating magnetic field which,
in turn, is decided by the frequency of the three-
phase ac input to the st ator windings. The
synchronous motor is therefore most useful for
applications requiring constant speed, e.g. fans
for ventilation.
Equally, it is clear that the synchronous motor is

most appropriate to light mechanical loads,
because if the load became excessive, the
“synchronous lock” would be broken and the
motor would stop.

Induction Motors The rotor consists of a series of heavy copper

bars connected at each end by a copper or brass
The ac motor most commonly used on aircraft ring. No insulation is required between the bars
is the induction type and dependant upon and the core on which they are mounted
application may be designed for operation from because of the very low volt ages generated in
a three-phase, two-phase or single phase power the rotor bars. This type of rotor is a squirrel-
supply. cage and no external electrical connections are
made to it.
It is robust, simple and cheaper than other types.
The basic three-phase induction motor has no
slip rings or commuter and has little to go wrong.
The stator of the induction motor is almost the

same as that of the synchronous motor , i.e. it
has three-phase windings with associated pole
pieces, which as usual produce a rot ating
magnetic field when supplied with three-phase
ac.
B1 C1
ROTOR
C B
DRIVE SHAFT
A1 COPPER
ROTOR BARS
ROTOR
END RING

The basic principle of operation of the induction As the rotor follows the field, the relative motion
motor may be explained by the diagram below, between the two is reduced, so also is the
where a conductor is set at right angles to a voltage induced in the rotor bars; this reduces
magnetic field. If the conductor is stationary and the rotor current and the turning force acting on
the field moves from right to left, the change of the rotor. The rotor speed is automatically
flux through the conductor induces a voltage in adjusted to something less than that of the
it. If the conductor is part of a closed circuit, a rotating field, otherwise there would be no
current flows in the conductor in the direction relative motion, no current and no movement of
shown (the right hand rule for generators).This the rotor. Thus in practice the rotor runs slightly
current-carrying conductor in the magnetic field slower than the rotating magnetic field, the
then experiences a force tending to move it in amount depending upon the load.The difference
the same direction as the field’s motion (the left- in the two speeds is the slip speed and the ratio
hand rule for motors). The conductor therefore of slip speed of rotating field is the slip.
tends to follow the movement of the field.
For example, if the magnetic field is rotating at
1000 rpm, the rotor may be running to 960 rpm.
The slip speed is;
IF THE FIELD
N
MOVES IN THIS 1000 - 960 = 40 rpm,
DIRECTION.....
and the slip is;
+
40 x 100 = 4%.
....THE
CONDUCTOR CONDUCTOR IN 1000
TENDS TO CLOSED CIRCUIT
FOLLOW
S This is a typical value of slip. As noted earlier,
the slip depends upon the load; the larger the
load, the greater is the slip. But in practice very
little speed change occurs between a light and
a heavy load and the main use of an induction
Applying this principle to the squirrel-cage motor is as a constant speed drive to a load.
induction motor we see that the rot ating
magnetic field produced by the stator induces a This motor is only st arted under ‘no load’
voltage in the bars of the rotor. Because the bars conditions. The speed varies little between ‘no
are thick and have a low resist ance, a large load’ and ‘full load’ when running and makes the
current flows in them which sets up a magnetic motor suit able for driving such machines as
field. The rotor field interacts with the stator field lathes, bench drills and small generators.
and, as usual when a current-carrying conductor
is placed in a magnetic field, causes the rotor to The starting current of all squirrel-cage motors
turn so as to line up the two magnetic fields. is heavy (4-6 times the running current). This is
However, since the stator field is rotating, the because if the st ator windings are energised
rotor never quite catches up but follows a little from the three-phase supply whilst the rotor is
behind. stationary, the slip is maximum and so also is
the emf induced in the rotor. The low resistance
of the rotor gives rise to a large rotor current
which produces a magnetic field Opposing and
weakening the stator flux (Lenz’s Law).

The back emf induced in the stator windings by This reduced voltage limits the starting current
the changing flux is therefore reduced so that a to a safe level.
heavy current is taken by the stator on starting.
To achieve this the motor has six terminal
For motors up to 3 hp in size it is common connections with alternative methods for
practice to connect direct to the supply through connecting the field windings in star or delta by
appropriate switchgear . The diagram below the use of links on the terminal block, for the
shows the basic circuit of a direct ‘on line’starter. ‘start/run’ configuration respectively.
Overload protection is by a thermal or magnetic
relay. An isolating switch may be incorporated. On squirrel-cage motors not designed for st ar/
If it is necessary to reverse the direction of delta connection an alternative method of
rotation repeatedly, two contractors, one for each reducing the starting current is by the use of
rotation, are required and are interlocked auto-transformers in each line.
allowing only one to close at a time. A double
pole changeover switch internally connected for
reversal is shown.
TRIP COIL
A REVERSAL
L1 L1 A
B SC B
L2 L2
MOTOR
L3 L3 C
C
CHANGING 2 LINE LEAD
HOLD ON RELAY DOUBLE POLE DOUBLE THROW

B
START L2
OVERLOAD
TRIP
STOP L3
C
To reduce the heavy st arting current in larger

motors, the voltage applied to the stator windings
should be reduced until the rotor is turning at
such a speed that its effect on the stator current
is negligible. The normal way of doing this is to
use a “st ar-delta” st arting switch. For normal
running, the motor is designed to operate with
the stator phases meshed or delta connected
to the supply via the switch so that the phase
voltage is equal to the line voltage. For starting,
the stator windings are connected up in star via
the switch to the supply so that the phase voltage
is 1 of the normal voltage.
√3

No 1 INVERTER
No 2 EMERG 28vDC MAIN BUS No 3 EMERG 28vDC 200vAC 3Æ 400Hz
MASS FLOW
Y CONTROLLER
ON A
X Z
B
DE-PRESS LOUVRE C
PRESSURISED M FAN
AUTO CHANGE
OPEN OVER
SHUT AUTO ISOLATE
SHUT CONTACTOR OPEN
DEC. RELAY
INC.
B
OPEN SHUT
A AIRFLOW CONTROL LIMIT LIMIT
SWITCH
SPILL
UPFV ACTUATOR A C VALVE
ACTUATOR
SIMPLIFIED AIR FLOW CONTROL CIRCUIT

Problem of Poor Starting Torque in a When the motor is mechanically connected to a

Squirrel Cage Induction Motor load, the load tends to slow the rotation of the
motor. This causes the slip to increase, and the
As has been clearly st ated elsewhere in these rotor conductors cut a greater number of lines
notes, (see sections on magnetism and dc of force per time interval, thus increasing the
machines), a direct link exist s between torque rotor current and the rotor field. This stronger
and the force acting on a current carrying field produces an increased torque which
conductor in a magnetic field. In broad terms enables the motor to carry the increased load.
the force and therefore the torque, is directly
linked to the value of current carried by the This much has merely restated familiar technical
conductor. facts, but there is another effect which must be
considered when a load is applied to an
Remember the expression F = BIL induction motor, particularly if that load is directly
coupled to the motor and therefore requires to
An extension of that thought clearly shows that be driven as the motor starts.
anything which can af fect that current, af fects
also the force and therefore the torque. This effect is the lowering of the power factor
caused by the inductive reactance of the rotor.
To repeat some basic Induction Motor principles, When the rotor is turning at almost synchronous
if the Rotor Field should ever become aligned speed, the speed of the st ator field, the
with the Stator Field, torque would become zero, frequency of the rotor current, and the inductive
since no force would be acting on the rotor . reactance of the rotor are all low. As the load is
Hence the Rotor Field must always lag a few applied to the motor, the slip increases and there
degrees behind the Stator Field. The difference is a corresponding increase in the frequency of
between the two is, of course, the slip and it the rotor current.
must be emphasised that this slip is absolutely
necessary.
The only field provided initially by the input of

current to the motor is the field produced by the
stator. The rotor has no electrical connection with
the external power and the only way it can
produce a field is by having current induced
within itself as the flux of the rotating stator field
cuts across it. The interaction of the rotor field
with the st ator field then produces the torque
which causes the motor to turn.

Problem of Poor Starting Torque in a Since the recognition of the difference between
Squirrel Cage Induction Motor - continued rotating flux speed (n) and rotor speed (n r) is
also fundamental to the calculation of slip speed
Consider the following: (ns), then:
When the rotor is at a standstill, the rotating flux
slip speed (ns) = (n - nr)
produced at the stator cuts the rotor at the same
speed as it cuts the st ator winding. The
and rotor frequency (fr)
frequency of he induced rotor emf must therefore
be the same value as the supply frequency.
(fr) = slip speed (ns) X No. of pole pairs (p)
Also it will be remembered from elsewhere in
(equation 3)
these notes, that the relationship between
frequency, speed and number of pole p airs is
When the rotor is st ationary, the slip is by
given by the expression:
definition at a maximum and this clearly means
that the rotor frequency is also at maximum.
Frequency (f) = Speed (n) X No. of pole pairs (p)
From earlier studies in ac theory , it will be
(equation 1)
remembered that this maximum frequency will
cause the inductive reactance and impedance
Note from earlier in this section, (the production
of the rotor to be high. Useful current, and
of a rotating magnetic field), that for the period
therefore torque will be low . From a motor
of each electrical cycle, the rot ating stator flux
starting point of view it can be seen that when
completes one revolution. S peed (n) can
slip is very high, torque is in inverse proportion,
therefore, as in this case, quite correctly refer
and low.
to the rotational speed of that stator flux.
It must be noted however, that the starting phase
If the rotor speed is (n r) in revolutions per
only suffers from this problem. Once running,
second, then the speed at which the rotor
the problem resolves itself as already described,
conductors are being cut by the rotating flux must
so that the torque is varied to meet the demands
be:
of changing slip values by changing load values.
Speed of rotating flux - Speed of rotor
So how can this situation of poor starting torque
due to high inductive reactance in the rotor field
or (n) - (nr)
be minimised.
since both are rotating in the same direction.
Problem of Poor Starting Torque in a
Squirrel Cage Induction Motor - continued
It follows from equation 1, therefore, that the
frequency of the induced rotor emf must equal
the difference between flux and rotor speeds,
multiplied by the number of pairs of poles.
Rotor frequency (fr) = (n - nr) X p
(equation 2)

Again from studies in ac theory it will be starting devices and will drive relatively heavy
remembered with large inductive loads goes loads, once running, but when such a motor is
high quadrature current and a poor power factor. connected directly to a subst antial load which
It will also be remembered that this power factor must be moved when the motor starts, it is
is equal to the cosine of the phase angle usually necessary to add resistance to the rotor
between voltage and current and that inductive circuits. Several methods exist for accomplishing
reactance increases this phase angle. this, where necessary, at the design stage. It is
not intended that this note should det ail these
When the load on an inductive motor becomes methods, but a revision of the theory behind it
so great that the torque of the rotor cannot carry may be useful.
it, the motor will stop.This is sometimes referred
to as the pull-out point. The power factor for ac flowing in a purely
resistive circuit, (if such a circuit was practical),
An induction motor will st art quite satisfactory would be unity. On the other hand ac flowing in
under no load conditions without any special a purely inductive circuit, (if such a circuit was
possible), would have a power factor of zero.
Therefore the addition of resistance to an
inductive circuit, will have the effect of improving
the power factor , counteracting the inductive
nature of the motor rotor, helping to restore the
in-phase component of current and, therefore,
the torque.

Wound Induction Motor
The squirrel-cage motor takes a large starting

current and has a poor starting torque, both due
to the low resistance rotor. These features are
improved in the “wound” or ‘slip-ring’ type of
induction motor. The stators of wound induction
motors are identical with those of squirrel-cage
motors, but the rotor conductors are insulated
and form a three-phase, star-connected winding,
the three ends of which are connected to three
insulated slip-rings mounted on the motor shaft.
When the motor is running normally these slip-
rings are short-circuited to give a low-resistance
rotor equivalent to the squirrel-cage. For starting,
the slip-rings are connected to a three-phase
star-connected resist ance as shown, and
maximum resist ance is inserted in the rotor
circuit to give a low st arting current. The
resistance is gradually cut out as the machine
speeds up until finally the three slip-rings are
short-circuited and the motor runs as for a
squirrel-cage machine.
THREE-PHASE SUPPLY
MAIN SWITCH
STATOR WINDINGS
ROTOR
STARTING WINDINGS
RESISTANCE SLIP RINGS (TO SLIP RINGS)

Two Phase Induction Motor
A rotating magnetic field is also produced if two

phases, 90 0 out of phase with each other , are
used instead of a three-phase supply . A two-
phase induction motor is illustrated below.
B - B1
B ROTOR B1 PHASE
A - A1
AXIS OF
COIL B
A - A1
MAGNETIC
FIELD
A1
SQUIRREL
CAGE ROTOR
AXIS OF COIL A
PHASE MAGNETIC
B - B1 FIELD

The production of a rotating magnetic field from Typically, two phase induction motors find their
a two-phase supply, 900 out of phase, is shown greatest applications in systems requiring a
below. It is a similar idea to the one previously servo control of synchronous devices, for
drawn and described for a three-phase supply, example as servomotors in power follow up
and it s action may be deduced in a similar synchro systems. In this instance the windings
manner. are also at 90° to each other but, unlike the
motors thus far described , they are connected
Two-phase induction motors are less ef ficient to different voltage sources. One source is the
than three-phase types and the latter are used, main supply for the system and being of const ant
where possible, in preference to two-phase magnitude it serves as a reference voltage; the
motors. Other source serves as a control voltage and is
derived from a signal amplifier in such a way
that it is variable in magnitude and sit phase can
either lead or lag the reference voltage, thereby
controlling the speed and direction of rotation of
the field and rotor.
RESULTANT
FIELD
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
A A A
A
S O
O N
B S N B1 B N S B1 B S N B1
B N S B1
A A A
N O
O S
N O S
A1 A1 A1
A1
B S N B1 B N S B1 B S N B1
S O N
A1 A1 A1
POSITION 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
+
PHASES
TWO
PHASE A A
INPUT 60° 120° 180° 240° 300° 360°
CURRENTS
-
B B
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Single Phase Induction Motors As the field changes polarity every half cycle, it
induces currents in the rotor which try to turn it
Single-phase induction motors are used through l80°, but as the force is exerted through
extensively in low-power applications such as the axis shown, there is no turning force on the
blowers and switch motors used in rotor.
communication equipment, and in household
goods such as fans, refrigerators, electric This type of motor cannot, therefore , be-self-
shavers and so on. starting. If the rotor is given a st art however, it
will be given a push every half cycle that will
A single-phase induction motor has only one keep it rotating. Since the field is pulsating, rather
stator winding so it is not capable of producing than rot ating, single-phase induction motors
a rotating magnetic field of the type described produce a pulsating torque and are not as
earlier. The field produced by the single-phase smooth running as two or three-phase motors.
winding alternates according to the frequency
of the supply, and can be said to alternate along
the axis of the single winding, rather than to
rotate.
SQUIRREL CAGE
ROTOR
OUT OF
PHASE SINGLE PHASE
STARTING SUPPLY
POLES

Single Phase Induction Motors - continued virtually as a two-phase motor.
It is impracticable to start a motor by turning it A switch, usually operated by centrifugal action,

over by hand, so an electric device must be cuts out the auxiliary winding when
incorporated into the st ator circuit such that it approximately 75% of synchronous speed has
will cause a rotating field to be generated on been attained and the machine continues to run
starting. Once the motor has started, this device on the main stator winding.
can be switched out of the stator, since the rotor
and st ator together will generate their own Alternatively, contacts in the auxiliary winding
rotating field to keep the motor turning. circuit may be closed by the high stator current
which flows through a relay coil when the supply
The starting device takes the form of an auxiliary is switched on; the cont acts opening as the
stator winding spaced 900 from the main winding, motor current falls during acceleration from rest.
and connected in series with an impedance to
the main supply. This impedance is chosen to In larger motors, the auxiliary winding circuit may
produce as great a phase displacement as be broken by a hand starter switch.
.possible between the currents in the main and
auxiliary windings so that the machine starts up Motors under 2 hp usually have a squirrel-cage
rotor. Above this size the rotor is usually wound.
AUXILIARY WINDING
SINGLE PHASE MAIN

Z
SUPPLY WINDING
SWITCH

The impedance device used can be inductive Since the special starting winding is only a light
or capacitive, or a combination of both. winding, the motor does not develop sufficient
torque to start heavy loads.
Consider the diagram below , which shows a
simplified schematic of a typical capacitor start Because a two-phase induction motor is more
motor. efficient than a single-phase motor , it is often
desirable to keep the auxiliary winding
The stator consists of the main winding, and of permanently in the circuit so that the motor will
a starting winding which is connected in parallel run as a two-phase induction motor. The starting
with the main winding and spaced at right angles capacitor is usually made quite large, in order
to it. The 90° electrical phase difference between to allow a large current to flow through the
the two windings is obtained by connecting the auxiliary winding. The motor can thus build up a
auxiliary winding in series with a capacitor and large starting torque.
starting switch.
MAIN WINDING
AUXILIARY ROTOR
AC SINGLE WINDING
PHASE SUPPLY
On st arting, the switch is closed, placing the When the motor comes up to speed, it is not
capacitor in series with the auxiliary winding.The necessary that the auxiliary winding shall
capacitor is of such a value that the auxiliary continue to draw the full st arting current, and
winding is effectively a resistive-capacitive circuit the cap acitor can be reduced. Therefore two
in which the current leads the line volt age by capacitors are used in p arallel for starting , and
approximately 45°. The main winding has one is cut out when the motor comes up to
enough inductance to cause the current to lag speed. Such a motor is called “cap acitor-start,
the line voltage by approximately 45°. The two capacitor-run induction motor”.
currents are therefore 90° out of phase, and so
are the magnetic fields which they generate.The A disadvantage of this type of split-phase motor
effect is that the two windings act like a two- is the high starting current (nearly four times the
phase st ator and produce the revolving field full load current). As a result, this type of motor
required to start the motor. is usually restricted in size to less than 1 hp
although some large machines are made with a
When nearly full speed has been att ained, a special starting control.
device cut s out the st arting winding and the
motor runs as a plain single-phase induction The direction of rot ation can be changed by
motor. reversing the connections to either of the stator
windings.

For Your Notes

Shaded-Pole Induction Motors Therefore, as the field increases to a maximum

at 90°, a large portion of the magnetic lines of
The shaded-pole induction motor is a single- force are concentrated in the unshaded portion
phase motor which uses another method to start of the pole.At 90° the field reaches its maximum
the rotor turning. value. Since the lines of force have stopped
expanding, no emf is induced in the strap and
In this motor , the ef fect of a moving magnetic no opposing magnetic field is generated. As a
field is produced by constructing the stator in a result the main field is uniformly distributed
special way. The motor has projecting pole across the pole.
pieces just like dc machines and portions of the
pole-piece surfaces are surrounded by a copper From 90° to 180°, the main field st arts
strap called a ‘shading coil’.The pole piece with decreasing or collap sing inwards. The field
the strap in place is shown. generated in the strap opposes the collapsing
field and the effect is to concentrate the lines of
The action of the magnetic circuit is as follows: force in the shaded portion of the pole face.
Thus, from zero to 180°, the main field has
The strap moves the field back and forth across shifted across the pole face. From 180° to 360°,
the face of the pole piece in the following the main field goes through the same change
manner. As the alternating st ator field st arts as it did from zero to 180°, but in the opposite
increasing from zero degrees, the lines of force direction. Its motion will be the same during the
expand across the face of the pole piece and second half-cycle as it was during the first half-
cut through the strap.A current is induced in the cycle.
strap, which generates a field to oppose the
cutting action of the main field.
ROTOR
LEADING TRAILING
POLE TIP POLE TIP
SHADING
COIL
TWO POLE MOTOR

Shaded-Pole Induction Motors - continued Most shaded-pole motors have only one edge
of the pole split and therefore the direction of
The action described previously can be rotation is not reversible. However , some
practically perceived as the generation of an shaded-pole motors have both leading and
angular (and therefore time), separation trailing edge pole tip s split to accommodate
between the portion of the field af fecting the shading poles. The leading pole tip shading coils
unshaded part of the pole and that affecting the form one series group and the trailing pole tip
shaded part, so that at all times, part of the flux shading coils form another series group. Only
in each main pole is phase displaced. the shading coils in one group are
instantaneously active, while those in the other
The motion of the field produces a weak torque group are on open circuit.
to start the motor. It is because of this weakness
of the starting torque that shaded-pole motors A measure of speed control can be obtained by
are only built in small sizes in the order of l/20TH inserting a variable resistance or choke in series
HP, to drive small fans and switches. with the supply to control the voltage applied to
the stator winding.
The efficiency of shaded pole motors is quite

low due to the considerable copper loss in the
shading band.
TRAILING
POLE TIP
SHADING
COIL
LEADING
POLE TIP
FOUR POLE MOTOR

Hysteresis Motors The commonest single-phase variable-speed

A Hysteresis motor works on the principle that motors are series or commutator motors. They
in a material with a large Hysteresis loop, the are used as blower motors in communication
magnetic flux lags behind the current which equipment and they are also found in many
produced it by almost 90 0, while in a material household goods - vacuum cleaners, electric
with a small Hysteresis loop the two are almost shavers, portable drills and so on.
in phase.
In an ordinary dc motor the direction of rotation
A st ator of small Hysteresis loop material is depends upon both the direction of the current
supplied with a polyphase input, as is the rotor in the armature windings and the direction of
which is made of large Hysteresis loop material current in the field coils. If one changes direction,
(usually cobalt steel). The result is that the flux the direction of rotation is reversed, if both
in the rotor lags that in the stator by almost 900. change direction together , the direction of
The rotor will then move in an attempt to line up rotation is not altered.
its field with that of the stator. Thus, as the stator
field rotates, the rotor follows it. When alternating current is applied to a series
motor, the current through the armature and field
The effect on the rotor of the rotating stator field change simultaneously and, therefore, the motor
is that if the rotor is st ationary, or turning at a will rotate in one direction.
speed less than the synchronous speed, every
point on the rotor is subjected to successive The number of field turns in the ac series motor
magnetising cycles. As the stator field reduces is less than in the dc series motor , in order to
to zero during each cycle, a cert ain amount of decrease the reactance of the field so that the
flux remains in the rotor material, and since it required amount of current will flow . Cutting
lags on the st ator field it produces a torque at down the size of the field reduces the motor
the rotor shaf t which remains const ant as the torque. Therefore the ac series motor is never
rotor accelerates up to the synchronous speed built above fractional horsepower sizes for 50-
of the st ator field. This latter feature is one of cycle operation.
the principal advantages of Hysteresis motors
and for this reason they are chosen for such The characteristics of the ac series motor are
applications as autopilot servomotors, which similar to those of the dc series motor . It is a
produce mechanical movements of an aircraft’s varying-speed machine, with low speeds for
flight control surfaces. large loads and high speeds for light loads. The
starting torque is also very high. Fractional
When the rotor reaches synchronous speed, it horse-power series motors are used for driving
is no longer subjected to successive fans, electric drills and other small appliances.
magnetising cycles and in this condition it
behaves as a permanent magnet. Since the ac series motor has the same general
characteristics as the dc series motor, a series
Single-Phase Commutator Motor motor has been designed which can operate
both on ac and dc. This ac/dc motor is called a
The synchronous and induction types of ac ”universal motor” and finds wide application in
motor all have one thing in common - they are small electric appliances. Universal motors
essentially single-speed or const ant-speed operate at a lower efficiency than either the ac
motors, their running speed being determined or dc series motor and are built in small sizes
by the frequency of the supply. Constant speed only.
motors have many uses, but where a variable
speed is required some other type of motor must
be used.
Transformers
Introduction Basic Operation
These notes on transformers are mainly The principle of operation is that of Mutual
concerned with those that may be encountered Inductance. A simple low frequency transformer
when dealing with aircraft electrical and consists of two coils wound on a high
instrument systems. permeability core of soft iron. A changing current
in one of the coils (known as the PRIMARY)
The transformer has no moving parts and is an creates a changing magnetic field that induces
extremely efficient piece of equipment. It a voltage in the other coil (known as the
operates by flux from one coil linking with another. SECONDARY).
This flux MUST be changing state and so the
transformer can only be operated on alternating The magnitude of the secondary voltage (V S),
current. (There are occasions when compared to the applied (Primary) voltage (VP),
transformers are to be found in dc circuits , but depends upon the number of turns on the
they only operate when the dc is changing state). secondary winding (NS) and the number of turns
on the primary winding (NP). There is obviously
a relationship between the two and this is known
CIRCUIT as the 'Turns Ratio'. If losses (which are very
small) are ignored, then the ratio may be
PRIMARY SECONDARY
expressed as:
NS VS = NS
NP VP NP.
~
INPUT AC OUTPUT
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
VP VS IRON-CORED
TRANSFORMER
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
IRON-CORE
LAMINATED VS
TO REDUCE
EDDY
CURRENTS
INPUT AC
~
VOLTAGE
VP
PRIMARY SECONDARY
WINDING WINDING
NP
LINES OF FLUX NS
JAR 66 ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS - BOOK 3 OF 3

MODULES 3. 13 - 3.18 29 AUG 02 75
Transformers
Transformation Ratio (T) Transformer Losses
The ratio of VS to VP (or NS to NP) is known as the As stated earlier, transformers are very efficient
'Transformation Ratio'. If VS is smaller than VP, (easily 98%) and the losses are very small. The
then the output will be less than the input and ‘Ideal’ transformer (no losses) is often referred
the transformer is called a Step-down to when dealing with them but some losses
transformer. A Step-up transformer is one in occur in all transformers.
which VS is greater than V P . When using
Transformation Ratio, it is conventional to always At the particular designed operating frequency,
put the secondary voltage before the primary the losses in a transformer can be considered
voltage. Thus, a transformation ratio of 4:1 to be constant, apart from the Copper Losses
means that the output voltage will be four times (see below) which will vary as the load varies.
the input voltage (step-up) and a transformation
ratio of 1:3 means that the output voltage will be Losses are divided into three groups: Copper
one third the input voltage (step-down). losses, Iron losses and Flux Leakage losses.
Any chance of confusion on this point can, of Copper loses are caused by I2R losses in the
course, be obviated by the use of the appropriate windings and are therefore dependent upon the
term of step-up or step-down after the ratio is primary and secondary currents and the
given. resistance of the windings
Iron losses are themselves divided into two parts:

Hysteresis losses and Eddy current losses.
Hysteresis loss is caused when the core is

continuously magnetised and demagnetised
each half-cycle. The energy required to do this
is dissipated as heat in the core and so depends
upon the supply frequency and the core material.
Transformers are therefore designed for
operation at a particular frequency and the
material used for the core has a narrow
hysteresis loop (stalloy or permalloy).
Eddy current loss is caused by the eddy (or

circulating) currents in the core set up by the
changing magnetic field. These eddy currents
produce heat and so constitute an energy loss.
Laminating the core prevents the eddy currents
from combining into one large circulating current
which would rapidly over-heat the transformer.
Flux leakage losses occur when not all of the

primary flux links with the secondary coil. Ideally,
primary and secondary coils should occupy the
same space on the core, but this is physically
impossible and so manufacturers go to great
lengths to close-couple the coils in order to keep
this loss to a minimum.
ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS - BOOK 3 OF 3 JAR 66

76 29 AUG 02 MODULES 3. 13 - 3.18
Transformer Construction
The Core or Former of a transformer on which Core Type

the coils are wound is invariably one of two types,
the CORE type or the SHELL type. The coils The laminations are either U and I shaped or L
forming the Primary winding and the Secondary shaped. They are staggered when assembled
winding(s) are wound so as to be in the closest to provide a single magnetic circuit. The
proximity to each other in order to achieve the windings can be on one limb or split between
maximum flux linkage. Winding the primary of a the two limbs.
step-up transformer nearest to the core and then
winding the secondary on top of it has the added
advantage of keeping the primary insulation
between the higher voltage secondary and the
metal core.
PRIMARY
L-SHAPED STAGGERED
LAMINATIONS
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
SECONDARY
CORE TYPE

MODULES 3. 13 - 3.18 29 AUG 02 77
Transformer Construction
Shell Type
The laminations are usually T and U shaped and

are staggered when assembled to give a three-
limbed former (see sketch). This gives two
magnetic paths and this type, whilst more
expensive to build, is more suitable for use with
large values of current. When used for single-
phase work, the windings are installed on the
centre limb. When used for three-phase work,
each limb is allocated to the primary and
secondary windings of one particular phase.
(This point is covered later in these notes). This
form of construction is also widely used in
magnetic amplifiers but, in that usage, the cross-
sectional area of the centre limb is twice that of
the outer limbs.
T-SHAPED
STAGGERED
LAMINATIONS
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
SHELL TYPE

78 29 AUG 02 MODULES 3. 13 - 3.18
In order to understand the operation of a The primary alternating flux will also induce a
transformer, it is essential to get the sequence back-emf into the primary winding in opposition
of events in the correct order: to the applied emf. The effective emf acting on
the primary is therefore very small and only a
On No Load very small current will flow in the primary winding.
(The foregoing is, of course, a description of
Imagine that a simple transformer, with a inductive reactance, XL). The very small current
transformation ratio of 2:1, has its primary that flows in the primary is that current which is
winding connected to a 100 volt ac supply and necessary to overcome losses and to
that its secondary winding is open-circuited (no magnetise the core. A phasor diagram of this is
load). The current that flows in the primary will shown below. The primary and secondary
cause an alternating flux in the core which will voltages are in anti-phase and it is usual to show
induce a voltage of 200 volts ac in the secondary them in this manner on a phasor diagram.
winding as shown below. Because the circuit is inductive, the off-load
primary current will lag behind the primary
voltage. The in-phase component of this current
is overcoming copper losses and the quadrature
component is magnetising the core.
VP
IO
(PRIMARY
OFF-LOAD
I CURRENT)
(COPPER
LOSES)
IM FLUX
(MAGNETISING VECTOR
CURRENT)
IP IS
VS
(a)
100VAC
SUPPLY 2 00VAC
OUTPUT

MODULES 3. 13 - 3.18 29 AUG 02 79
On Load In our case, the Output Wattage is 600 Watts

and so the primary current will rise to just over 6
Imagine now that a resistive load is placed on Amperes in order to balance the output and to
the secondary winding’s output , causing 3 overcome losses. (As losses are very small, they
Amperes to flow in the secondary. This gives are often ignored when transformers are being
rise to a secondary flux in the core. The discussed).
secondary flux opposes the primary flux (Lenz’s
Law) and so reduces the total flux in the core. The phasor diagram below shows how the load
This means that the primary back-emf is current is transformed through 180º to become
reduced, with a consequent increase in effective the primary load current and is then combined
emf in the primary and so an increase in primary with the off-load current to give the total primary
current. The primary current stops rising when; current.
Input Wattage = Output Wattage + Losses.
VP
IP (PRIMARY ON LOAD
CURRENT)
IP IO
(LOAD)
IS
(LOAD)
VS

80 29 AUG 02 MODULES 3. 13 - 3.18
The Effects of Various Loads on a The transformer is therefore just a link between
Transformer the supply and the load. Putting a load on a
transformer has the same effect as putting that
When a RESISTIVE LOAD is placed on a load directly onto the supply (apart from the
transformer, the effect is as described on the voltage consideration, of course).
previous page.
The transformer may be loaded-up in exactly the
When an INDUCTIVE LOAD is placed on a same way as a generator may be loaded-up.
transformer, the effect is as though the
inductance was connected directly to the supply. More Than One Output
In other words, the primary current lags behind
the supply by an angle depending on the amount A transformer is not confined to having just one
of the inductance. See phasor diagram below output winding and voltage. It can have a
left. secondary winding with various tappings to give
differing output voltages, or it can have several
When a CAPACITIVE LOAD is placed on a secondary windings each of a different output
transformer, the effect is as though the voltage, or it can have a combination of both. It
capacitance was connected directly to the is therefore a very versatile piece of equipment.
supply. In other words, the primary current leads It must be realised that the individual loads on
the supply voltage by an angle determined by all these secondaries will all combine to be
the amount of capacitance. See phasor diagram effectively one load as far as the primary winding
below right. is concerned.
INDUCTIVE LOAD CAPACITIVE LOAD
IP IP
VP (LAGGING) (LEADING) VP
IO IP IO
(LOAD) IP
(LOAD)
IS
IS (LEADING)
(LAGGING)
VS VS

MODULES 3. 13 - 3.18 29 AUG 02 81
Types of Transformer
The VOLTAGE or POWER Transformer half-cycle, it will be seen that the primary and
secondary currents are opposing each other in
These are the names given to the type of the common portion of the winding. The actual
transformer described in the preceding pages current flow in the common portion is therefore
of these notes. the difference between the two currents. This
means that the cross-sectional area of the
The AUTO Transformer copper can be decreased in the common
This is a special type of transformer that has portion, bringing about a saving in weight. This
only a single winding, which serves as both the saving is obviously most beneficial on auto-
primary and the secondary. It follows that a transformers where the input voltage and the
portion of the winding is common to both the output voltage are very close together and the
vast majority of the winding is common.
input and to the output. It may be used either as
a step-up or as a step-down transformer.
One disadvantage of this type of transformer,
If an ac supply is applied to the primary terminals, especially when used as a step-down, is that, in
an alternating current will flow through those the event of an open-circuit occurring in the
common portion of the winding, the input voltage
coils connected across P1 and P2. This will set
up an alternating flux which will link with all of will be applied to the load. For this reason, it was
the turns on the former, inducing a voltage in unusual to find auto-transformers in aircraft
each. The output voltage is therefore that which systems but, owing to improved reliability and
appears in the coils across terminals S1 and the widespread use of ac in aircraft, they are
now to be found in increasing numbers.
S2. Loading the secondary will have the same
effect as described for the Power transformer. Auto-transformers can be used
If the current flow is considered for one particular as boosters to compensate for
S1
volts drop in long lengths of
STEP UP supply cables and for such
IS things as motor starters, where
a low voltage is tapped off for
A initial starting and then the
P1
IP LOAD voltage is increased gradually
ES
by way of tappings until the
EP~ PRIMARY SECONDARY motor is being supplied with the
full voltage. Apart from control
P2 systems and circuits, they can
B S2 also be found on some aircraft,
feeding items such as
navigation lights and low
STEP DOWN
voltage ac bus bars.
IP
P1 S1
A
EP~ IS
ES LOAD
P2
B S2

82 29 AUG 02 MODULES 3. 13 - 3.18
The VARIAC Transformer
(Not really an aircraft item but often found in

servicing bays). This is an auto-transformer with
a toroidal-wound coil over which travels a wiper-
arm. By this means, an output voltage can be
varied over wide limits. It is a very useful tool for
carrying out equipment testing.
STEP UP
STEP DOWN
SECONDARY
PRIMARY SECONDARY

MODULES 3. 13 - 3.18 29 AUG 02 83
The Quadrature Transformer or Mutual If an air gap is cut in the former of the
Reactor transformer, more current will be required to
magnetise the core to overcome the increased
This device was known about for many years reluctance. As the magnetising element of the
but no practical use was made of it until the primary current is at 90° to the applied voltage,
advent of Constant Frequency ac Systems in it can be seen that the primary current is
aircraft with their control systems. A device was increased and at the same time moved around
required that gave a phase angle of 90° between -until it is almost 90° behind the applied voltage.
the current in one circuit and a signal being It also follows that the primary current is almost
injected into another circuit. The angle between at 90° ahead of the secondary emf. This is the
the primary current in a quadrature transformer purpose of the Quadrature transformer. In
and its secondary voltage is (for all practical understanding the use to which it is put, it is best
purposes) 90°. to forget the applied voltage and to remember
that if a current is forced through the primary,
To explain its operation, consider first of all a the secondary emf will occur 90° after it.
normal power transformer and its basic off-load
phasor diagram. See (a) below. The air gap has an optimum size and is usually
concealed beneath the windings, so it looks just
like any other small transformer. It is only used
to obtain signal voltages and cannot be loaded
to any great extent.
VP
V P (100v)
IO IO
IO
(PRIMARY (NO AIR-GAP)
(WITH AIR-GAP)
OFF-LOAD
I CURRENT)
(COPPER
LOSES)
IM IM
FLUX FLUX
(MAGNETISING VECTOR
CURRENT) FOR ALL PRATICAL PURPOSES,
THE PRIMARY CURRENT LEADS
THE SECONDARY VOLTAGE BY 90°
VS
V S (200v)
VP EP ES
AIR GAP
(b)

84 29 AUG 02 MODULES 3. 13 - 3.18
The CURRENT Transformer Although voltages are obviously involved, it is

correct to talk about the ‘transformation of
The current transformer is designed to enable current’. A 400:1 current transformer will have
circuit currents to be measured without breaking one ampere passing through its secondary
into the circuit, as is necessary with an ammeter winding and (designed) load when 400 amperes
or its shunt. The output of the current are passing through the primary cable. (The bar-
transformer may be applied directly to an primary counts as a single turn).
instrument or be used in control circuits. It works
on the principle of mutual inductance but its Operation
construction and mode of operation are vastly
different to that of the power transformer. When the load current passes through the supply
cable, it causes a magnetic field along its whole
Construction length which is constantly building-up,
collapsing, reversing, building-up, etc. It is this
Some current transformers have primary flux which induces emfs into the coils of the
windings consisting of a relatively few turns, secondary winding. As the ring former and
capable of carrying the load current that is to be secondary coil only take up a very small length
measured. Others, known as BAR-PRIMARY of the primary cable (usually less than I inch), it
current transformers, use the load’s supply cable is obvious that, whatever happens at the
as the primary winding. It is this latter type that secondary, the effect on the primary will be
is most widely used on aircraft and so will be virtually nil. The primary, which depends on the
concentrated on in these notes. load, may therefore be regarded as a constant
current/constant flux supply.
The former on which the secondary winding is
wound is a ring consisting of a continuous strip The voltage in the secondary winding causes a
of metal wound on itself in a spiral. This gives current to flow through its load and through the
the effect of laminations but it is not, in fact, secondary winding. This produces a secondary
actually laminated in the true sense. The flux which opposes the primary flux and so keeps
secondary winding is toroidally wound on the ring the core flux to a very low level. This is a most
former with its two ends brought out for important point to remember because, if the
connection to its load (meter or control circuit). primary is operated with the secondary winding
disconnected from its load there will be no
Design Features secondary emf to oppose the primary emf. This
will result in a high core flux; increased eddy
When a power transformer is designed, the
designers only needs to know the supply on currents in the core; increased voltages in the
which it will operate, the output voltage and the individual secondary coils; and overheating. The
sum result is that the current transformer will
maximum current that it will supply. They are
not interested in the actual loads that may be burn out. (Even if the mistake is realised and
the system is switched off before it actually burns
placed on it.
out, the core may be pre-magnetised, or biased,
Things are different with the current transformer. and cannot thereafter be relied upon to be
accurate). If it is necessary to operate the
A current transformer is designed to operate only
on one particular load. If a different load is primary when the secondary load is
disconnected, short together the secondary
attached to its secondary, then it will not give
accurate results. The designer needs to know terminals. This will cause a secondary current
the load and the supply source and then design and flux and so keep the core flux to a minimum.
the current transformer to link the two together.

MODULES 3. 13 - 3.18 29 AUG 02 85
If the current transformer is supplying a load Current Transformer Summary

such as an ammeter, then the actual
connections may not matter and the ammeter • When fitting a current transformer, GET
will indicate whichever way it is connected-up. IT THE RIGHT WAY ROUND.
This is not true, however, when the current
transformer is feeding signals into control • When connecting the secondary to its
circuits, where it is essential to get the phasing load, CONNECT IT CORRECTLY.
right. If the secondary connections are crossed,
the output will be turned through 180° causing • NEVER operate the primary circuit with the
untold havoc in the control circuit. It is absolutely secondary open-circuited - SHORT IT
essential to get the secondary connections OUT!
correct. In the same way, if a current transformer
is being fitted over its primary cable, it is • NEVER operate a current transformer on
absolutely essential to physically position it the anything other than its DESIGNED LOAD.
right way round.
• In some cases, the current transformer
and its load are a matched pair. (They may
PRIMARY
IP
even carry the same serial numbers). If
COIL one is changed, then the other must also
be changed.
• When they are used in control circuitry,

remember that the secondary output is a
supply source proportional to the primary
current flow.
SECONDARY COIL
IS SECONDARY
COIL
A
IP
IS
LOAD

86 29 AUG 02 MODULES 3. 13 - 3.18
The IMPEDANCE MATCHING Transformer This means that a secondary load impedance
of ZS appears to the source of supply to be an
Besides using transformers to change ac values impedance (ZP) to the value of ZS
of voltage and current, we can also use them T2
between a source of supply and a load circuit to As an example:
‘match’ the impedances of the two circuits.
If a transformer with a turns ratio, T, of 3 is
In any circuit; connected to a load impedance (Z S ) of 9000
ohms, the supply source ‘sees’ an impedance
Impedance Z = V of 9000 = 1000 ohms.
I 9
Therefore, in a transformer, the impedance of

the secondary, ZS, is the ratio of secondary
voltage to secondary current, and the
impedance of the primary, ZP, is the ratio of the
primary voltage to the primary current.
The primary and secondary voltages and

currents are related to each other by the Turns
Ratio of the transformer and so it follows that
the impedances must be related also.
This relationship is given by:
ZP = ZS
T2
P1
P1 S1
S1
POWER LOAD
OUTPUT P2 S2 P2
SPEAKER
T S2
ADJUSTED

MODULES 3. 13 - 3.18 29 AUG 02 87
It should already be known that maximum power As an example;

is transferred from a source of supply to a load
circuit only when the load impedance is equal to The 4 ohms impedance below must be made
the internal impedance of the source of supply. to appear to the supply source to be equal to
If we have a case where they are not equal and 10,000 ohms:
we want maximum power to be transferred, we
can use the impedance matching effect of a From our formula,
transformer to achieve the necessary
conditions. It is not very difficult to make a load ZP = ZS
impedance appear to the supply source to be T2 , we need to find T.
equal to the supply source’s own impedance.
By transposition,
T2 = ZS
ZP
= 4
10,000
= 1
2,500
Therefore,
T = 1
50.
This means that a 50:1 step-down transformer

will transform the 4 ohms in the secondary to
10,000 ohms in the primary and maximum power
is then transferred to the load.
P1 S1
INTERNAL
IMPEDANCE LOAD
OF SUPPLY P S 4
SOURCE OHMS
AC
~ INPUT
VOLTS P2 S2

88 29 AUG 02 MODULES 3. 13 - 3.18
THREE-PHASE Transformers
It is possible to use single-phase transformers

and interconnect them on a three-phase system,
but it is more usual for a. single (three-limbed)
former to be used. Each limb is allocated to the
primary and secondary windings of one of the
three phases, as shown below.

MODULES 3. 13 - 3.18 29 AUG 02 89
Having established the lay-out of the transformer,

it is only necessary to decide on the method of
connection to be used in a particular instance.
There are only four possible combinations:
PRIMARY SECONDARY
A. STAR STAR
B. DELTA DELTA
C. DELTA STAR
D. STAR DELTA
The preferred methods of connection are c) and

d), above but the requirements of the circuit
must come first and so the connections at a)
and b) will very often be met in circuits. The
reason for giving c) and d) as the preferred
methods of connection is that a Star:Star
connection or a Delta:Delta connection sets up
harmonic magnetic waveforms in the former and
so creates harmonic distortion in the outputs,
whereas Star:Delta or Delta:Star do not create
this problem. However, as stated above,
sometimes the requirements of the circuit dictate
the format of the connections and so the less
desirable of them (in particular Star:Star) will
often be encountered.

90 29 AUG 02 MODULES 3. 13 - 3.18
Linear Variable Differential Transformer

(LVDT)
The LVDT produces an electrical signal that is

proportional to the linear displacement of a
moveable armature core.
The LVDT has a simple construction. Basically

there are two elements involved with LVDT, the
armature and the transformer. The transformer
has a stationary Coil enclosed in a protective
magnetic shield. The armature then moves
within the hollow core of the coil. TYPICAL LVDT'S
SECONDARY
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
ARMATURE TRANSFORMER HOLLOW

BOBBIN
The coil has a primary winding in the middle and

two secondaries, wired in series opposition.
When the primary is energised by an AC current,
the armatures - made of a closely controlled
magnetic material - induces a voltage from the
primary to the secondary windings. The position
of the armature within the core of the coil
B
determines the level of the voltage at each A
secondary; if the armature is placed precisely
midway between the two secondaries (null
position) the induced voltage in each secondary
is equal and opposite and there is no output. As
the armature is moved in either direction away
from the null, the LVDT produces an output
voltage that is proportional to the displacement
of the armature from the null and whose phase
relationship with the primary supply shows
whether the armature has moved nearer one
end or the other of the coil. Thus for each portion
of the armature, there is a definite output voltage,
different in level and polarity than for any other
position, no matter how slight the difference.

MODULES 3. 13 - 3.18 29 AUG 02 91
Special LVDT Characteristics
Because of its special characteristics, the LVDT

has distinct advantages over the other devices
used for motion mechanisation of transducers.
Some of these advantages are as follows:
There is no friction or hysteresis, since there is

no mechanical contact between windings and
armature.
There is no mechanical wear, hence virtually

infinite life.
Linear output assures accurate measurement

with direct read-out instruments.
There is infinite resolution, limited only by the

ability to read the small change of armature for
small change in voltage.
Complete electrical isolation between input and

output, permitting adding and subtracting signals
without buffer amps.
High level output simplifies circuitry.
Over ranging does not cause any damage or

permanent change in characteristics.
The LVDT is rugged and shock resistant and

virtually free of maintenance.

92 29 AUG 02 MODULES 3. 13 - 3.18
LVDT - Position and Rate Feedback
The diagram shows a practical application of a

LVDT. This example is taken from a DC1 0. The
actual values of position feedback shown are
typical output levels. A second LVDT can be
employed and via a differentiator, a rate output
obtained, again typical values are shown.
LVDT used for position feedback and via a

Differentiator, rate feedback of aileron actuator
position.
AILERON
POSITION L
26VAC
FEEDBACK V
400Hz
4.2 VOLTS/DEGREE D
T
MAIN RAM
ACTUATOR
SERVO AUTOPILOT
COMMAND ACTUATOR
L
RATE FEEDBACK V 26VAC
DIFFERENTIATOR
D 400Hz
1.83 VOLTS/DEG/SEC
T
USE OF LVDT FOR RATE AND POSITION FEEDBACK

MODULES 3. 13 - 3.18 29 AUG 02 93
As well as the linear differential transformer there

is the rotary differential transformer, the operation
is the same as that for the linear. The only
difference is the fact that it is arranged to detect
rotational movement instead of linear
movement. The output from the transformer as
we said is still the same and can be used in the
same manner as with the linear transformer.
Shown in the figure below is an example of how
they are assembled and used on the aircraft.
TO
FLAP
INDICATING
SYSTEM
M7886 LEFT INBD

RVDT
TRAMSMITTER
M7881
FLAP
SAME AS CONTROL
M7886 UNIT -
LEFT
M7889 INBD FLAP
POWER RVDT
TRANSMITTER
E1-2
ELECTRONICS
SHELF
FLAP
CONTROL
LEVER
RVDT
ASSEMBLY

94 29 AUG 02 MODULES 3. 13 - 3.18

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B r i t i s h A i r w a y s E n g i n e e r i n g T r a i n i n g

Electrical Fundamentals – Book 1

Your Course Notes

These notes have been prepared by British Airways Engineering

The information presented is as correct as possible at the time of

They will be useful to you during your training, but I must

Electrical Fundamentals - Book 1 - ETBN0479 Page 1 of 102 EASA Part 66

Introduction..................................................................................... 3 Meters in Circuits.......................................................................... 59

Electrical Fundamentals - Book 1 - ETBN0479 Page 2 of 102 EASA Part 66

Electrical Fundamentals - Book 1 - ETBN0479 Page 3 of 102 EASA Part 66

Our skin provides us with a natural barrier or resistance of

Alternating Current or ac is the type of electricity supplied by wall

Properties: Shocks involving ac tend to push the recipient away

Lower levels of ac than DC will produce painful shocks in humans

Electrical Accidents are the third leading cause of industrial deaths

Voltage is almost always a constant so electrical current levels are

This is done by wearing insulating shoes and gloves, and by not

Electrical Fundamentals - Book 1 - ETBN0479 Page 4 of 102 EASA Part 66

The nervous system of the human body controls all movements.

The effects of shock vary depending on the current imposed on the

Damage incurred on the human body depends on 2 main factors;

The human body can be considered a circuit through which an

The value of that current depends upon the resistance of the

The impedance of the body depends upon many factors;

Electrical Fundamentals - Book 1 - ETBN0479 Page 5 of 102 EASA Part 66

Effects of current passing through the body.

Electrical Fundamentals - Book 1 - ETBN0479 Page 6 of 102 EASA Part 66

Electrical Fundamentals - Book 1 - ETBN0479 Page 7 of 102 EASA Part 66

Typical Shock Values Questions

Electrical Fundamentals - Book 1 - ETBN0479 Page 8 of 102 EASA Part 66

The Structure of Matter Structure of the Atom.

Of course, not all

Electrical Fundamentals - Book 1 - ETBN0479 Page 9 of 102 EASA Part 66

Electrical Fundamentals - Book 1 - ETBN0479 Page 10 of 102 EASA Part 66

The copper atom has 29 electrons as mentioned which means that

Electrical Fundamentals - Book 1 - ETBN0479 Page 11 of 102 EASA Part 66

Electrical Fundamentals - Book 1 - ETBN0479 Page 12 of 102 EASA Part 66

In fact, it makes no difference which way current is flowing as long

Electrical Fundamentals - Book 1 - ETBN0479 Page 13 of 102 EASA Part 66

a. Light e.g. light bulb, LED

b. Heat e.g. electric heaters, power effects – losses

c. Magnetism e.g. relays (electromagnets), motors,

g. Feel e.g. shock

Electrical Fundamentals - Book 1 - ETBN0479 Page 14 of 102 EASA Part 66

Charge (Q) Unit = Coulomb (C)

Electrical Fundamentals - Book 1 - ETBN0479 Page 15 of 102 EASA Part 66

If a total charge of 500C is to be transferred in 20sec, what current

A current of 12.5A passes for 2 minutes. What quantity of

A current of 0.15A must transfer a charge of 450C. For how long

Electrical Fundamentals - Book 1 - ETBN0479 Page 16 of 102 EASA Part 66

Voltage (V), (E), (p.d.), (emf) Water Analogy

The unit of voltage is the volt (V).

There is a relationship between V & I, in that Q = It. Therefore the

Electrical Fundamentals - Book 1 - ETBN0479 Page 17 of 102 EASA Part 66

The following potential difference could be measured in the circuit

Below shows the p.d’s across various points.

100V 70V 40V 20V 0V

What are the potential differences between:

Electrical Fundamentals - Book 1 - ETBN0479 Page 18 of 102 EASA Part 66

Electrical Fundamentals - Book 1 - ETBN0479 Page 19 of 102 EASA Part 66

• The number of free electrons

In order to produce an electric current (I) flow, a force must be