Undercooling value determines quantity of nuclei, forming in the

crystallizing alloy. When a liquid comes into a contact with the cold
and massive mold wall (chill zone), it cools fast below the freezing
point, resulting in formation of a large quantity of stable nuclei
crystals.

In order to promote the nucleation process, surface-active

additives are used. They decrease interfacial energy of the nuclei
crystals, causing formation of many more new stable nuclei.

Crystal growth

Number of stable nuclei per unit volume of crystallizing alloy

determines the grain size.

When a large number of stable nuclei are present in chill zone of

mold, fine equiaxed grains form. Latent crystallization heat,
liberating from the crystallizing metal, decreases the undercooling
of the melt and depresses the fast grains growth.
At this stage some of the small grains, having favorable growth axis,
start to grow in the direction opposite to the direction of heat flow.
As a result columnar crystals (columnar grains) form.

Contrary to the pure metals, in alloys different type of

undercooling takes place. It is called constitutional undercooling.

1.1.2 Grain and grain boundaries

A grain boundary (GB) is interface between two grains, or

crystallites, in a polycrystalline material. Grain boundaries are
defects in the crystal structure, and tend to decrease the electrical
and thermal conductivity of the material.

A grain boundary is a general planar defect that separates regions

of different crystalline orientation within a polycrystalline solid. The
Grain boundaries are usually the result of uneven growth when the
solid is crystallizing. Grain sizes vary from 1 µm to 1 mm.

Most grain boundaries are preferred sites for the onset of

corrosion and for the precipitation of new phases from solid. They
are also important to many of the mechanisms of creep. On the
other hand, grain boundaries disrupt the motion of dislocations
through a material, so reducing crystallite size is a common way to
improve the strength of a material.
 Grains in a metal or ceramic; the cube depicted in each grain
indicates the crystallographic orientation of the grain in schematic
fashion
 Variables that define a grain boundary

1.2 Effect of grain boundaries on the properties of metal /

alloys
Grain boundary effect in Polycrystals
The Grain boundaries act as barriers to the motion of dislocations
in polycrystalline metal during plastic deformation .The metal
undergoes strain hardening or work hardening the increase in
strength of metal we observe in the cold worked metals.

The functional properties of many metals and alloys are

determined by the chemical and/or morphological distribution of
the crystallographic grains in the material. The properties of the
regions where grains come together often determine the
formation, evolution, and stabilization of the grains and as such,
characterization of grain boundaries is of critical importance in
materials studies.

Grain Boundary Analysis in Steel

Although focused ion beam (FIB) methods have previously been

employed to prepare samples for atom probe tomography from
materials containing grain boundaries, the standard FIB sharpening
methods have been combined with a FIB lift-out methodology.

A wedge of material containing a grain boundary is removed from

the sample such that the grain boundary is running along the long
side of the wedge. From a side view it is clearly visible. Small pieces
of wedge are attached to multiple tips on microtip coupon carriers.
Multiple specimens containing the same Grain Boundary may be
fabricated in this fashion, each being sharpened to the required
final radius using annular FIB milling.