CHAPTER 3

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

3.1 Descriptions of Fluid Motion

The streamline is defined as a line drawn through the flow field in such a manner that the local velocity vector is tangent
to the streamline at every point along the line at that instant.

Figure 3.1 Flow through an opening in a tank and over an airfoil section.

v
In a uniform flow, the velocity does not change along a fluid path; that is, 0
s

v
In non-uniform flow, the velocity changes along a fluid path, so 0
s

Figure 3.2 Fluid particle moving along a pathline.

Figure 3.3 Uniform flow in a pipe.

For the converging duct in Fig. 3.4a, the magnitude of the velocity increases as the duct converges, so the flow is non-
uniform. For the vortex flow shown in Fig. 3.4b, the magnitude of the velocity does not change along the fluid path, but
the direction does, so the flow is non-uniform.

Figure 3.4 Flow patterns for non-uniform flow. (a) Converging flow. (b) Vortex flow.

v
In a steady flow the velocity at a given point on a fluid path does not change with time: 0
t

v
An unsteady flow exists if 0
t

The pathline simply is the path of a fluid particle as it moves through the flow field.
The streakline is the line generated by a tracer fluid, such as a dye, continuously injected into the flow field at the
starting point.

Figure 3.5 Streamlines, pathlines, and streakline for an unsteady flow field.

Laminar flow is a well-ordered state of flow in which adjacent fluid layers move smoothly with respect to each other. A
typical laminar flow would be the flow of honey or thick syrup from a pitcher. Laminar flow in a pipe has a smooth,
parabolic velocity distribution as shown in Fig. 3.6a.
 Figure 3.6 Laminar and turbulent flow in a straight pipe. (a) Laminar flow. (b) Turbulent flow.

Turbulent flow is an unsteady flow characterized by intense cross-stream mixing.

The dimensionality of a flow field is characterized by the number of spatial dimensions needed to describe the velocity
field.

Figure 3.7 Flow dimensionality, (a) one-dimensional flow, (b) two-dimensional flow, and (c) three dimensional flow.

3.2 Rate of Flow

Discharge (volume flow rate)

The discharge, Q, often called the volume flow rate, is the volume of fluid that passes through an area per unit time.
Typical units for discharge are ft3/s (cfs), ft3/min (cfm), gpm, m3/s, and L/s.

For a uniform and steady flow

V
Q
t
For a non-uniform flow
Q   u dA
A

The discharge or volume flow rate in a pipe is related to the flow velocity and cross-sectional area.

Q  A  v (A = cross sectional area, v = average velocity)

Figure 3.8 Volume of fluid in flow with uniform velocity distribution that passes section A-A in time Δt.

Mass Flow Rate

The mass flow rate, m , is the mass of fluid passing through a cross-sectional area per unit time. The common units for
mass flow rate are kg/s, lbm/s, and slugs/s.

M
m
t

Useful formulas for mass flow rate are:

m   Av   Q

Example 3.1 Volume Flow Rate and Mean Velocity

Air that has a mass density of 1.24 kg/m3 (0.00241-slugs/ft3) flows in a pipe with a diameter of 30 cm (0.984 ft) at a mass
rate of flow of 3 kg/s (0.206 slugs/s). What are the mean velocity and discharge in this pipe for both systems of units?
Example 3.2 Flow in Sloping Channel

Water flows in a channel that has a slope of 30°. If the velocity is assumed to be constant, 12 m/s, and if a
depth of 60 cm is measured along a vertical line, what is the discharge per meter of width of the channel?

Example 3.3 Discharge in Channel with Non-Uniform Velocity Distribution

The water velocity in the channel shown in the accompanying figure has a distribution across the vertical
section equal to u = umax (y/d)1/2. What is the discharge in the channel if the water is 2 m deep (d = 2 m), the
channel is 5 m wide, and the maximum velocity is 3 m/s?
Problems

3.1 Identify five examples of an unsteady flow and explain what features classify them as an unsteady flow?
3.2 You are pouring heavy syrup on your pancakes. As the syrup spreads over the pancake, would the thin
film of syrup be a laminar or turbulent flow? Explain.
3.3 If you were to blow out a candle, you would do it while exhaling (at least most people do). Why is it easier
to do this by exhaling than by inhaling?
3.4 In the system in the figure, the valve at C is gradually opened in such a way that a constant rate of
increase in discharge is produced. How would you classify the flow at B while the valve is being opened? How
would you classify the flow at A?

3.5 Water flows in the passage shown. If the flow rate is decreasing with time, how would you classify the
flow?

3.6 Classify each of the following as a one-dimensional, two-dimensional, or three-dimensional flow.

a. Water flow over the crest of a long spillway of a dam.
b. Flow in a straight horizontal pipe.
c. Flow in a constant-diameter pipeline that follows the contour of the ground in hilly country.
d. Airflow from a slit in a plate at the end of a large rectangular duct.
e. Airflow past an automobile.
f. Air flow past a house.
g. Water flow past a pipe that is laid normal to the flow across the bottom of a wide rectangular channel.

3.7 The pattern produced by smoke rising from a chimney on a windy day is analogous to a pathline or
streakline? Explain from the definition of each.
3.8 At time t = 0, dye was injected at point A in a flow field of a liquid. When the dye had been injected for 4
s, a pathline for a particle of dye that was emitted at the 4 s instant was started. The streakline at the end of
10 s is shown below. Assume that the speed (but not the velocity) of flow is the same throughout the 10 s
period. Draw the pathline of the particle that was emitted at t = 4 s. Make your own assumptions for any
missing information.
3.9 For a given hypothetical flow, the velocity from time t = 0 to t = 5 s was u = 2 m/s, ν = 0. Then, from
time t = 5 s to t = 10 s, the velocity was u = + 3 m/s, ν = -4 m/s. A dye streak was started at a point in the
flow field at time t = 0, and the path of a particle in the fluid was also traced from that same point starting at
the same time. Draw to scale the streakline, pathline of the particle, and streamlines at time t = 10 s.
3.10 A 10-cm-diameter pipe contains sea water that flows with a mean velocity of 5 m/s. Find the volume flow
rate (discharge) and the mass flow rate.
3.11 A pipe with a 2 m diameter carries water having a velocity of 4 m/s. What is the discharge in cubic
meters per second?
3.12 A pipe whose diameter is 8 cm transports air with a temperature of 20°C and pressure of 200 kPa
absolute at 20 m/s. Determine the mass flow rate.
3.13 An aircraft engine test pipe is capable of providing a flow rate of 200 kg/s at altitude conditions
corresponding to an absolute pressure of 50 kPa and a temperature of -18°C. The velocity of air through the
duct attached to the engine is 240 m/s. Calculate the diameter of the duct.
3.14 A heating and air-conditioning engineer is designing a system to move 1000 m3 of air per hour at 100
kPa abs, and 30°C. The duct is rectangular with cross-sectional dimensions of 1 m by 20 cm. What will be the
air velocity in the duct?
3.15 Water flows in a pipe that has a 4 ft diameter and the following hypothetical velocity distribution: The
velocity is maximum at the centerline and decreases linearly with r to a minimum at the pipe wall. If Vmax =
15 ft/s and Vmin = 12 ft/s, what is the discharge in cubic feet per second?
3.16 Air enters this square duct at section 1 with the velocity distribution as shown. Note that the velocity
varies in the y direction only (for a given value of y, the velocity is the same for all values of z).
a. What is the volume rate of flow?
b. What is the mean velocity in the duct?
c. What is the mass rate of flow if the mass density of the air is 1.2 kg/m3?

3.17 The velocity profile of a non-Newtonian fluid in a circular conduit is given by

u  r  
2 2

 1    
umax  R 

where umax is the velocity at the centerline and R is the radius of the conduit. Find the discharge (volume flow
rate) in terms of umax and R.
3.3 Continuity Equation

The continuity equation derives from the conservation of mass, which simply states that the mass of the
system is constant.

msys  constant

General Form of the Continuity Equation

d
mcv  mo  mi  0
dt

in words

The accumulation rate The net outflow rate

   
of mass in the   of mass through 0
control volme  the control surface 
   

If the mass crosses the control surface through a number of inlet and exit ports, the continuity equation
simplifies to

d
mcv   mo   mi  0
dt cs cs

where mcv is the mass of fluid in the control volume

EXAMPLE 3.4

A jet of water discharges into an open tank, and water leaves the tank through an orifice in the bottom at a
rate of 0.003m3/s. If the cross-sectional area of the jet is 0.0025 m2 where the velocity of water is 7 m/s, at
what rate is water accumulating in (or evacuating from) the tank?
EXAMPLE 3.5

A river discharges into a reservoir at a rate of 400,000 ft3/s (cfs), and the outflow rate from the reservoir
through the flow passages in the dam is 250,000 cfs. If the reservoir surface area is 40 mi2, what is the rate
of rise of water in the reservoir?

EXAMPLE 3.6

A 10 cm jet of water issues from a 1 m diameter tank. Assume that the velocity in the jet is 2gh m/s where
h is the elevation of the water surface above the outlet jet. How long will it take for the water surface in the
tank to drop from h0 = 2 m to hf = 0.50 m?
3.4 Continuity Equation for Flow in a Pipe

The equation is developed by positioning a control volume inside a pipe, as shown in Fig. 3.13. Mass enters
through station 1 and exits through station 2. The control volume is fixed to the pipe walls, and its volume is
constant. If the flow is steady, then mcv is constant so the mass flow formulation of the continuity equation
reduces to
m1  m2

Figure 3.13 Flow through a pipe section.

For flow with a uniform velocity and density distribution, the continuity equation for steady flow in a pipe is

1 A1v1  2 A2v2

If the flow is incompressible, then

A1v1  A2v2

or, equivalently,

Q1  Q2

for circular pipe

d12 v1  d22 v2

This equation is valid for both steady and unsteady incompressible flow.

If there are more than two ports, then the general form of the continuity equation for steady flow is

 mi   mo
cs cs

If the flow is incompressible, then

 Qi   Qo
cs cs
EXAMPLE 3.7

A 120 cm pipe is in series with a 60 cm pipe. The speed of the water in the 120 cm pipe is 2 m/s. What is the
water speed in the 60 cm pipe?

EXAMPLE 3.8

Gas is flowing through a square conduit whose gradually changes from 150 mm (section 1) to 300 mm
(section 2). At section 1, the velocity of flow is 7 m/s and the density of gas is 1 kg/m3 while at section 2 the
velocity of flow is 2 m/s. Calculate the mass flow rate and the density of the gas at section 2.
3.5 Bernoulli’s Equation

The Bernoulli’s equation states that the sum of the piezometric pressure (p + z) and kinetic pressure (ρV2/2)
is constant along a streamline for the steady flow of an incompressible fluid.

v 2
pz  c
2

Dividing both sides by the specific weight yields

p v2 v2
z h c
 2g 2g

where h is the piezometric head and (V2/2 g) is the velocity head. In words,

Pressure  Elevation  Velocity  Constant along

    
head  head  head  streamline 

The concept underlying the Bernoulli equation can be illustrated by considering the flow through the inclined
venturi (contraction-expansion) section as shown in Fig. 3.14.

p1 v2 p v2 p v2
 z1  1  2  z2  2  3  z3  3
 2g  2g  2g

Figure 3.14 Piezometric and velocity head variation for flow through a venturi section.

EXAMPLE 3.9

Piezometric tubes are tapped into a venturi section as shown in the figure. The liquid is incompressible. The
upstream piezometric head is 1 m, and the piezometric head at the throat is 0.5 m. The velocity in the throat
section is twice large as in the approach section. Find the velocity in the throat section.
EXAMPLE 3.10

An open tank filled with water and drains through a port at the bottom of the tank. The elevation of the water
in the tank is 10 m above the drain. The drain port is at atmospheric pressure. Find the velocity of the liquid in
the drain port.
3.6 Application of the Bernoulli Equation to Velocity Measurement Devices

The Bernoulli equation can be used to reduce data for flow velocity measurements from a stagnation tube and
a Pitot-static tube.

Stagnation Tube

A Stagnation tube is an open-ended tube directed upstream in a flow and connected to a pressure sensor.
Because the velocity is zero at the tube opening, the pressure measured corresponds to stagnation conditions.

v12 v02
p1   p0 
2 2

Figure 3.15 Stagnation tube

The velocity at point 1 is zero (stagnation point). Hence,

2
v 02 

 p1  p0 

By the equations of hydrostatics (there is no acceleration normal to the streamlines where the streamlines are
straight and parallel), p0 = d and p1 =  (l + d). Therefore,

2
v02 

 p1  p0 

which reduces to
v0  2gl

This equation will be referred to as the stagnation tube equation.

Pitot – Static Tube

The Pitot-static tube, named after the eighteenth-century French hydraulic engineer Henri Pitot, who invented
it, is based on the same principle as the stagnation tube, but it is much more versatile than the stagnation
tube. A major advantage of the Pitot-static tube is that it can be used to measure velocity in a pressurized
pipe; a simple stagnation tube is not convenient to use in such a situation.

 v12 v 2
p1   z1   p2   z 2  2
2 2

But V1 = 0, so solving that equation for V2 gives the Pitot-static tube equation

1
2 2
v2    p1   z1  p2   z2  
p 

Here V2 = V, where V is the velocity of the stream and p + z1 and p + z2 are the piezometric pressures at
points 1 and 2, respectively.

Figure 3.15 Pitot-static tube.

If a differential pressure gage is connected across the taps, the gage measures the difference in piezometric
pressure directly. Therefore

2 p
v


EXAMPLE 3.11

A differential pressure gage is connected across the taps of a Pitot-static tube. When this Pitot-static tube is
used in a wind tunnel test, the gage indicates a Δp of 730 Pa. What is the air velocity in the tunnel? The
pressure and temperature in the tunnel are 98 kPa absolute and 20°C, respectively.
3.7 Accounting for Energy Losses

Consider the following reservoir and pipe system:

The energy equation considering friction head loss gives us:

p1 v12 p v2
  z1 - hf = 2  2  z2
1 g 2g 2 g 2g

where hf is the friction head loss

Energy equation with Pump

The energy equation between points 1 and 2 with pump added becomes

p1 v12 p v2
  z1 - hf + HA = 2  2  z2
1 g 2g 2 g 2g

where HA is the head added by the pump.

Output Power of a Pump, P:

P = QHA (watts)

1 hp = 746 watts = 0.746 kw

Energy equation with Turbine

The energy equation between points 1 and 2 with turbine added becomes

p1 v12 p v2
  z1 - hf - HE = 2  2  z2
1 g 2g 2 g 2g

where HE is the head extracted to the turbine.

Input power of a turbine, P:

P = QHE (watts)

Example 3.12

A pipe 50 cm in diameter carries water (10°C) at a rate of 0.5 m3/s. A pump in the pipe is used to move the
water from an elevation of 30 m to 40 m. The pressure at section 1 is 70 kPa gage and the pressure at section
2 is 350 kPa gage. What power in kilowatts and in horsepower must be supplied to the flow by the pump?
Assume hL = 3 m of water and 1 = 2 = 1.
Problems

1. Estimate the energy head lost along a short length of pipe suddenly enlarging from a diameter of 350 mm
to 700 mm which discharges 700 liters per second of water. If the pressure at the entrance of the flow is 105
N/m2, find the pressure at the exit.
(Ans. 0.28 m, 1.02 × 105 N/m2)
2. A Venturi meter is introduced in a 300 mm diameter horizontal pipeline carrying water under a pressure of
150 kN/m2. The throat diameter of the meter is 100 mm and the pressure at the throat is 400 mm of mercury
below atmosphere. If 3% of the differential pressure is lost between the inlet and outlet throat, determine the
flow rate in the pipe.
(Ans. 157 li/s)
3. A 50 mm inlet/25 mm throat Venturi meter with a coefficient of discharge of 0.98 is to be replaced by an
orifice meter having a coefficient of discharge of 0.6. If both meters are to give the same differential mercury
manometer reading for a discharge of 10 li/s, determine the diameter of the orifice.
(Ans. 31.2 mm)

4. If the velocity of flow in a 75- mm diameter fire hose is 0.5 m/s, what is the velocity in a 25 mm diameter
jet issuing form a nozzle attached at the end of the pipe?
Ans. 4.5 m/s
5. Gas is flowing through a square conduit whose gradually changes from 150 mm (section 1) to 300 mm
(section 2). At section 1, the velocity of flow is 7 m/s and the density of gas is 1 kg/m3 while at section 2 the
velocity of flow is 2 m/s. Calculate the mass flow rate and the density of the gas at section 2.
Ans. (a) 0.1575 kg/s, (b) 0.875 kg/m3
6. Water flows through a 2” diameter pipe at a velocity of 10 ft/s. Find (a) the volume flow rate, (b) the mass
flow rate, and (c) the weight flow rate.
Ans. (a) 0.218 ft3/s, (b) 0.423 slugs/s, (c) 13.61 lb/s
7. If the velocity of flow in a 75- mm diameter fire hose is 0.5 m/s, what is the velocity in a 25 mm diameter
jet issuing form a nozzle attached at the end of the pipe. Compute also the power available in the jet.

8. Water is flowing in an open channel at a depth of 2 m and a velocity of 3 m/s. It flows down a chute into
another channel where the depth is 1 m and the velocity is 10 m/s. Neglecting friction, determine the
difference in elevation of the channel floors.

9. A pipe carrying oil of specific gravity 0.877 changes in size from 150 mm at section 1 and 450 mm at
section 2. Section 1 is 3.6 m below 2 and the pressures are 90 kPa and 60 kPa respectively. If the discharge is
150 li/sec head lost and the direction of flow.

10. Gas is flowing through a square conduit whose gradually changes from 150 mm (section 1) to 300 mm
(section 2). At section 1, the velocity of flow is 7 m/s and the density of gas is 1 kg/m3 while at section 2 the
velocity of flow is 2 m/s. Calculate the mass flow rate and the density of the gas at section 2.

11. The discharge in the siphon is 2.80 cfs, D

= 8 in., L1 = 3 ft, and L2 = 3 ft. Determine the
head loss between the reservoir surface and
point C. Determine the pressure at point B if
three-quarters of the head loss (as found
above) occurs between the reservoir surface
and point B. Assume  = 1.0 at all locations.
Relative Equilibrium of Liquids

Under certain conditions, the particles of a fluid mass may have no relative motion between each other yet the
mass itself maybe in motion. If a mass of fluid is moving with a constant speed, the conditions are the same
as in fluid statics. But if the body is subjected to acceleration, special treatment is required.

RECTILINEAR ACCELERATION (MOVING VESSELS)

1. Horizontal Motion

Consider a mass of fluid moving with a linear acceleration a as shown in the figure. Considering a particle in
the surface, the forces acting are the weight W = mg and the fictitious inertia force (reversed effective force,
REF) which is equal to ma, and the reaction N which must be normal to the surface.

a  a
p   h 1   W
 g

REF

a
tan  
g

where:

a = acceleration (m/s2, ft/s2)

g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2, ft/s2)

Therefore, the surface and all planes of equal hydrostatic pressure must be inclined at this angle  with the
horizontal.

2. Inclined Motion

Consider a mass of fluid being accelerated upwards at an inclination  with the horizontal so that ax = a cos 
and ay = a sin .
 a  a
p   h 1  
 g
av
a
 ay


ax
tan  
g  ay

where:

ax = horizontal component of acceleration (m/s2, ft/s2)

ay = vertical component of acceleration (m/s2, ft/s2)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2, ft/s2)

 Use:
(+) for upward motion
( - ) for downward motion

3. Vertical Motion

Consider a mass of fluid accelerated upwards of downwards with an acceleration of a as shown in the figure.
The forces acting at a point h below the liquid surface are the weight of the liquid above the point, mg, the
inertia force, ma, and the pressure force F=pdA, then,  Fv  0 .

 a  a
p   h 1  
p   h 1   g
 g 

a
where:

h liq = Unit weight of liquid (kN/m3, lb/ft3)
a = acceleration (m/s2, ft/s2)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2, ft/s2)
h = height of liquid from the liquid surface (m, ft)

 Use:
(+) for upward motion
(–) for downward motion
Example 3.15

An open rectangular tank mounted on a truck is 5 m long, 2 m wide and 2.5 m high is filled with water to a
depth of 2 m. (a) What maximum horizontal acceleration can be imposed on the tank without spilling any
water, and (b) determine the accelerating force on the liquid mass. (c) If the acceleration is increased to 6
m/s2, how much water is spilled?

Example 3.16

An open tank containing oil (s = 0.86) is accelerated vertically at 6 m/s2. Determine the pressure 2.5 m below
the surface if the motion is (a) upward with negative acceleration, (b) downward with positive acceleration
and (c) velocity is constant.

Example 3.17

A vessel containing oil is accelerated on a plane inclined 15° with the horizontal at 1.2-m/s2. Determine the
inclination of the oil surface when the acceleration is (a) upwards, (b) downwards.
ROTATION (ROTATING VESSELS)

When a liquid mass is rotated about a vertical axis at a constant angular speed of ω (in radians per second),
v2
every particle experiences a normal acceleration of an which is equal to  2 x where x is the particle’s
x
distance from the axis of rotation. This acceleration causes an inertia force (centrifugal force or reversed
W 2
normal effective force) which is equal to man or  x.
g

x
h
H
y
x

 height of paraboloid formed during rotation, (h)

2r 2
h
2g

where:
ω = angular velocity (rad/sec)
r = radius of the cylinder (m, ft)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2, ft/s2)

 Conversion:

1 rev  2
rev 
1 rpm  1 
min 30 rad
Squared property of parabola


x12 x 22
x1 
y
y1 y2

y

Volume of Paraboloid

h 1
V= ( r2) h
2

Liquid Surface Conditions

r
r
d h/2
d
h/2 h
h h/2
h/2
 h/2 < d (No liquid spilled) h/2 = d (No liquid spilled)

r r

d d

h
H h

h/2 > d (some liquid spilled) h = H (some liquid spilled)

H h

h > H (imaginary paraboloid below the tank)

Example 3.18

An open cylindrical tank, 2 m diameter and 4 m high contains water to a depth of 3 m. If it is rotated about its
own vertical axis with a constant angular speed . (a) if  = 3 rad/sec, is there any liquid spilled? (b) What
maximum value of  (in rpm) can be imposed without spilling any liquid? (c) If  = 8 rad/s, how much water
is spilled out and to what depth will the water stand when brought to rest? (d) what angular speed  (in rpm)
will just zero the depth of water at the center of the tank? (e) If  = 100 rpm, how much area at the bottom
of the tank is uncovered?
Problems

1. A rectangular Car tank 20 m long, 4 m wide and 3 m deep is completely open at the top. If it is initially
filled to the top, (a) How much liquid will be filled if it is given a horizontal acceleration of 0.3g in the
direction of the length, (b) What is the maximum force acting on the side opposite to the direction of
the acceleration?, and (c) Determine the volume of water remains in the tank.
Ans. (a) 180 m3, (b) 176.58 kN, (c) 60 m3

2. An open horizontal tank 2 m high, 2 m wide and 4 m long is full of water. (a) How much water is spilled
out when the tank is accelerated horizontally at 2.45 m/s2 in a direction parallel to its longest side?, (b)
What is the force acting on the side with the greatest depth? and (c) Compute the required accelerating
force.
Ans. (a) 4 m3, (b) 39.24 kN, (c) 29.4 kN
3. The tank shown in the figure contains oil with sp. gr. of 0.88. If the tank is 10 m long the initial depth of
oil is 2 m and the tank accelerates to the right at 2.60 m/s2. Assume the tank walls are sufficiently high
so that there is no spillage.
a

10 m

2m

Ans. (a) 15.390, (b) 5.39 kPa, (c) 29.14 kPa

4. A vessel containing oil is accelerated on a plane inclined 150 with the horizontal at 1.2 m/s2. Determine
the inclination of the oil surface when the acceleration is (a) upwards, (b) downwards.
Ans. (a) 6.530, (b) 6.9570
5. An open vessel of water accelerates up at 300 plane at 2 m/s2. What is the (a) horizontal component of
the acceleration? (b) vertical component of the acceleration? (c) angle of the water surface makes with
the horizontal?

6. An open tank containing oil (sp. gr. = 0.80) is accelerated vertically at 8 m/s2. Determine the pressure
3 m below the surface if the motion is (a) upward with a positive acceleration, (b) upward with negative
acceleration, (c) downward with a positive acceleration, and (d) downward with a negative acceleration.
Ans. (a) 42.74 kPa, (b) 4.34 kPa, (c) 4.34 kPa, (d) 42.74 kPa

7. An open cylindrical tank having a radius of 300 mm and a height of 1.2 m is full of water. How fast
should it be rotated about its own vertical axis so that 75% of its volume will be spilled out?
Ans. 218.43 rpm
 a  a
p   h 1  
 g

30°
Ans. (a) 1.732 m/s2, (b) 1 m/s2, (c) 9.100

8. A vessel 3 m diameter containing 2.4 m of water is being raised. (a) Find the pressure at the bottom of
the vessel in kPa when the velocity is constant, and (b) find the pressure at the bottom of the vessel
when it is accelerating 0.6 m/s2 upwards.
Ans. (a) 23.54 kPa, (b) 24.984 kPa

9. A 2 m x 2 m x 1 m tank is 50% filled with oil (s = 0.82) and the remaining is water. When it is
translated vertically upward at 5.10 m/s2, determine the (a) pressure at the bottom, and (b) vertical
force exerted at the bottom.

0.5 m Oil
a

0.5 m Water

2m
Ans. (a) 13.57 kPa, (b) 54.27 kN

10. An open cylindrical tank 3 m high and 1 meter diameter contains 2 m of water. If the cylinder rotates
about its geometrical axis, what constant angular velocity in rad/sec can be attained (a) without spilling
any water, (b) if the depth of water at the center is 0.5 m, and (c) if the volume of water spilled out is
equal to 0.196 m3.

Ans. (a) 12.528 rad/sec, (b) 14.01 rad/sec (c) 14.01 rad/sec
11. An open cylindrical tank, one meter in diameter and 2.5 m high is 3/5 full of water. If the tank is rotated
about its vertical axis, what speed should it have in rpm so that (a) the water could just reach the rim of
the tank, (b) the depth of water at the center is zero, (c) there is no water at the bottom within 20 cm
from the vertical axis.
Ans. (a) 119.64 rpm, (b) 133.76 rpm, (c) 145.94 rpm
12. An open cylindrical tank 30 cm in diameter and 80 cm high partially filled with water is rotated about its
vertical axis at a speed of 240 rpm. (a) What would be the depth of water in the tank if the cylinder is
 bought to rest, (b) At what speed would it be rotated so that 1.40 liters of water will be spilled out?, and
(c) At what speed would it be rotated so that the pressure at the center of the bottom of the tank is zero?
Ans. (a) 0.44 m, (b) 246.48 rpm, (c) 252.22 rpm

13. An open cylindrical vessel 1 m in diameter contains water at a depth of 3.56 m. (a) If the vessel is
rotated at a speed of 80 rpm about its vertical axis, determine the least depth of the vessel so that no
water will be spilled out, (b) If the vessel is rotated at 120 rpm, how much water will be spilled out?, (c)
if the vessel is rotated at 140 rpm, what would be the pressure at the center bottom of the tank.
Ans. (a) 4.01 m, (b) 439 li, (c) 12.37 kPa

14. A vertical cylindrical tank 6 m high and 4 m in diameter is 2/3 full of water. It is rotated uniformly about
its axis until on the point of overflowing. (a) Compute the linear velocity in m/s at the circumference of
the tank. (b) How fast in rpm will it had to be rotated ni order that 6 cu. m. water will be spilled out? (c)
If it is rotated at the speed of 48 rpm, what is the pressure of the center bottom of the tank?
Ans. (a) 8.86 m/s, (b) 47.32 kPa, (c) 8.32 kPa

15. An open vertical cylindrical vessel, 2 m in diameter and 4 m high is filled with water to uncover a
circular area at the bottom of the vessel 1 m in diameter: (a) Determine the angular speed in rpm, and
(b) how much water is left in the cylinder after rotation?
Ans. (a) 97.68 rpm, (b) 4.716 m3

16. An open cylindrical tank 1.2 m in diameter and 1.8 m deep is filled with water and rotated about
its own axis at 60 revolutions per minute. How much liquid is spilled and what is the pressure at the
center of its bottom?
Ans. vspilled = 0.409 m3, p = 10.55 kPa

17. An open cylindrical vessel 1.2 m in diameter and 2.1 m high is 2/3 full of water, (a) compute the
amount of water in liters that will be spilled out if the vessel is rotated about its vertical axis at a
constant angular speed of 90 rpm, (b) At what speed in rpm can the vessel be rotated without spilling
any water?, and (c)At what speed in rpm can the vessel be rotated so that the pressure at the center of
the bottom of the tank will not exceed 6.867 kPa?
Ans. (a) 130 li , (b) 83.41 rpm, (c) 83.41 rpm

18. An open cylindrical vessel having a height equal to its diameter is half-filled with water and revolved
about its own vertical axis with a constant angular speed of 120 rpm. Find its minimum diameter so that
there can be no liquid spilled.
Ans. 0.497
4.4 Rotating Pipes and Manometer Tubes

 (rad/sec)

1 2

p1 = 0 (constant)

p2 = h

where

ω2 r 2
h=
2g

 = unit weight of liquid

 (rad/sec)

h2

h1
hmin

1 2
X1 X2

U-tube manometer rotated about a vertical axis at a constant angular speed 

p1 = h1

p2 = h2

pmin = hmin

 Note: The pressure head at any point in the tube is the vertical distance from the tube to the
paraboloid. The pressure is positive if the imaginary paraboloid is above the point and
negative if it is below the point. The limiting pressure is absolute zero.
Example 4.5

A U-tube is rotated about one leg, as shown. Before being rotated the liquid in the tube fills 0.25 m of each
leg. The length of the base of the U-tube is 0.5 m, and each leg is 0.5 m long. What would be the maximum
rotation rate (in rad/s) to ensure that no liquid is expelled from the outer leg?

Example 4.6
Water (ρ = 1000 kg/m3) fills a slender tube 1 cm in diameter, 40 cm long, and closed at one end. When the tube is
rotated in the horizontal plane about its open end at a constant speed of 50 rad/s, what force is exerted on the closed
end?
Problems

1. A U-tube is rotated at 50 rev/min about one leg. The fluid at the bottom of
the U-tube has a specific gravity of 3.0. The distance between the two legs of
the U-tube is 1 ft. A 6 in. height of another fluid is in the outer leg of the U-tube.
Both legs are open to the atmosphere. Calculate the specific gravity of the other
fluid. Ans. S = 2.58

2. Water stands in these tubes as shown when no rotation occurs. Derive a

formula for the angular speed at which water will just begin to spill out of the
small tube when the entire system is rotated about axis A-A.
7.5g
Ans.  
l

3. Water (ρ = 1000 kg/m3) stands in the closed-end U-tube as shown

when there is no rotation. If ℓ = 10 cm and if the entire system is
rotated about axis A-A, at what angular speed will water just begin to
spill out of the open tube? Assume that the temperature for the
system is the same before and after rotation and that the pressure in
the closed end is initially atmospheric. Ans. 17.7 rad/sec

4. A u-tube filled with mercury ( = 13,550 kg/m3) is rotated about axis

A - A. Length L is 25 cm and the column height z is 5 cm. Determine
the rotation speed (). Answer: 3.96 rad/s

5. A manometer is rotated around one leg, as shown. The difference in

elevation between the liquid surfaces in the legs is 20 cm. The radius of
the rotating arm is 10 cm. The liquid in the manometer is oil with a
specific gravity of 0.8. Find the number of g’s of acceleration in the leg
with greatest amount of oil. Answer: 4g