MATE 202

MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR AND TESTING OF

MATERIALS

Assist. Prof. Dr. Ozan ÖZKAN

Spring 2022-2023
 Tensile Testing
Definition:

 Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials science and engineering test in
which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure.

Which properties can we determine?

 Yield strength

 Tensile strength (or UltimateTensile Strength, UTS)

 Young’s Modulus

 Poisson’s ratio

 Strain at break

 Ductility (reduction in area or percent elongation)

 Resilience

 Toughness
 Tensile Testing
What results do we get from the test?

 We measure the change in load applied against the change in elongation.

 Then, according to the initial dimensions of the sample, the change in stress caused against the strain
caused is calculated.
 Tensile Testing
Sample:

 Dog-bone shaped:

 Circular cross-section for wire, bar, rod

etc.

 Rectangular cross-section for foils, sheets,

slabs, etc.

 Gauge length is important:

 For circular cross-section L0/D0 should be

~4–5

 For rectangular cross-section L0/√A0

should be ~4.5–5.5

 Shoulders depend on the grip type that

the instrument has, the shape of the
sample, cost of the operation and
experience of the technician.
 Tensile Testing
Testing Instrument:

 Universal Testing Machine (UTM).

 Strong frames to support the heads

 One stationary head and one moving head

(crosshead)

 Load cell connected to one of the heads to measure

the load as a result of increasing distance between
heads

 Holding grips that fix the sample from the

shoulders

 Extensometer (if necessary) clipped to the gauge

for sensitive elongation measurement

 Output devices to record and/or display the load

and elongation as well as calculate stress and strain
(gauges, screens and computers)
 Tensile Testing
Testing Conditions:

 Generally conducted under normal conditions such as room temperature

and humidity.

 However, depending on the target application for the material to be tested,

controlled temperatures (cold or elevated) as well as controlled humidity
(humid or dry) can be obtained with specialized cabins surrounding the
testing setup.

 Designated by the national / international standards.

Industrial Significance:

 Majority of the mechanical properties can be determined which is useful for most design purposes.

 Fast and cheap testing (apart from the initial investment of the instrument) which is useful for validation of
technical specifications.

 Relatively low level of expertise is required for the conducting technician.

 Tensile Testing
Procedure:
 Mark the gauge length location and measure the initial length (L0).
 Measure the initial diameter (D0) or initial width (w0) and thickness (t0).
 Place the sample between the heads using the proper grip setup.
 Run the test until the sample fails (breaks).
 Measure the length between the gauge marks (final length, Lf).
 Measure the final diameter (Df) or width (wf) and thickness (tf) from the fracture surface.
 Obtain the load and elongation data from the instrument.
 Construct the stress-strain graph using the proper formulation.

Formulation:

F πD0 2 ∆L Lf − L0
σ= A= OR A = w0 × t 0 ε= =
A 4 L0 L0
 Compression Testing
Definition:

 Compression testing, is another fundamental materials science and engineering test in which a sample is
subjected to a controlled compression until failure.

Which properties can we determine?

 Yield strength

 Young’s Modulus

 Poisson’s ratio

 Strain at break

 Ductility (expansion in area or percent shortening)

 Resilience

 Toughness
 Compression Testing
What results do we get from the test?

 We measure the change in load applied against the shortening of the sample.

 Then, according to the initial dimensions of the sample, the change in stress caused against the strain
caused is calculated.

 Vital in extreme plastic deformations.

 No necking that limits the information obtained for large plastic strains.
 Compression Testing
Sample:

 Mostly cylindrical shaped

 Diameter-to-height ratio is important:

 For H0/D0 > 5 buckling occurs (a).

 For H0/D0 > 2.5 shearing occurs (b).

 For H0/D0 > 2 barreling occurs (c).

 Ideal H0/D0 should be less than 2.

 Friction between pressing heads and the sample

surfaces should be minimized to prevent
barreling and nonuniform deformation.

 Parallel pressure plates can be used to distribute

the compressive load.
 Compression Testing
Testing Instrument:

 Universal Testing Machine (UTM).

 Strong frames to support the heads

 One stationary head or table and one moving head (crosshead)

 Load cell connected to one of the heads to measure the load as a

result of decreasing distance between heads

 Parallel plates to distribute the compressive load

 Extensometer (if necessary) clipped to the heads for sensitive

elongation measurement

 Output devices to record and/or display the load and shortening

as well as calculate stress and strain (gauges, screens and
computers)
 Compression Testing
Testing Conditions:

 Similar to tension testing, generally conducted under normal conditions such as room temperature and humidity.

 However, depending on the target application for the material to be tested, controlled temperatures (cold or
elevated) as well as controlled humidity (humid or dry) can be obtained with specialized cabins surrounding the
testing setup.

 Designated by the national / international standards.

Industrial Significance:

 In metalworking processes, large plastic deformations (especially compressive) are used. Therefore, behavior of the
material under large plastic strains should be known which is not possible with tensile testing due to necking.

 Materials that exhibit high tensile strength tend to (but do not always!) exhibit low compressive strength. Likewise,
materials high in compressive strength tend to exhibit low tensile strength. Therefore, compression testing is often
used on brittle materials such as concrete, metals, plastics, ceramics, composites, and corrugated materials like
cardboard.

 These materials are often used in a load-bearing capacity where their integrity under compressive forces is critical.
 Compression Testing
Procedure:
 Measure the initial height (H0).
 Measure the initial diameter (D0).
 Place the sample between the heads using proper lubrication.
 Run the test until the sample fails (breaks) or reaches the required threshold.
 Measure the final height (Hf).
 Measure the final diameter (Df).
 Obtain the load and shortening data from the instrument.
 Construct the stress-strain graph using the proper formulation.

Formulation:

F πD0 2 ∆H Hf − H0
σ= A= ε= =
A 4 H0 H0
 Bending Testing
Definition:

 Bending occurs in presence of both tension and compression stresses.

 Used to determine the structural stability of;

 load-bearing beams,

 welded parts,

 materials that are impossible to machine.

Which properties can we determine?

 Flexural strength (or Modulus of Rupture)

 Flexural Modulus

 Stiffness

 Deflection at break

 Flexural toughness
 Bending Testing
What results do we get from the test?

 We measure the change in load applied against the deflection of the sample at midpoint.

 Then, according to the initial dimensions of the sample, the change in stress caused against the strain
caused is calculated.
 Bending Testing
Sample:

 Sheet products with rectangular cross-section

 Long products with circular cross-section

 Length (span) between supporting pins as well as loading

pins (for 4-point bending) is important.

 A bend test produces tensile stress in the convex side of the

specimen and compression stress in the concave side. This
creates an area of shear stress along the midline.

 To ensure that primary failure comes from tensile or

compression stress, the shear stress must be minimized by
controlling the span to depth ratio; the length of the outer
span divided by the height (depth) of the specimen.

 For most materials S/d=16 is acceptable. Some materials

require S/d=32 to 64 to keep the shear stress low enough.
 Bending Testing
Testing Instrument:

 Universal Testing Machine (UTM).

 Strong frames to support the heads

 One stationary head or table and one moving head (crosshead)

 Supporting and loading platforms to place the sample between.

 Load cell connected to crosshead (loading platform) to measure

the load as a result of decreasing distance between heads

 Output devices to record and/or display the load and shortening

as well as calculate stress and strain (gauges, screens and
computers)
 Bending Testing
Testing Conditions:

 Similar to tension and compression testing, generally conducted under normal conditions such as room
temperature and humidity.

 However, depending on the target application for the material to be tested, controlled temperatures (cold or
elevated) as well as controlled humidity (humid or dry) can be obtained with specialized cabins surrounding the
testing setup.

 Designated by the national / international standards.

Industrial Significance:

 Both tension and compression testing require certain shaped samples which generally obtained via machining.
Materials such as ceramics and certain composites are impossible to machine or converted into those shapes.

 The strength characterization of a welded part at the point of weld is a common industrial practice.

 Horizontal load-bearing beams inside of structural components (buildings, machines, vehicles, etc.) are generally
subjected to complex flexural loads.
 Bending Testing
Procedure:
 Measure the Span length (L).
 Measure the initial diameter (D0) or width (b0) and height (d0).
 Place the sample between the heads and between the loading/supporting platforms.
 Run the test until the sample fails (breaks) or reaches the required threshold.
 Measure the radius of curvature of natural axis (Rc) and maximum deflection (Y).
 Measure the final diameter (Df) or width (bf) and height (df).
 Obtain the load and deflection data from the instrument.
 Construct the stress-strain graph using the proper formulation.

Formulation:

M. c
σ=
I
c 12. Y. c
ε= =
Rc L2