Chapter 3 Material Testing

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:

1. Describe various methods for testing physical, mechanical, and thermal material
properties.

3.1 Tension Test

Description

Also called tension testing; a fundamental materials science and engineering test in
which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure.

Methods

The testing involves taking a small sample (tensile specimen ‘keys’) with a fixed cross-
sectional area, and then pulling it with a tensometer, a strain gauge, or a universal testing
machine (UTM) at a constant strain rate until the sample breaks.

Types of Tensile Specimen

Keys A-C are for round specimens; Keys D-E are for flat specimens.
A. A Threaded shoulder for use with a thread
B. A round shoulder for use with serrated grips
C. A butt end shoulder for use with a split collar
D. A flat shoulder for used with serrated grips
E. A flat shoulder with a through hole for a pinned grip

Parts of Test Specimen

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Parts of a Tensometer

Result of Tensile Testing

Figure above is an example of a stress-strain curve.

1: Ultimate strength
2: Yield strength (yield point)
3: Rupture
4: Strain hardening region
5: Necking region
A: Apparent stress (F/A0)
B: Actual stress (F/A)

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Properties Measured in Tensile Testing

Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)

Often shortened to tensile strength or ultimate strength, is the maximum stress that a
material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before failing or breaking.

Breaking Strength

The greatest stress especially in tension that a material is capable of withstanding

without rupture.

Maximum Elongation

Elongation at Break, also known as fracture strain or tensile elongation at break, is the
ratio between increased length and initial length after breakage of the tested specimen at a
controlled temperature. It is related to the ability of a plastic specimen to resist changes of
shape without cracking.

The formula for elongation at any length L during tensile testing is:

where, δ – elongation, (in or mm)

L0 – initial gauge length between marks, (in or mm)
L – length between marks at any point during uniform elongation, (in or mm)

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Reduction in Area

A comparison between the original cross-sectional area of a sample and the minimum
cross-sectional area of the same sample after complete fracture failure. It is used as an indicator
to show to what extent a material will deform when subjected to a tensile load.

3.2 Compression Test

Description

Compression tests measure the compressive strength or compression strength, which is

the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to reduce size, as opposed to
tensile strength which withstands loads tending to elongate.

Methods

Compressive strength is often measured on a universal testing machine; affected by the specific
test method and conditions of measurement; usually reported in relationship to a specific
technical standard. Results are also in the form of a stress-strain curve.

Parts of Universal Testing Machine

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Tension Test vs. Compression Test

Tension Test Compression Test

Measure the capacity of a material to Measure the capacity of a material to
withstand loads tending to elongate withstand loads tending to reduce

Resists tension (being pulled apart) Resists being pushed together

Properties Measured in Compression Testing

Elastic and Compressive Fracture Properties

Typically applied to brittle materials or low-ductility material; the basic description of crack
propagation through a solid brittle material.

Compressive Yield Point

The point that terminates the linear region where the material deforms elastically and
returns to its original length when the stress is removed.

Compressive Yield Strength

Stress which causes a material to exhibit a specified deformation.

Compressive Strength

The capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to reduce size.

3.3 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Definition

Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change its shape, area, volume, and
density in response to a change in temperature, usually not including phase transitions.

Methods in Determining Thermal Expansion

Linear expansivity of a material can be determined by the Pullinger’s apparatus; a

hollow cylinder as a container, experimental rod for sampling, and spherometer to measure the
increase in length of the rod. The rod’s initial temperature is taken (T1). Steam is passed into the
cylinder and final temperature of the rod is taken (T2). The spherometer is rotated downward
and the reading of the spherometer is taken.

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 The change in length is proportional to length L. The dependence of thermal expansion
on temperature, substance, and length is summarized in the equation, where dL is the change in
length L, dT is the change in temperature, and αL is the coefficient of linear expansion, which
varies slightly with temperature.

Parts of a Pullinger’s Apparatus

3.4 Beam Deflection

Definition

Deflection is the degree to which a structural element is displaced under a load (due to
its deformation). It may refer to an angle or a distance.

Beam Deflection for Various Loads and Supports

Cantilever Beams

Cantilever beams have one end fixed, so that the slope and deflection at that end must be zero.

1. End-loaded cantilever beams

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A (weightless) cantilever beam with an end load; the elastic deflection 𝛿 and angle of deflection
ɸ (in radians) at the free end, the force F acting on the tip of the beam, Length L of the beam,
Modulus of elasticity E, & area moment of inertia I of the beam's cross section:

2. Uniformly-loaded cantilever beams

A cantilever beam with a uniform distributed load q (force per unit length):

Simply-supported Beams

Simply-supported beams have supports under their ends which allow rotation, but not
deflection.

1. Center-loaded simple beams

Elastic deflection at the midpoint C of a beam, loaded at its center, supported by two simple
supports:

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2. Off-center-loaded simple beams

The maximum elastic deflection on a beam supported by two simple supports, loaded at a
distance a from the closest support:

3. Uniformly-loaded simple beams

Elastic deflection (at the midpoint C) on a beam supported by two simple supports,
under a uniform load q:

3.4 Shear/Torsion Test

Definition

Torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque; expressed in either the Pascal
(Pa), an SI unit for newtons per square metre, or in pounds per square inch (psi). In sections
perpendicular to the torque axis, the resultant shear stress in this section is perpendicular to the
radius. In non-circular cross-sections, twisting is accompanied by a distortion called warping, in
which transverse sections do not remain plane.

Methods

Torsion tests twist a material or test component to a specified degree, with a specified force, or
until the material fails in torsion using a Torsion Testing Machine. The twisting force of a torsion
test is applied to the test sample by anchoring one end so that it cannot move or rotate and
applying a moment to the other end so that the sample is rotated about its axis. The rotating
moment may also be applied to both ends of the sample but the ends must be rotated in opposite
directions.

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Parts of a Torsion Testing Machine

Properties Measured in Torsion/Shear Testing

Torsion

for shafts of uniform cross-section unrestrained against warping:

where T – the applied torque or moment of torsion in Nm.

τ – the maximum shear stress at the outer surface
JT – torsion constant for the section.
r – the perpendicular distance between the rotational axis and the farthest point
in the section (at the outer surface).
ℓ – length of the object to or over which the torque is being applied.
φ – angle of twist in radians.
G – shear modulus, also called the modulus of rigidity, and is usually given in
gigapascals (GPa), lbf/in2 (psi), or lbf/ft2 or in ISO units N/mm2.

Shear Stress

The shear stress at a point within a shaft:

Angle of Twist

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Failure

Requires that the test sample be twisted until it breaks and is designed to measure the strength
of the sample.

The shear stress in the shaft may be resolved into principal stresses via Mohr's circle. If the shaft
is loaded only in torsion, then one of the principal stresses will be in tension and the other in
compression. These stresses are oriented at a 45-degree helical angle around the shaft. If the
shaft is made of brittle material, then the shaft will fail by a crack initiating at the surface and
propagating through to the core of the shaft, fracturing in a 45-degree angle helical shape.

Proof Test

Designed to observe the material under a specified torque load over a set period of time.

Operational Test

Measures the material’s performance under the expected service conditions of its application.

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