Seminar h

1) light microscope
:

→ visible light passes through the specimen Ltte biologicel Sample

you are
Looking at) and is bent through the lens
system akowing
,

the to An of
user see a
megnitied image .
benefit light microscopy
is that it can offen be
performance on
Kung aus ,
so it's

possible to Watch ceks out their normal behaviors under the

erging
rnicroscope

types :

microscope differential
→ Phase Contras ,
interferenzen contrast miwoscope ,

Interface microscope , Fluorescenee microscope pdarizing microseope

, ,

Confed Laser Scanning miwoscope

Electron ricroscopes
→ differ from the light microscopes that they produce
in an
image
of a
specimen by using a beam of elections retten then a been

of light .
Electron here much a
Shooter weuelength than uisible light
and this EM to higher
alias produee -

resolution images then

Standard LM.EU can be used to etamine not just whole celcs but

also the subeellulor Structures Kompartimente within them

One Limitation is that EM hust be pheced under

,
however Samples
Vacuum in EM - This means that live ceks cannot be
imged .

types :

→
Scanning tecnneling nicroseope atomic force
, microseope

2) resolution :

→ in the ten is used to describe ability of microseope

microscopy a

to distinguish detail → the minimum distance at which two district

point of a
specimen can still be Seas -
eitler by the Observer or the

microscope Cameron as
separate entihes
-

→ to
get the total mgnifcation the the power of the
objective (4410×140)
multiples by of the
and the power egepiece casualty 109

3) Tissuepreparaton
-

rostig formal in fixed -

, paraffin -

embedded , heretoxylin and eosinstained

specinens
-
removal of tissüe → fixation -7
rising -
>
dehydrationltissweexposed to

incneasing alcohol Solutions which removes weiter)

 -

Clearing → alcohol is reenoved

-

infiltration → tissue placed in melted paraffin until it become Complete}

infltrated by it
-

ernlbedding
:

paraffin → allowed to herden

microtome
sectioning
- :

Steinig
mounting
-

4) purpose
-

to permanentIg preserve the Issue Structure

→ terminale metabolisch
→
preuent enzymatie degradation
→ will pathogene microorganisms
→ harden tissue

types of Active Solutions :

formalen
-

osmium tetroxide
-
alcohol

5) to be visualised by an EM , biologieal Samples need to be :

fixed (stabilised) so the electron beam does not

destroy them
dried the doesn't them
thoronghly so vacuum effect
-

to be uisuacised by an LM , biologie sempkdneed to be:

-
removal of tissüe → fixation -7
rising -
>
dehydrationltisswe exposed to

incneasing alcohol Solutions which removes weiter)

-

Clearing → alcohol is reenoved

-

infiltration → tissue placed in melted paraffin until it become Complete}

infltrated by it
-

ernlbedding
:

paraffin → allowed to herden

microtome
sectioning
- :

Steinig
mounting
-
6) heonatolylin
:

substaaces that exhibit basophilia :

heterochromatin & nucleoli Cnndeus most

negative)
-
:

eosin :

snbstances that exhibit acidophilia

-

cgtoplasmic f. laments
-
intracelkelar membranoes
Components
-
ettracellnlar tibers

other staining methods :

methyl green
-

puranine
-

-
carbotfuchsin

nigrosin
-

Safran im

Seminar 2
1) around 370
2) dich phosphatase is
highly concentrated in the nuclei and some peri .

biliary polymorph :c Structures identified as

rhyeliin figures
3) Succinete dehydrogenase is a
hey enzyme in
intermediaeres metabolisch

cehls
and aerobic energy production in
liuing . This enzymes catalyses
the Oxidation of snccinate into fumarete in the Krebs
cycle (e) ,
deriued electron being feel to the respiratory chain complex III to rechne

and form werter When stained with tetrasolium it

oxygen .

appears blue .

4) -

Sudan 3 -
Oil red O

Sudan blech Cnlyceride

-
-

5) Marco
polysaccharide in cells & tissue
6) The
specificity of a reaction between an antigen kam antibodg is under

( basis of immunochemistrg
ging
anti bodies
Cimmunoglobnlins) are
glgcoproteins that produced by specific
-

are

Calls of the System to foreign protein kantigen)

immune in
response a

antibodies be ettached to fluorescent

dge Cfluorochoomes)
-
can

-
fluorochromes are chemical that absorb light of different Wave
-

Iengths and then Send out visible light of of a

specific
wcvelength
-
flnorescein -
absorbs Ultraviolett light and emits
green light
In situ hgubriditation CISH) is a type of hgbridization that uses a

lebend
complen.eu/-aryDNA,RNAormodifiednucleicacidS Strand

)
( i. e. probe to loealize a specific DNA or RNA Sequence in a
portion
or gection of tissue Ein situ) or if the tissue is smell enough ( eg .

plant
Seeds ( Drosophila embryos) ein the entre tissue ( Whole mount HH) ,
in cells

and
circulating tumor cells ( CTCS) This district from

immunohistochenistry
in .
is

ns.uellylocalizes proteins ,
which in tissue sections .

Seminar 3
1) microuilli :

Each microuillus has a denk bundle of Cross -

linliedactin

filament , which serues as its structural core .

20 -

30 tigtlg bnndled
actin filament are Cross -
lineed by bundling proteins fimbrin ( or plestin -

)
r ,

villin and espinho form the core of the microvilli .

Slereocilia :

In Structure
, they are much Lager and Heider then typica microvilli ,
"

form that
finger be and have
"

Single -
like projektions mag breuehed
more of the characteistics of the cellular membrane großer .

Like microvilli they contain actin filament and Lachen axonen.ee

, ,

distinguishing them from eilia .

Kinocilia :

central of
Elia possess a
pair microtubulessonrroundedby.cn
inner sheath .
Vine Outer pairs of microtubnles are connected to the
Central
pair by radial spohes which ettend at
right angles out

them .
The
9 outer
pair of microtubules are connected to each other

All ciliaruy to
by metin bridges .
microtubules rum
parallel each

other .
2) Kinocilia are
typica for the
respiratory epitelinm present in

hose , paranoid sinusesclarynl ,

trocken ,
bronchies .

Stereocicia are Sound in the

following three
regions of

the body :

-
the ductus deferens
-
the epididgmis
the sensory Chair ) cells of the inner ear
-

3) Desmosones are
conposed of desnrosome -

intermediate filament

Complete CDIFC) ,
which is a network of cadherin proteins ,

linker
proteins and Keratin intermediate filament .

found that intense

They are in tissue
expansive mechanical

Stress
,
such es cardiac musste tissue ,
bledder tissue ,

gastrointestinal muessen auch

epithelia .

Hemidesmosomes two
have membrane
spenning Components Integrin
- :

ab ßY and Platin 1a .
Integrin 1604 operates as a

( aminin -
332 receptor .

They are fand in heratinocytes of the

of
epidermis Shin .

4) historica models :
-

unit membrane model

-

dannelli model
fluid mosaic model
There is a
Lipid bilayer ( 2 mdecules lager consisting priority
thich

of
amphipethic phospholipide ) in which Protein moleeuces are
embedded .
The Lipid beilegen gives flniditg and
elasticity tote
membrane . Snell amounts of Carbohydrates are also Sound
in the cell membrane .

5) types of interzellulär junctions

-
adherehce junctions

gap junctions
-

tight junctions
Seminar 5

1) Hematoxylin is a basic dye which internets with anionic

Components of cells and tissue ( Components that net

Carry a

negative Charge ) .
The phosphate group of nucleic acids are

anionic Components .

2) Euch vornahm & Heterochrometnss are the regions with low

electron Heterochromatin
density .
is Iocated on internet aspect
Of &
nuklear envelope ,
around nudeolus in discnete
aggregations → haryo .

Somes on the nnclear matrix background .

Its Structural components
are
easily distinguishable ohne to their electron density

3) Euchromatin is preualent in cells that are active in the

transciiption of many of their gems because it

participates
in the active
transcription of DNA to mRNA products .

The unfolded Structure allows

gehe regulatory proteins
and to bind the DNA
DNA polymerase Complete to sequence ,

which then initiale the transaiption

can
process .

4) Plant and animal cells can contain more than one nudedns .

5) llicrotubules function as tracks in the intrazellulär Transport of

bound
membrane -

vesides and organekes .

This process is
propelled by
motor proteins such as dynein .
Motor proteins connect the

transport vesides to microtubuks and actin filament to facilitate

intrazellulaer movement .
llicrotubules are
organized so their

plus ends ettend through the

peripheres of the cells and their
minus ends are anchored Within the centrosome ,
so they utilize

the motor
proteins hinein 's (
positive end directeur ) and
dgnein 'S
(negative end ahrected ) to
transport veäicles and
organelles in

opposite directions through the

cgtoplasm .

6) The two mein Components of the cgtosheleton are actin , which

forms filament
polymers known as thin and tnbulin which ,

polymerizes to form ncicrotubnles leicootubules are crueial to cell .

division
they form the spindle which segregates dupliceted chrono
: -

Jones into two new ceks . The centrosome is also

very important
for the cell division in teams of deep Keating betone cell division , so
they then help to Organizer the microtnbules and the eell division

process .

7) Profilen :

Active -
monomer
-

binding protein profiling is essential for the viability

of most euheryotes .
Profilen bound to the barbed end of an ectin

inhibits nueleation at
Monomer
stericaky and elongetion painted ends,

but not elongation at barbed ends

Cofilin :

A Smart
protein that binds in the berbed - end groove of aetin

monomers and to actin filament .

Cofilin bound to actin monomers

inhibits nucleotide exchange .

8)
1. Keratin (epithelialeeels)
2. Uimentin Cmesodermel Origin)
3. Neurofilament ( neurons )
4. Lenins (A. B. c)
5. Desmin (musclecells)
6. Glial ( glial cells )
 Seminar 7 :

1) cell
Lagers of stratifiedsgnamouskeratinizedepithe.li um :

-
Stratum basale ( basal layer)
-

Stratum spinosum Cspinous layer)

Stratum granulosum (granulaer lager)
-

-
Stratum kecidum

-
stratum corneum ( horny Lager)
2) stratifiednon-heratinizedepitheliun.com be Sound in :

oral cavity
oesophagus
-

Vagina
-

terminal of rectus
portion
-

3) main morphologisch difference between etocrine & endocrine glands

endocnne
exoaine
glands glands
most consist of secnetory lach of
elementary
- -

deut
excretory portion system
shape of
Sewetory portion Morphologie) 2
types
-
:
-
:

→ tubular, acinarleluedar) , e) Protein -

producing aus

tubuloacinar 2) Steroid -

producing cells

Simple glands
-
:

(one
straightunbranetedexcnetory
duet)

tubular
→
simple
→
simple einer lalueolar

simple brauchendtubular
acinar
→
,

Compound :
-

brauchend excnetory system

→
Compound tubular

acinerlalueolar
→
Compound
→
compound tnbnloaeinar

4) serons acini :
macos acini

-
toll
pyramide cells -

smarter mncous aus

↳ flatternd
-
nuclei at base of Ces basaky Located nnclei

of of mucinogen
-

apical portion cell Cytoplasma abnndance granate in

contains numerus zymogen grandes cell

cytoplasm (replace )
it

-
small in Size -

larger ,
wider Lumen (Compact to Seas
)
acini

Innen
relative
ly
-

narrow
5)
tissuepreperatioa.rwecousceksswe.tl
Due to the fixation process during a routine

and the see Calls novel to of scenes and

are periphere
are seen as erntet structures Genoms demilunes) .

6) difference between meroceine &

apocnine Seeenetion :

the mechanism of epocytos.is

-
in a merocrine
gland the Secrets occurs through
-
in a
apoceine gland seeretion tahes place through the release of

Secretory products , together with the

epicelcellp.de
Seminar 8

5) while
(uni
adipose trssue brown
Cmultiloculer)
adipose tissue
locker )
-
Containers
Specialist cells for -

polygonal adipo alles Greller than while one )

fat storage →
adipocy# Clip) -
sind , Lipid droplets
↳
eytoplesm conteins
Single luniloculer
non -
membrane bound Lipid drgdet
-

Sphericel nuclei

cells visuelle ennpty abandant mitochondrien

-
are → ex- -

traction of lipids by Alcohol , Niehl ↳

confaining a
cytochrom Pigment
-
flutend , eccentric nuclei of

adipocytes

6) reticular Connection tissue fand in

follies
-

liymphetic -

Spleen
-

lymph nodes -
bone narrow

Seminar 9

2) elastic Carthage :

cells & ECM simikar to

hyaline Carthage
-

↳ ECM inclndes abnndant network of elastic fiber

surrounded by peichondrinm
-

chondrocytes of 1/2
arranged in Snell isogenous group aus
-

- does not
charity during aging process
of
avascnlar
prouides fletibility external ear
-

f-
brocartilage
:

auasculor.no peichondrium ,
consists of Single Single chondrocytes , isogenous group of
aligned chondrocytee
-
cells are dispersed among the ECM →
Containers abundant collagen tibers,
proteoglycans
-
2 population of cells :
chondrocyles → oval nudei
,
Surround by Snell amountofamorphe.us matrix
-

2nd group : consists of Scalterech fibroblasten Within fibrous areas of interuertebral discs

3) interuertebral discs,
pnbic Symphyse articulor discs
,
of
stemdlevicularctlonporomandibukr
of Knee
joint ,
menisei joints

4) -
in the adult :
trachea.bwnchi.hn/nXcneese
-

covers arficulor Surtees of synouial joints

5) Osteoprogehitor ceks
,
Osteoblasts , otteocytes (bone timing ceks
,
osteocksts

6) Ostens :

-
consist of cyhindn.ca/lameKaeofbonemetrixsurronndinga Hauers
ian Canal

7) zone of : reserve
Carthage , proliferation h.ypertrophy.edu/edcartilage
, ,

ossificetion

Seminar 11

4) deuelop tonic
ftp.hasecontractionsinresponse
-
Smooth musste Contracting = Smooth musste ceks

changes length regard to in Load or ,

less of

Cycling between
Stinnes actin &
,
Smooth mnsde cell use cross -

bridge
to
deuelop force and Calcium ions Serie to initiale Contracting
myosin
-

striated made Contracting = Force geheiratet by inaeased force being

exerted the tenders itinudues chemo mechanical
conversion
on
energy
-

step that canned by ( complex activity which out aetn

myosin (
is

generales force through ATP

hgdrdysis
5) It accounts for 40%-4506 of total bodg nass bis necessary for

geaeratig faces for movements .

Up to a certain threshold ,sleeletal
has of
musste the
Capability regenerativ last
upon injvrg Beyond - this

threshold (
the reneining morsche time is made to Kelly regenerate
its function .

Seminar 12

5) mgelinafion :

1) Schwann cell become aligned along the extends wide

cytoplasmic
axon and a

to eacircle it
process .

2) The growing process complete Iy eheloses the atom but Continuous its Spiral
extension .

3) The Spiral wrappings become compacted lagers of all membrane (myelin) es

cytopksm leaves the growing process .

4) The Nature Schwann cell

myelinsheath has
up to 100 lamellae
,
with

most cytoplasm in the outer most Layer with the all bodg
 Seminar 13
4)

:|
meiosis in reale meiosis in female

before birth
during homdogoas chrono primary oocytes Starts
-

meines → -
-
: meiosis,

some come together & recombination arrested in prophase I

homolog chromosome
sepe from
pubertg primary oocyte Complete first
-

uns
-

_
:

÷::c :c::c::÷¥ :÷÷÷:÷÷:÷÷÷÷: ::*:

:
go second meiotic division to ↳ it it gets fertilized : Complete second meiotic division

Producer hepcoid Ceta → b become an ouum

sperma -

tids
↳ if not : it
degenerates

5) a
process through which cortical
grandes from the oocyte are

fast
releasedpneventingpolyspermy.TK block of
polyspermy parents
,

altached to the
additional sperm getting oocyte

6) -
cortical reaction →
spread across entre surface of oocyte
-
Zone reaction →
Protease alter the properties of Zona
pelludica into the

innpeuetrabkper.io/-eUine barrier

after 2nd meiotic division sproducing 2nd body & female promoten
polar
- -

nucleus of
penetratig Spon undergoes decondensation to become
Single
-

malen
proncecleees
-
both ( Ico) pronuclei reparierte their DNA
- nur
envelope of both pronuelei dösintegnetei fusion of
proneedei
form Zygote
zygote diploid
: → Starts diidig
-

then
→
Blestocgst formation
-

cleauage : when
Zygote reacled 2- cell
Stage , undergoes Series of rnitotic

division → as it moved towards the uterus

deauage is asymnetrical asynchrones

-

,
 Seminar 14

e) zygote euters the ntrine cauitg 3-4 dass lafer

2) A
pregnancy that is not in the nsual
place and is located

Outside inner
timing of the uterus . A fertilized egg Selfies & grows

Location of the The

in any other than the inner timing uterus <

Large

majority ( 95%) of extrauterine pregnaney occur in the

Fallopiantube .

3) process that estabtishes the trhree primary germ Lagers forming,

the trilaminar

imbryonic disk
-
formation of primitive Streak in micheline of epiblast
streak consist of groove , noch
primitive primitive pit
-
: -

invaginate.forming.tk
-
ceks of epiblast migrate toward the primitiven Stream &

3
gern Lagers
:

the
→ some
invaginatedce.US displace hgpoblest creating , embryonic enden -

dem
→ Some come to be between
epiblastfnewlycreatedendoderr.to form

mesoderm

→ aus
remaining in the
epiblast then form ectoderm

4) The cells in the blestula rearrange ttemselues spatielly to form 3 lagers .

of celb →
gastrulation

5) In the Intel phase of the ovqrian Cycle ,

the corpus luteum which

inhibits hypothalamus & anterior

pituitary gland

6) →
pqratial mesoderm

→ intermediate mesoderm

→ lateral mesoderm
→
mesenchyme