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 Quantum

Unit – 1
Chapter – 1(Quantum)

 DokUVe HkkSfrdh (Quantum Physics) %&

 19 oha ‘krkCnh ds var rd HkkSfrdh ds fu;e le>us ds fy, fojlEer HkkSfrdh dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk
FkkA blesa d.k dh izd`fr dks U;wVu ds fu;eksa }kjk rFkk rjax izd`fr dks eSDlosy dh lehdj.kksa }kjk
le>k tkrk FkkA ijarq 20 oha ‘krkCnh dh ‘kq:vkr esa d`f”.kdk fofdj.k iz;ksx le>us ds fy, DokUVe
HkkSfrdh dk mn~xe gqvkA
 DokUVe HkkSfrdh ds vuqlkj d`f”.kdk }kjk fofdj.kksa dh mRltZu vFkok vo’kks”k.k lrr~ u gksdj ÅtkZ
dh ,d fuf’pr ek=k (hυ) ds :i esa gksrk gSaA
tgk¡ h = Iykad fu;rkad = 6.623 × 10−34 J sec
,oa υ = d`f”.kdk esas mifLFkr nksydksa dh vko`fŸk
 blh iz;ksx ds lkFk dqN vU; iz;ksx tSls izdk’k fo/kqr izHkko] dkEiVu izHkko dks Hkh DokUVe HkkSfrdh
}kjk le>k;k x;kA
 d`f”.kdk fofdj.k iz;ksx %&
 d`f”.kdk (Black Body) :- ,slh oLrq tks vius i`”B ij vkifrr lHkh rjaxnS/;Z dh fofdj.kksa dk iw.kZr;k
vo’kks”k.k ;k mRltZu dj lds] d`f”.kdk dgykrh gSA
mnk%&dkty] lw;Z
 d`f”.kdk fofdj.k %&
d`f”.kdk dks fuf’pr rki ij j[kus ij d`f”.kdk dh fnokjksa ds ijek.kq fo/kqr pqacdh; fofdj.kksa dk
vo’kks”k.k djrs gSa ftudh rjaxnS/;Z λ ,0 ls ∞ rd gks ldrh gSA bu fofdj.kksa dks d`f”.kdk esa cus NksVs fNnz
}kjk mRlftZr djok;k tkrk gSaA
xk γ &Gamma Ray 10−14 − 10−11 m
;s X &X-Ray 10−12 − 10−9 m
;q U-V&Ultra Violet 10−10 − 10−7 m
oh V&Visible 350nm − 750nm
I I &Infrarred 10−6 − 10−4 m
Am M &Microwave 10−4 − 10−1 m
Rakesh R &Radio 10−1 − 104 m
hc
E=
λ

 d`f”.kdk dk LiSDVªeh ÅtkZ forj.k oØ (Energy distribution curve of Black body) :-

1
 Quantum

 Q: ,d d`f”.kdk ds LisDVªeh ÅtkZ forj.k dh fo’ks”krk d;k gS ? d`f”.kdk ds LisDVªeh ÅtkZ forj.k dks
le>us esa ohu forj.k fu;e rFkk jSys thUl fu;e dh foQyrkvksa dh foospuk dhft,A
Ans. d`f”.kdk }kjk mRlftZr LiSDVªe ds fy, LiSDVªeh mRltZu {kerk E(λ) rFkk rjaxnS/;Z ds e/; [khapk x;k
oØ] LiSDVªeh ÅtkZ forj.k oØ dks le> ldrs gSA
1. fdlh fuf’pr rki ij d`f”.kdk fofdj.k odz lrr~ gksrk gS ? rki λ ds izR;sd eku ij E(λ ) dk ,d
fuf’pr eku izkIr gksrk gSA
2. rki c<+kus ij izR;sd rjaxnS/;Z ds fofdj.kksa dh ek=k esa o`f) gksrh gSA
3. fdlh fuf’pr rki ij rjaxnS/;Z dk eku c<kus ij E(λ) dk eku Hkh c<+rk gS rFkk λ m ds fdlh
fuf’pr eku ds fy, E(λ )m dk eku vf/kdre gksrk gSA
4. λ m ds laxr E(λ ) dks vf/kdre mRltZu {kerk E λ dgrs gSA
m

5. ohu dk fofdj.k fu;e &rki c<kus ij λ m dk eku de gksrk gSA

1 b
λm ∝ ⇒ λm =
T T

⇒ λmT = b
;gk¡ b = ohu fu;rkad = 2.898 × 10−3 mk
6. vf/kdre mRltZu {kerk E λ rki dh iape ?kkr ds lekuqikrh gksrk gSA
m

Eλm ∝ T 5

7. dqy ÅtkZ rki dh prqFkZ ?kkr dh lekuqikrh gksrk gSA

E ∝ T4
⇒ E = σT 4 LVhQu oksYVteku fu;e
∞

E = ∫ E λ ⋅ dλ = σT 4
0

 Okhu rFkk jSys thUl ds fu;eksa dh vlQyrk,¡ %&

1. ohu dk fofdj.k fu;e] fodj.kksa ds vo’kks”k.k o mRltZu dh dqN LoSfPNd vfHk/kkj.kkvksa ij
vk/kkfjr gS blds vuqlkj&
A −α / λT
E λ dλ = e dλ ... (1)
λ5
;g fu;e dsoy y?kq rjaxnS/;Z fofdj.kksa ds fy, d`f”.kdk fofdj.k mRltZu oØ dks le>k ikrk gSA
 jSys thUl ds vuqlkj fofdj.k dk mRltZu fuEu fl)kUrksa ij vk/kkfjr gSA

2
 Quantum

(i) ÅtkZ ds lefoHkktu fl)kUr ij

(ii) dksVj esa vizxkeh rjaxs cuus ds fl)kUr ij
2. jSys thUl dk fu;e dsoy nh?kZ rjaxnS/;Z dh fofdj.kksa ds fy, d`f”.kdk fofdj.k ÅtkZ oØ dks le>k
ikrk gSA
blds vuqlkj &
8πυ2 kT
E λ ⋅ dλ = ⋅ dυ ... (2)
c3

leh-(2) ds vuqlkj LiSDVªeh ÅtkZ ?kuRo dk eku υ2 ds lekuqikrh gksrk gS tks fd d`f”.kdk ÅtkZ
forj.k oØ esa nh?kZ rjaxnS/;Z ds fy, gh oS/k gSaA
 Iykad dk fofdj.k fu;e %&
Iykad ds vuqlkj d`f”.kdk }kjk fofdj.kksa dk mRltZu lrr~ u gksdj ÅtkZ dh ,d fuf’pr ek=k (hυ)
ds :i esa gksrk gSA
 d`f”.kdk ls mRlftZr fofdj.k dh ÅtkZ Kkr djus ds fy, Iykad us eSDlosy cksYVteku lkaf[;dh dk
mi;ksx fd;kA ftlds vuqlkj T rki ij fofoDr ÅtkZ eku n hυ okys nksydksa dh la[;k
 −E 
N n = A exp  
 KT 
E n = nhυ
 − nhυ 
N n = A exp  
 KT 
Nksydksa dh dqy ÅtkZ
E = ∑ nhυ ⋅ N n ... (1)
,oa d`f”.kdk esa mifLFkr nksydksa dh dqy la[;k = ∑ N n ... (2)

vr% d`f”.kdk dh vkSlr ÅtkZ E =

∑ nhυ ⋅ N n
∑N n

E =
{
A ∑ nhυ ⋅ exp − nhυ KT }
 − nhυ 
A ∑ exp  
 KT 
hυ
Let =x
KT
xKT ∑ n exp {− nx}
=
{exp {− nx}}
3
 Quantum

∞
xKT ∑ e { }
d − nx
n = 0 dx
= ∞
... (3)
∑e
n =0
− nx

∑e − nx
= 1+ e −x
+ e −2x + ... ;gG.P. gS ftlds inksa dk ;ksx
a
S∞ =
1− r
a = izFke in = 1
r = lkoZvuqikr = e − x
1
S∞ = ∑ e − nx = ... (4)
1 − e− x
(4) , (3) esa eku j[kus ij
d  1 
− xKT  
dx 1 − e − x 
E =
1
1 − e− x
− xKT  −e − x / (1 − e − x ) 2 
=
1
1 − e− x
hυ ⋅ e − hυ / KT × e + hυ / KT
=
(1 − e − hυ / KT ) × e + hυ / KT
xKT e − x
= ⋅ (1 − e − x )
(1 − e − x ) 2
xKT e − x
=
(1 − e − x )
hυ e− x hυ ⋅ e − hυ / KT
= KT =
KT 1 − e − x 1 − e − hυ / KT
− hυ / KT
hυe
E =
1 − e − hυ / KT
hυ
+
e KT
dk xq.kk va’k o gj djus ij

hυ
E = + hυ / KT
... (5)
e −1
leh- (5) Iykad ds vuqlkj d`f”.kdk ds nksydksa dh vkSlr ÅtkZ gSaA
 Iykad dk fofdj.k fu;e %&
Iykad ds vuqlkj υ ls υ + dυ vko`frijkl esa d`f”.kdk dk ÅtkZ ?kuRo fuEu gksrk gSaA
U(υ)dυ = Nυdυ E ... (6)

4
 Quantum

8πυ2
 Nυdυ = ⋅ dυ ... (7)
c3
leh-(7), (5) ls eku (6) esa j[kus ij
8πυ2 hυ
U(υ)dυ = dυ × hυ / KT
c 3
e −1
8πhυ 3
1
U(υ)dυ = ⋅ hυ / KT dυ ... (8)
c 3
e −1
;g Iykad dk fofdj.k fu;e vFkok fofdj.k lw= dgykrk gSaA
 Iykad ds fofdj.k fu;e ls ohu rFkk jSys thUl fu;e dh mRifÙk %&
ohu dk fu;e %&
Iykad ds vuqlkj υ ls (υ + dυ) vko`fÙk ijkl esa mRlftZr fofdj.kksa dk ÅtkZ ?kuRo
8πhυ3 1
U υ ⋅ dυ = hυ / KT
⋅ dυ ... (1)
3
c e −1
c
 υ=
λ
−c
dυ = 2 dλ v ... (2)
λ
(2) → (1)
λ ls (λ + dλ ) ijkl esa ÅtkZk ?kuRo %&
8πh  c3  1  −c 
U λ .dλ = 3  3  2 dλ 
c λ    hc    λ 
exp   − 1
 λKT 
8πhc dλ
U λ .dλ = ⋅ ... (3)
λ 5
 hc 
exp   −1
 λKT 
ohu dk fu;e y?kq rjaxnS/;Z ds fy, dke vkrk gSA
vFkkZr~ λKT << hc
1 << hc
⇒
λKT
 hc 
exp  >> 1
 λKT 
hc
So neglect 1 as compare to
λKT
leh-(3) esa
8πhc dλ
u λ ⋅ dλ =
λ5  hc 
exp  
 λKT 
Let A = 8πhc = constant

5
 Quantum

hc
a= = constant
K
A − a / λT
u λ ⋅ dλ = ⋅e ⋅ dλ ... (4)
λ5
;g ohu dk fofdj.k lw= gSA
 jSys thUl dk fu;e %&
 jSys thUl dk fu;e nh?kZ rjaxnS/;Z dh fofdj.kksa ds fy, mi;ksxh gSA
vFkkZr~ λKT >> hc
1 << hc
2
 hc  hc 1  hc 
 exp  = 1+ +   + .......
 λKT 
(5)
λKT 2!  λKT 
leh-(5) ls hc / λKT << 1
vr% mPp ?kkrksa dks ux.; ekuus ij
 hc  hc
exp  ≈ 1+
 λKT 
(6)
λKT
8πhc dλ
u λ dλ =
λ 
5
hc 
1 + − 1
λKT 
8πhc λKT
= dλ
λ 5 hc
8πKT
u λ dλ = ⋅ dλ …(7)
λ4
 LVhQu&cksYV~teku fu;e %&
Iykad ds vuqlkj λ ls (λ + dλ ) rjaxnS/;Z ijkl esa ÅtkZ ?kuRo
8πhc dλ
u λ ⋅ dλ = ⋅ …(1)
λ5  hc 
exp  −1
 λKT 
vr% dqy ÅtkZ ?kuRo
∞
U= ∫u
0
λ ⋅ dλ

∞
8πhc dλ
= ∫ λ5  hc 
…(2)
exp  −1
 λKT 
0

hc
Let = x …(3)
λKT
hc
⇒ λ=
xKT
− hc
dx = 2 ⋅ dλ
λ KT

6
 Quantum

hc − h 2c2
⇒ ⋅ dx = 2 2 2 ⋅ dλ
KT λ K T
hc
⇒ ⋅ dx = − x 2 dλ
KT
− hc
⇒ dλ = 2 dx …(4)
x KT
leh-(3), (4) → (2)
∞
8πhc (−hc x KT) dx
2
u=
0
∫λ5
⋅
ex − 1
∞
x 5 K 5T5 hc 1
= − 8πhc∫
0
hc5 5
× 2
x KT e − 1
x
⋅ dx

∞
8πK 4 T 4 x3
= − ∫
h 3 c3 0 e x − 1
⋅ dx

1
∫ dx,d fof’k”V lekdyu gSA vr%
e −1x

∞
x3 π4
∫
0
=
e x − 1 15
8 π5 K 4T 4
U= …(5)
15 h 3c3
vr% dksVj ds ,dkad {ks=Qy ls izfr ls- mRlftZr fofdj.k dh ek=k
CU
E= …(6)
4
2 π5 K 4 4
= T
15 h 3c3
 E = σT 4
Here σ = fLVQu cksYVteku fLFkjkad
2 π5 K 4
=
15 h 3c 2
= 5.67 × 10−9 watt / m 2 − K 4
 izdk'k&fo|qr izHkko (Photo-light Effect) : -

7
 Quantum

tc fdlh /kkrq dh i`”B ij ,d fuf’pr vko`fÙk ls vf/kd vko`fÙk dk ijkl izdk’k Mkyk tkrk gS rks
ml /kkrq dh i`”B ls e− mRlftZr gksrs gS ftUgsa QksVks&bySDVªkWu dgrs gSaA
 bu e − ds dkj.k ,d fo|qr /kkjk izokfgr gksrh gS ftls izdk’k&fo|qr /kkjk dgrs gSaA
rFkk bl izHkko dks izdk’k fo|qr izHkko dgrs gSaA
iz;ksx %&
izdk’k fo|qr izHkko dks le>us ds fy, ekuk ,d fuokZfrr cYc gSaA ftlesa nks IysV P1 o P2 gSaA
P1 IysV dks cSVjh ds _.kkRed fljs ls rFkk P2 IysV dks cSVjh ds /kukRed fljs ls tksM+k tkrk gSA bl
rjg P1 IysV dSFkksM o P2 IysV ,uksM dk dk;Z djrh gSaA tc P1 IysV ij (/kkrq i`”B) ,d fuf’pr
vko`fÙk ls vf/kd vko`fÙk dk izdk’k vkifrr fd;k tkrk gSaA rc dqN e− bl izdk’k DokUVk dks
vo’kksf”kr dj /kukRed IysV P2 dh rjQ xfr djrs gSa ftlls ifjiFk esa ,d vYi /kkjk izokfgr gksrh gS
mls ukius ds fy, Js.khØe esa ,d ekbØksvehVj yxk gksrk gSaA
 ifjiFk esa ,d oksYVehVj yxk gksrk gS tks ifjiFk esa cSVjh }kjk P2 IysV dks /kukRed foHko dk ekiu
djrk gSaA
tSls&2 foHko dk fn, x, eku c<krs gSa /kkjk I dk eku Hkh c<+rk gSaA
ijarq tc ge foHko dk eku ‘kwU; dj nsrs gSaA
rc /kkjk ,dne ‘kwU; ugha gksrhA D;ksafd foHko ‘kwU; djus ij Hkh dqN byS- ds ikl xfrt ÅtkZ gksrh
gSA os byS- P2 IysV ij igqpdj dqN /kkjk nsrs gSaA
vr% /kkjk dks ‘kwU; djus ds fy, gesa _.kkRed fn’kk esa foHko c<+kuk gksrk gSA vkSj ,d fuf’pr
_.kkRed foHko ij /kkjk dk eku ‘kwU; gks tkrk gSA ml fuf’pr _.kkRed foHko dks fujks/kh foHko
dgrs gSaA
fujks/kh foHko %&
og _.kkRed foHko ftls P2 IysV ij foifjr fn’kk esa yxkus ij /kkjk dk eku ‘kwU; gks tkrk gS fujks/kh
foHko V0 dgykrk gSaA

izdk’k fo|qr izHkko ds izk;ksfxd ifj.kke %&

1. tc izdk’k dh vko`fÙk fuf’pr j[kh tkrh gS rc izdk’k fo|qr /kkjk vkifrr izdk’k dh rhozrk ij
fuHkZj djrk gSaA

8
 Quantum

vFkkZr~ izdk’k fo|qr /kkjk dk eku izdk’k dh rhozrk ds lekuqikrh gksrk gaSA
2. QksVks byS- dh vf/kdre xfrt ÅtkZ fn, x, fujks/kh foHko ij fuHkZj djrh gSA
1 2
mVmax = eV0
2
3. tc izdk’k dh vko`fÙk fuf’pr j[kh tkrh gSa rc fujks/kh foHko
vFkkZr~
1
hυ = hυ0 + mv 2
2
izdk'k dh rhozrk ij fuHkZj ugha djrkA
 izdk’k&fo|qr izHkko dh vkbUlVhu }kjk O;k[;k %&
vkbUlVhu izdk’k fo|qr izHkko dh DokUVe O;k[;k djrk gSA blds vuqlkj ;fn fdlh /kkrq i`”B ij
hυ ÅtkZ dk QksVksu vkifrr djk;k tk, rks /kkrq i`”B ij fLFkr byS- bl hυ ÅtkZ esa ls ,d fuf’pr
ek=k dh ÅtkZ vo’kksf”kr dj i`”B ls ckgj fudyrk gS rFkk ‘ks”k cph gqbZ ÅtkZ dks xfrt ÅtkZ ds :I
esa dke esa ysrk gSaA vFkkZr~
1
hυ = φ + mv 2 Einstein equation (1)
2
dk;ZQyu %&
og U;ure ÅtkZ tks e− dks /kkrq i`”B ls ckgj fudyus esa dke vkrh gSA vFkkZr~ mldh xfrt ÅtkZ
‘kwU; gks dk;ZQyu dgykrh gSA
1
hυ = φ + mv 2max … (1) Einsten equation
2
leh-(1) esa
1
When υ = υ0 then kinetic energy mv 2max = 0
2
φ = hυ0 … (2) dk;ZQyu dgykrk gSA
leh-(2) → (1)
1
hυ = hυ0 + mVmax
2
…(3)
2
1
fujks/kh foHko ds :i esa mVmax
2
= eV0 …(4)
2
(4) → (3)
hυ = hυ0 + eV0
⇒ eV0 = hυ − hυ0
h h
⇒ V0 = υ − υ0
e e

9
 Quantum

h φ
⇒ V0 = υ − … (5)
e e
leh-(5) ,d ljy js[kk dk leh- gS (y = mx + c) …(6)
vFkkZr~ ;fn (5) o (6) dh rqyuk dh tk, rks
y-v{k ij y = V0
x-v{k ij x = υ
fy;k tk, rks

h
Slope m =
e
−φ
rFkk vUr% [k.M c = ls vUr% [k.M izkIr gksrk gSA vr% fujks/kh foHko vkifrr izdk’k dh vko`frÙk
e
ds lekuqikrh gksrk gSA ,oa byS- dh xfrt ÅtkZ vkifrr izdk’k dh rjaxnS/;Z ij fuHkZj djrh gS] izdk’k
dh rhozrk ij ughaA
Note :
1. ;fn υ = constant gksA
Intensity (rhozrk) ∝ current (I)
1  1 2 
2. υ ↑ or λ ↓ then mVmax 2
(K.E.) ↑  hυ = φ + mVmax 
2 2
 dkEiVu izHkko %&

blds vuqlkj tc fdlh fo- pqacdh; fofdj.k dks fdlh xzsQkbV i`”B ij vkifrr djk;k tk, rks
vkifrr rjax dh vko`fÙk (υ) izdhf.kZr rjax dh vko`frZ (υ ') ls vf/kd izkIr gksrh gSaA

10
 Quantum

υ > υ'
vFkkZr~ izdhf.kZr rjax dh rjaxnS/;Z (λ ') vkifrr rjax dh rjaxnS/;Z (λ ) ls vf/kd gksrh gSA (λ ' > λ )
rjaxnS/;Z esa ;g varj dkEiVu foLFkkiu rFkk bl izHkko dks dkEiVu izHkko dgrs gSaA
∆λ = λ '− λ = dkEiVu foLFkkiu
 fpjlEer HkkSfrdh dh vlQyrk %&
tc fo|qr pqacdh; fofdj.k fdlh xzsQkbV ij vkifrr gksrh gS rks xzsQkbV esa mifLFkr ijek.kqvksa }kjk
ml fo-pqacdh; fofdj.k dh ÅtkZ dks vo’kksf”kr dj ysuk pkfg, vkSj ijek.kq ljy vko`fÙk nksyd dh rjg
dEiUu djuk pkfg, rFkk rjax dks fdlh fn’kk esa izdhf.kZr gksuk pkfg,A ftldh rjaxnS/;Z vkifrr rjax dh
rjaxnS/;Z ds cjkcj gksA tcfd izk;ksfxd :i ls ,slk ugha gksrkA bldk dkj.k fpjlEer HkkSfrdh ugha crk
ik;kA
 dkEiVu izHkko dh xf.krh; O;k[;k %&
dkEiVu izHkko dk xf.krh; fo’ys”k.k djus ds fy, ekuk dksbZ QksVkWu fdlh e− ls VDdj djrk gSA
VDdj ds i’pkr~ izfdf.kZr QksVkWu φ fn’kk esa rFkk izfrf{kIr e− φ θ dks.k cukrs gq, fudy tkrk gSA
According to energy conservation law :-
E1 + E 2 = E1 + E 2
' '

⇒ hυ + m 0 c 2 = hυ '+ mc 2
⇒ mc 2 = h(υ − υ ') + m 0 c 2 …(1)
According to momentum conservation law :
In x-direction :
hυ hυ '
+ 0= cos φ + mV cos θ
c c
hυ hυ '
⇒ mV cosθ = − cos φ
c c
⇒ xmV cosθ = h(υ − υ 'cos φ) = mVc cos θ …(2)
In y-direction:
hυ '
0= sin φ − mV sin θ
c
⇒ mVcsin θ = hυ 'sin φ …(3)
Square equation (2) and (3) and add-
h 2 ( υ − υ 'cos φ) + h 2 υ '2 sin 2 φ = m 2 v 2 c 2
2

( )
⇒ h 2 υ2 + υ '2 cos 2 φ − 2υυ 'cos φ + h 2 υ '2 sin 2 φ = m 2 v 2 c 2
⇒ h2 (υ 2
)
+ υ '2 cos 2 φ − 2υυ 'cos φ + υ '2 sin 2 φ = m 2 v 2 c 2

⇒ h2 (υ 2
)
+ υ '2 − 2υυ 'cos φ = m 2 v 2 c 2 …(4)
From equation (1)
mc 2 = h(υ − υ ') + m 0 c 2
Squaring Both sides
2
 h(υ − υ ') + m 0 c 2  = m 2 c 4
 

11
 Quantum

⇒  h 2 (υ2 + υ '2 − 2υυ ') + m02 c 4 + 2h(υ − υ ')m0 c 2  = m 2 c 4 …(5)

Substract equation (4) from (5)
⇒ h 2 ( 2υυ 'cos φ − 2υυ ') + m 02 c 4 + 2h ( υ − υ ') m 0 c 2 = m 2 c 4 − m 2 v 2 c 2
 v2 
⇒ h 2 ( 2υυ cos φ − 2υυ ') + m 02 c 4 + 2h ( υ − υ ') m 0 c 2 = m 2 c 4 1 −
 c 2 
m0
Now, m=
v2
1−
c2
m 02
Squaring m2 =
 v2 
1 − c 2 

 v2 
⇒ m 2 1 − 2  = m 02
 c 
Put Value –
⇒ h 2 ( 2υυ 'cos φ − 2υυ ') + m 02 c 4 + 2h ( υ − υ ') m 0 c 2 = m 02 c 4
⇒ 2h 2 υυ ' (cos φ − 1) + 2h ( υ − υ ') m 0 c 2 = 0
⇒ − h 2 υυ ' (cos φ − 1) = h ( υ − υ ') m 0 c2
h υ − υ'
2 (
⇒ 1 − cos φ) =
m0c υυ '
h 1 1
2 (
⇒ 1 − cos φ) = −
m0c υ' υ
1 c c
⇒ (1 − cos φ) = −
m0c υ' υ
c c
 = λ, = λ '
υ υ'
Put Value –
h
(1 − cos φ) = λ '− λ
m0c
h
⇒ ∆λ = (1 − cos φ) ...(6)
m0c
leh-(6) dkWEiVu foLFkkiu dks n’kkZrh gSA
blfy, leh- (6) dks foLFkkiu lehdj.k Hkh dgrs gSA
Case – I
When φ= 0
cos φ = cos 0º = 1
Put in equation (6)

12
 Quantum

h
∆λ = (1 − 1) = 0
m0c
∆λ = 0
⇒ ∆λ min = 0
Case – II
When φ = 90º
cos φ = cos 90º = 0
Put in equation (6)
h
∆λ = (1 − 0)
m0c
h
⇒ ∆λ =
m0c
h
∆λ = λ c = Compton wavelength
m0c
Here h = 6.62 × 10−34
m 0 = 9.1 × 10−31 kg
c = 3 × 108 m / s
Put this values
∆λ = 0.0242 Å
Case – III
When φ = 180º
cos φ = cos 180º = - 1
From equation (6)
h
∆λ = (1 + 1)
m0c
∆λ = λ c .2
⇒ ∆λ = 0.0242 × 2
⇒ ∆λ max = 0.0484 Å
 2. Direction of scattered electron :-
From equation(2)
mv cos θ = hυ '− hυ 'cos φ … (2)
From equation (3)
mvc sin θ = hυ 'sin φ …(3)
Divide equation (3) by equation (2)
mvcsin θ hυ 'sin φ
=
mvc cos θ hυ − hυ 'cos φ
υ 'sin φ
⇒ tan θ =
υ − υ 'cos φ

13
 Quantum

υ 'sin φ
⇒ tan θ =
υ 
υ '  − cos φ
 υ' 
sin φ
⇒ tan θ = …(7)
υ
− cos φ
υ'
From equation (6)
h
λ '− λ = (1 − cos φ)
m0c
c c
 υ= ⇒λ=
λ υ
c c h
− = (1 − cos φ)
υ' υ m0c
υ
Multiply both side
c
υ hυ
−1 = (1 − cos φ)
υ' m0c2
υ hυ
⇒ = 1+ (1 − cos φ)
υ' m0c2
hυ
 α= (let )
m0c2
υ
= 1 + α (1 − cos φ) …(8)
υ'
Put value in equation (7) from equation (8)
sin φ
tan θ =
1 + α (1 − cos φ) − cos φ
sin φ
=
(1 − cos φ) + α (1 − cos φ)
sin φ
tan θ = …(9)
(1 + α )(1 − cos φ)
Equation (9) represents direction of scattered e − .
3. Kinetic energy of electron :-
Kinetic energy = (Energy of incident photon) – (Energy of scattered photon)
K = E1 − E1'
⇒ K = hυ − hυ '
 υ'
⇒ K = hυ 1 − 
 υ'
From equation (8)

14
 Quantum

υ' 1
=
υ 1 + α (1 − cos φ)
Put value –
 1 
K = hυ 1 − 
 1 + α (1 − cos φ) 
1 + α (1 − cos φ) − 1 
⇒ K = hυ  
 1 + α (1 − cos φ) 
 α (1 − cos φ) 
⇒ K = hυ   …(10)
1 + α (1 − cos φ) 
Put φ = 180º
 α (α + 1) 
K = hυ  
1 + α (1 + 1) 
2hυα
⇒ K max =
1 + 2α
Put φ= 0
 α (1 − 1) 
K = hυ  
1 + α (1 − 1) 
⇒ K min = 0
 gkbtsucxZ dk vfuf’prk dk fl)kUr %&

blds vuqlkj fdlh Hkh ,d fuf’pr le; ij ,d d.k dh fLFkfr rFkk laosx dk ,d
lkFk ,d gh fn’kk esa iw.kZ:i ls ;FkkFkZrk iwoZd fu/kkZj.k ugha fd;k tk ldrkA
vFkkZr~

∆x ⋅ ∆Px ≥
2
h
;gk¡ =
2π
h
∆x ⋅ ∆Px ≥ x fn’kk esa gkbtsucxZ dk vfuf’prk fl)kUr
4π
;gk¡ ∆x = x fn’kk esa fLFkfr esa vfuf’prk] ∆Px = x fn’kk esa laosx esa vfuf’prk
y – fn’kk esa %&
h
∆y ⋅ ∆Py ≥
4π
mlh izdkj z – fn’kk esa %&

15
 Quantum

h
∆z ⋅ ∆Pz ≥
4π
blh izdkj ge ÅtkZ rFkk le; esa Hkh gkbtsucxZ vfuf’prk fl)kUr dh O;k[;k Hkh dj ldrs gSaA
;fn ÅtkZ esa vfuf’prk ∆E rFkk le; esa vfuf’prk ∆t gks rks
h
∆E ⋅ ∆t ≥
4π
blh izdkj dks.kh; foLFkkiu rFkk dks.kh; laosx esa Hkh vfuf’prk

∆θ ⋅ ∆Lθ ≥
2
 vfuf’prk fl)kUr ds vuqiz;ksx %&
1. ukfHkd esa e − dk vuvfLrRo %&
jnjQksMZ ds vuqlkj ukfHkd dh f=T;k 5 × 10−15 m gksrh gSA tks fd fLFkfr esa vf/kdre vfuf’prk gSA
vFkkZr~
(∆x) max = 5 × 10−15 m
x-fn’kk esa gkbtsucxZ vfuf’prk fl)kUr ls &

∆x ⋅ ∆Px ≥
2

⇒ (∆Px ) min ≥
2(∆x) max
h 6.623 × 10−34
 = = = 1.054 × 10−34
2π 2 × 3.14
1.054 × 10−34
(∆Px ) min =
2 × 5 × 10−15
= 1.054 × 10−34+14
= 1.054 × 10−20 kg m / sec [ laosx = nzO;eku × osx]
ge tkurs gS fd ÅtkZ&laosx laca/k ls
E 2 = P 2 C2 + m 02 c 4
 m 02 c 4 << P 2 c 2
vr% m02 c4 dks ux.; ekuus ij
 E 2 = P 2c2 + 0
⇒ E = Pc
 ( ∆E )min = ( ∆P)min c
( )
= 1.054 × 10−20 × 3 × 10−8
= 3.162 × 10−12 J
3.162 × 10−12
= eV
1.6 × 10−19
= 2 × 107 eV

16
 Quantum

= 20 × 106 eV
⇒ (∆E) min = 20 MeV
;g e− dh U;wure ÅtkZ gSA
vr% x.kuk ls fl) gS fd ;fn e− dh ukfHkd esa vfLrRo jgk rks mldh U;wure ÅtkZ 20 MeVgksxhA
ijarq β -{k; iz;ksx }kjk ;g ik;k x;k fd e− dh ÅtkZ 2 ls 3 MeV gksrh gSA vr% e− ds ukfHkd ds vanj
ik, tkus dh dksbZ laHkkouk ugha gSA
2. ljy vko`fÙk nksfy= dh ewy&voLFkk ÅtkZ %&
ekuk dksbZ d.k ljy&vkorhZ xfr dj jgk gS ftldh dqy ÅtkZ
P2 1 2
E= + Kx
2m 2
K
We know that ω =
m
⇒ K= ω m2

P2 1
∴ E= + mω 2 x 2
2m 2
( ∆P)2 + 1 mω 2 ∆x 2 … (1)
⇒ ∆E = ( )
2m 2
x-fn’kk esa gkbtsucxZ ds vfuf’prrk fl)kUr ls &

∆x ⋅ ∆Px ≥
2

⇒ ∆Px ≥ …(2)Wl
2∆x
(2) → (1)
2
   1 1
+ m ⋅ ω 2 ( ∆x )
2
∆E =   …(3)
 2∆x  2m 2
U;wure&ÅtkZ ds fy, &
d(∆E)  2  −2  1
= + mω 2 ( 2∆x ) = 0
d(∆x) 8m  (∆x)3  2
−2
= + mω 2 ∆x = 0
4m(∆x)3
2
⇒ mω 2 ∆x =
4m(∆x)3
2
⇒ (∆x) 4 =
4m 2ω 2

⇒ (∆x) 2 = …(4)
2mω
(4) → (3)

17
 Quantum

 2 2 mω 1   
(∆E) min = ⋅ + mω 2 
8m  2  2mω 
ω ω
= +
4 4
ω
⇒ (∆E) min = …(5)
2
;g ljy&vkorhZ nksfy= dh U;wure ÅtkZ gSA
3. o.kZØeh js[kkvksa dk LokHkkfod foLrkj %&
ge tkurs gS fd tc dksbZ e− mPp ÅtkZ Lrj ls fuEu ÅtkZ Lrj esa laØe.k djrk gS rks ÅtkZ dh dqN
ek=k mRlftZr djrk gS rFkk fuEu ls mPp ÅtkZ Lrj esa tkrk gS rks ogk¡ dqN {k.k Bgjdj (yxHkx
10−8 sec )iqu% fuEu ÅtkZ Lrj esa vkrk gSA
vr% le; esa vfuf’prk ∆t = 10−8 sec
 gkbtsucxZ vfuf’prk fl)kUr ls %&

∆E ⋅ ∆t ≥
2

⇒ (∆E) min ≥ …(1)
2(∆t) max
1.054 × 10−34
≥ J
2 × 10−8
1.054 × 10−34
≥ eV
2 × 10−8 × 1.6 × 10−19
( ∆E)min ≥ 3.3 × 10−8 eV
vr% ÅtkZ esa U;wure vfuf’prk fudkyh tk ldrh gSA
blh izdkj ge vkorhZ esa Hkh vfuf’prk fudky ldrs gSA
Iykad ds vuqlkj E = hυ
⇒ ( ∆E )min = h(∆υ) min
( ∆E)min
⇒ (∆υ) min =
h

2 ( ∆t )min

⇒ ( ∆υ)min =
h
⇒ ( ∆υ)min =
h
2π ⋅ 2(∆t) min h
1
=
4π (∆t) min
1
=
4 × 3.14 × 10−8
⇒ (∆υ) min = 7.96 × 106 sec −1
vr% ∆υ dk LokHkkfod foLrkj vfuf’prk fl)kUr ls Kkr dj ldrs gSaA
18
 Quantum

4. gkbMªkstu ijek.kq dh ewy Lrj ÅtkZ %&

ekuk gkbMªkstu ijek.kq dh f=T;k r gSA vr% vfuf’prk fl)kUr esa fLFkfr dh vfuf’prk ∆r gSA
gkbMªkstu ijek.kq dh dqy ÅtkZ = xfrt ÅtkZ + fLFkfrt ÅtkZ
P2
 xfrt ÅtkZ =
2m
K(Ze)(− e)
fLFkfrt ÅtkZ =
r

P 2 KZe 2
 E= −
2m r

⇒ ∆E =
( ∆P) − KZe2
2

…(1)
2m (∆r)
gkbtsucxZ vfuf’prk fl)kUr ls %&

∆P ⋅ ∆x ≥
2

 ;gk¡ 
2
∆x ≈ r

∆P ≥
r
2 KZe 2
 ∆E = − …(3)
2mr 2 r
U;wure ÅtkZ ds fy, &
d(∆E) −2 2 KZe 2
= + 2 =0
dr 2mr 3 r
2 2
KZe 
⇒ 2
=
r 2mr 3
2
⇒ r= …(4)
mKZe 2
For H-atom
 = 1.054 × 10−34
m = 9.11 × 10−31 kg
K= 9 × 109
e= 1.6 × 10−19
z= 1
r= 0.53 × 10−10 m

19
 Quantum

⇒ rmin = 0.53Å = a 0 …(5)

(5) → (3)

(∆E) min =

 (1.054)
2

−
(9 × 10 )(1.6 × 10 )
9 −19 2 
J

( ) (0.53 × 10 ) 
−31 −10 2 −10 2
 2(9.1 × 10 ) 0.53 × 10 
⇒ ( ∆E )min = −13.6eV
 nzO; rjaxs %&
nh&czksxyh ds vuqlkj fdlh Hkh xfr’khy d.k ds laxr ,d rjax gksrh gSA ftldh rjaxnS/;Z
 h
 λ = p  … (1) ls nh tkrh gSA

tgk¡ P ml xfr’khy d.k dk laosx gSA

tc d.k dh xfr V<<C
When V  C
h
λ= … (2)
mv
m0
Here m = dynamical mass =
v2
1−
c2
1
 E= m0 v2 ( m 0 = rest mass)
2
P2
⇒ E=
2m 0
⇒ P= 2m 0 E …(3)
(3) → (1)
h
λ= …(4)
2m 0 E
;fn dksbZ d.k v foHkokUrj ls Rofjr gS rks
E = qv … (5)
;gk¡ v = foHkokUrj
q = ml d.k ij vkos’k
leh-(5) ls (4) esa eku j[kus ij
h
λ= …(6)
2m 0 qv
1. For e − :-
m 0 = 9.1 × 10−31 kg
−19
q = 1.6 × 10 c

20
 Quantum

h = 6.623 × 10−34 J sec

6.623 × 10−34
λ=
2 × 9.1 × 10−31 × 1.6 × 10−19 × V
12.27
⇒ λ= Å
V
2. For P : - (Proton)
m 0 = 1.67 × 10−27 kg
−19
q = 1.6 × 10 C
h = 6.623 × 10−34 J sec
6.623 × 10−34
λ=
2 × 1.67 × 10−27 × 1.6 × 10−19
3. For α - Particle : - ( 2 He
4
)
m 0 = 4 × 9.1 × 10−31 kg
−19
q = 2 × 1.6 × 10 c
Imp. ;fn d.k dk osx V  C gS rks ÅtkZ&laosx laca/k ls &
E= P 2 c 2 + m 02 c 4
;gk¡ m0 = d.k dk fojke nzO;eku gSA
 dqy ÅtkZ E = xfrt ÅtkZ (K) + fojke nzO;eku ÅtkZ (m0 c 2 )
⇒ E = K + m0c2 … (2)
From equation (1)
E 2 = P 2 c 2 + m 02 c 4
⇒ P 2 c 2 = E 2 − m 02 c 4 … (3)
leh-(2) → (3)
P 2 c 2 = (K + m 0 c 2 ) 2 − m 02 c 4
⇒ P 2 c 2 = K 2 + m 02 c 4 + 2m 0 Kc 2 − m 02 c 4
⇒ P 2 c 2 = K 2 + 2m 0 Kc 2
Taking root of above
PC = K 2 + 2m 0 KC 2

PC = K(K + 2m 0 C 2 )
K(K + 2m 0 C2 )
P= … (4)
C
h
vr% ns&czksXyh rjaxnS/;Z λ=
P

21
 Quantum

hc
λ= …(5)
K(K + 2m 0 C2 )
leh-(5) ns&czksXyh rjaxnS/;Z dks xfrt ÅtkZ ds :i esa crkrh gSA
2. Msfolu&teZj iz;ksx %&

Msfolu&teZj iz;ksx] ns&czksXyh nzO; rjaxks dh ifjdYiuk dke esa ysrs gSaA vFkkZr~ V oksYV ls Rofjr e− ds
lgpkjh nzO; rjax dks Ni fØLVy ij vkifrr djrs gS rks Ni fØLVy ds varj ijek.kqd nwjh ml rjax dh
rjaxnS/;Z dh dksfV dh gksus ds dkj.k foorZu izfr:i dk gksrk gSA ftlls foorZu ds mfPp”B o fuEuh”B
izkIr gksrs gSA bl iz;ksx ds dqN izk;ksfxd ifj.kke fuEu gSA

bu ifj.kkeksa dh lgk;rk ls bu nzO; rjaxksa dh rjaxnS/;Z czsx ds fuEu rjaxnS/;Z lw= }kjk Kkr djrs gSA
nλ = 2d sin θ
;gk¡ θ = czsx
foorZu dks.k
d = vUrjijek.kq nwjh ≈ 10−10 m = 1Å
54 V ds fy, &

θ = 90º −25º = 65º

izFke mfPp”B ds fy, &
n= 1
λ= 2d sin θ
= 2 × 10−10 sin 65º
λ= 1.65Å Msfolu teZj iz;ksx

22
 Quantum

ns&czksXyh ds vuqlkj 54 V ls Rofjr d.k ds fy, lEc/k rjax dh rjaxnS/;Z

12.27Å
λ=
V
12.27
⇒ λ= Å
54
⇒ λ = 1.67Å ns&czksXyh
−
bl izdkj e ds lgpkjh nzO; rjax dh rjaxnS/;Z dk izk;ksfxd o lS)kfUrd eku ,d tSlk izkIr gksrk gSA
tks ns&czksXyh rjax ifjdYiuk dk :i gSA
ladkjd(Opterator ) :-
ladkjd og gksrk gS tks fdlh Qyu ij ladkfjr gksdj ,d u;k Qyu nsrk gSA
vFkkZr~ Âψ = φ

Chapter – 2

;gk¡ Â = ladkjd
ψ = Qyu
φ = u;k Qyu gksxkA
mnk%&
ψ= t
2
(i) If
∂
 =
∂t
∂ 2
Âψ =
∂t
{ }
t = 2t
⇒ φ = 2t
ψ = x + 2x + 1
2
(ii)
d2
 =
dx 2

Âψ =
d2
dx 2
{ }
x 2 + 2x + 1

d
= {2x + 2} = 2
dx
φ= 2
 ladkjd ds izdkj %&
1. jS[kh; ladkjd (Linear Operator ) :-
;fn dksbZ vpj jkf’k (a) fdlh Qyu (ψ ) ls xqf.kr gS rFkk ckn esa mls fdlh ladkjd ls ladkfjr fd;k
tk, vFkok ml Qyu (ψ ) dks igys fdlh ladkjd ( Â) ls ladkfjr djds ml vpj jkf’k (a) ls xqf.kr
djk;k tk, rks leku ifj.kke izkIr gksrk gSA rc ,sls ladkjd js[kh; ladkjd dgykrs gSA vFkkZr~
Qyu = ψ

23
 Quantum

vpj= a
ladkjd= Â
Â(aψ ) = aAψ
ˆ
For Ex :-
ψ= x
3
1.
a= 5
d
 =
dx
L.H.S. =
d
dx
5x 3 = { }
5d 3
dx
x = 15x 2 { }
R.H.S.=
5d 3
dx
{ }
x = 15x 2
2. ;fn nks Qyu ds ;ksx ij dksbZ ladkjd ladkfjr fd;k tk, rks mldk ifj.kke mu nksuksa Qyuksa ij
vyx&vyx ladkjd dks ladkfjr djus ds ckn ;ksx ds cjkcj izkIr gksxkA
;fn nks Qyu ψ1 o ψ 2 gS rFkk dksbZ ladkjd  gSA
 {ψ1 + ψ 2 } = A
ˆψ +A
1
ˆ ψ
2 2
For Ex.
ψ1 = x 2
ψ 2 = x3

 = ∫ dx
x3 x 4
L.H.S = ∫ (x 2 + x 3 )dx =
3
+
4
+c

x3 x 4
∫ ∫
x dx + x dx = + +c
2 3
R.H.S=
3 4
vFkkZr~ Â = ∫ dx js[kh; ladkjd gSA
 ladkjd ds xq.k/keZ %&
1. Øefofues; %&
js[kh; ladkjd Øefofues; fu;e dk ikyu djrs gSA ;fn  rFkk B̂ nks jSf[kd ladkjd gS rks
ˆ +B
A ˆ = B̂ + A
ˆ
Proof :
Let Âψ1 = φ1
And B̂ψ1 = φ 2
 Aˆ ψ1 + Bˆ ψ1 = φ1 + φ 2
⇒ Aˆψ +B
1
ˆψ = φ +φ
1 2 1

⇒ Aψ + Bψ = B̂ψ + A
ˆ
1
ˆ
1
ˆψ
1 1

24
 Quantum

⇒ (A
ˆ + B)
ˆ ψ = (B
1
ˆ + A)
ˆ ψ
1

⇒ A + B = B̂ + A
ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ ≠ BA
2. nks js[kh; ladkjd dk xq.kuQy Øefofues; fu;e dk ikyu ugha djrk gSA vFkkZr~ AB ˆˆ
Note :-
HkkSfrdh esa dqN fo’ks”k ladkjd fuEu gSA
1. fLFkfr ladkjd = x̂
   ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂
2. laosx ladkjd P̂ = −i∇  ∇ = i ∂x + j ∂y + k ∂z 
 
i∂
(i) P̂x = − = Msy ladkjd
∂x
∂
(ii) P̂y = −i
∂y
∂
(iii) Pz = −i
∂z
∂
3. ÅtkZ ladkjd Ê = i
∂t
To Proof AB ˆ ˆ ≠ BA
ˆˆ
ekuk  = fLFkfr ladkjd = x̂
B̂ = laosx ladkjd = P̂x
vkSj Qyu = ψ
L.H.S = ABψˆˆ

{ }
= x̂ Pˆ x ψ
 ∂ 
= x̂ −i  ψ
 ∂x 
∂ψ
= −ixˆ
∂x
ˆ
Now R.H.S = B̂Aψ
= Pˆ ⋅ xˆ ψx

 ∂ 
= −i  {xˆ ψ }
 ∂x 
 ∂ψ ∂x̂ 
= −i  xˆ +ψ  [ x̂ = x ]
 ∂x ∂x 
 ∂ψ 
= − i  x + ψ
 ∂x 
ˆ ˆ ≠ B̂Aψ
vFkkZr~ ABψ ˆ
⇒ ˆ ˆ ≠ B̂A
AB ˆ
Âψ = aψ → vkbxu eku leh-

25
 Quantum

vkbxu Qyu
ψ=
a = vkbxu eku
3. js[kh; ladkjd dk ;ksx lkgp;Z xq.k/keZ dk ikyu djrk gSA
ˆ + (B
A ˆ + C) ˆ + B)
ˆ = (A ˆ + Cˆ
4. js[kh; ladkjd dk xq.kuQy xq.k/keZ dk ikyu ugha djrk gSA
ˆ ˆ ˆ ≠ (AB)C
A(BC) ˆˆ ˆ
2. bdkbZ ladkjd (Eigen Value a = 1) :-
;fn fdlh ladkjd dks fdlh Hkh Qyu ij ladkfjr djus ls ogh Qyu izkIr gks rks mls bdkbZ ladkjd
dgykrk gSA
Âψ = ψ
Here Aˆ = ˆI
3. ‘kwU; ladkjd (Null Operator) :-
;fn fdlh ladkjd dks fdlh Hkh Qyu ij ladkfjr djus ij ‘kwU; izkIr gks rks og ‘kwU; ladkjd
dgykrk gSA
vFkkZr~ Âψ = 0
;gk¡ Â = 0̂
4. layXu ladkjd (Adjoint Operator) :-
;fn φ vkSj ψ nks rjax Qyu gS rFkk  o B̂ nks ladkjd gSA rks B̂, Aˆ dk layXu ladkjd dgyk,xkA
;fn os fuEu leh- dk vuqlj.k djsA
∫ (Bˆ ψ ) φ dτ = ∫ ψ (Aˆ φ)dτ
* *

;gk¡ dτ = vk;ru
;k fQj B̂, Aˆ dk layXu ladkjd gksxkA ;fn
ˆ † = B̂
(A)
vr% ∫ ( A† ψ ) φ dτ = ∫ ψ * (Aˆ φ) ⋅ dτ
*

layXu ladkjd ds eq[; xq.k %&

( )
†
1. A † =A
ˆ
ˆ ˆ † =B
2. (AB) ˆ†
ˆ †A

( ) = (AB
ˆ ˆ ) − ( BA
ˆ ˆ)
† † †
ˆ ˆ − BA
3. AB ˆˆ

= (B ˆ −A
ˆ A
† † ˆ )
ˆ B
† †

5. gfeZVh ladkjd %&(LolayXu ladkjd)

 ,d gfeZVh ladkjd gksxk ;fn oks fuEu xq.k iznf’kZr djs

∫ ( Âψ ) φ dτ = ∫ ψ Âφ⋅ dτ
*
*

Q.fl) dhft, fd ÅtkZ ladkjd ,d gfeZVh ladkjd gSA

Ans.

26
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 Quantum

ˆ = Eˆ = i ∂
A
∂t

{ }
*
 ∂ψ 
∫
*
Êψ φ ⋅ dt = i ∫
 ∂t 
 φdt
+∞
 ∂ψ * 
( )   φ ⋅ dt
− i  ∫
 ∂t −∞

= ↓ ↓
II I
 dI 
∫ I.IIdx = I∫ II ⋅ dx − ∫  dx ∫ IIdx  dx
 dφ * 
= (−i) φψ * |+∞

−∞ −
dt
ψ dt 

∫
ge tkurs gS fd vuUr ij rjax Qyu dk eku ‘kwU; gksrk gSA
At x→ ∞ , ψ → 0
 ∂φ 
= ( − i )  0 − ψ * ∫
⋅ dt 
 dt 
 ∂φ 
∫
= ψ *  i  ⋅ dt
 ∂t 

∫ ψ (Eˆ φ) ⋅ dt = R.H.S
*
=
Q. fl) dhft, fd laosx ladkjd gfeZVh ladkjd gS!
Ans.
ˆ = Pˆ = −i ∂
A
∂x
x

∫{ }
*
*  ∂ψ 
 P̂x ψ φ dx = −i

∫
 φ ⋅ dx
∂x 
 ∂ψ * 
+∞  φ⋅ dx
 ∂x 
= i ∫
−∞ ↓ ↓
II I
 dφ * 
= i φψ * |+∞

−∞ −
dx
ψ ⋅ dx 

∫
ge tkurs gS fd vuar ij rjax Qyu dk eku ‘kwU; gksrk gSA
x → ∞, ψ → 0
 ∂φ 
= i  0 − ψ *
 ∂x∫⋅ dx 


27
 Quantum

* ∂φ 
= ∫ψ  −i x  dx
∂

∫ ψ (P̂ φ) ⋅ dx = R.H.S
*
= x

Q. tk¡p dhft, vodyu ladkjd gfeZVh ladkjd gksrk gSA

Ans.
∂
 =
∂x

∫ (Âψ ) φ ⋅ dτ
*
=
∗
 ∂ψ 
 ∂  φ ⋅ dx
x
= ∫ ↓ ↓
II I
+∞  dφ 
= φψ *
−∞ ∫
− ψ *   ⋅ dx
 dx 
 dφ 
 ∫ (Aˆ ψ )* φ ⋅ dx = ∫ ψ *  − ⋅ dx
 dx 
 (A † ) = Â
†
 d d
  = −
dx dx
Q. fl) dhft, fd ykIykfl;u ladkjd ,d gfeZVh ladkjd gSA
Ans. ekuk φ rFkk ψ nks Qyu gSA

∫ (∇ ψ )φ ⋅ dτ = ψ *∇ 2 φ ⋅ dτ ∫
2 *

   
∇ ⋅ (φ∇ψ * ) = ∇φ ⋅ ∇ψ * + φ∇ ⋅ ∇ψ *
 
= ∇φ ⋅ ∇ψ * + φ∇ 2 ψ * … (1)
And
{ }
   
∇ ⋅ ψ *∇φ = ∇ψ * ⋅ ∇φ + ψ *∇ 2 φ …(2)
(1) − (2)
( ) { }
   
∇ ⋅ φ∇ψ * − ∇ ⋅ ψ *∇φ
= φ∇ 2 ψ * − ψ *∇ 2 φ …(3)
leh-(3) dk vk;ru lekdyu ysus ij
∫ ∇ {φ∇ψ }
  
− ψ *∇φ ⋅ dV = ∫ (φ∇ ψ − ψ *∇ 2 φ) ⋅ dV
* 2 *

(By using Gauss diversgence thermo using Gauss divergence theorm -)

+∞

∫( )
   

−∞
∇ ⋅ A ⋅ dV = A ⋅ dS ∫
28
 Quantum

+∞

∫ (φ∇ψ )
 
− ψ *∇φ ⋅ dS = ∫ (φ∇ ψ )
− ψ *∇ 2 φ .dV
* 2 *

−∞
 {ks= vuar vkdk’k esa foLr`r gS ftlds fy, QyDl dk eku ‘kwU; gksrk gSA
∞

( )
 
vFkkZr~ ∫ φ∇ψ * − ψ *∇φ ⋅ dS = 0
−∞

vr% ∫ (φ∇ ψ − ψ ∇ φ) ⋅ dV = 0
2 * * 2

vr% ∫ (∇ ψ )φ ⋅ dτ− = ∫ ψ ⋅ ∇ φ ⋅ dτ
2 * * 2
(Hence Proved)
 gSfeYVuh ladkjd (Hamiltonian Operator ) :
Ĥ = dqy ÅtkZ ladkjd = xfrt ÅtkZ + fLFkfrt ÅtkZ
= Tˆ + Vˆ
P̂ 2
= + V̂(x)
2m
2
1  ∂ 
= −i  + V(x)
ˆ
2m  ∂x 
−2 ∂2
Ĥ = + V̂(x)
2m ∂x 2
In 3-D :-
−2  ∂ 2 ∂2 ∂ 2 
Ĥ =  2 + +  + V̂(x)
2m  ∂x ∂y 2 ∂z 2 
−2 2
∇ + V̂(x)
=
2m
 ∂ ∂ ∂
 ∇ = Msy ladkjd = ˆi + ˆj + kˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∇ = ykIykfl;u ladkjd = ∇ ⋅ ∇
2

 ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂  ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ 
=  ˆi + j + k  ⋅i + j +k 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇2 = + +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Q. fl) dhft, fd gSfeYVuh ladkjd ,d gfeZVh ladkjd gSA
Ans.
ˆ = −  ∂ + V(x)
2 2
Aˆ =H ˆ
2m ∂x 2

∫ ˆ ψ )* φ ⋅ dτ = (H
(A ∫
ˆ ψ )*φ ⋅ dx + (V(x)
ˆ ψ )* φ ⋅ dx ∫

29
 Quantum

*
 −  ∂ 
2 2
= ∫ 

2m ∂ x 2
ψ  φ ⋅ dx + ψ *V(x)

∫
ˆ φ ⋅ dx

*
 2  ∂ 2 ψ 
∫  2  φ ⋅ dx + ψ V(x) φ ⋅ dx∫
*ˆ
=
2m  ∂x 
∞
2 ∂2ψ*
=
2m −∞ ∂x 2∫φ ⋅ dx + ψ *V(x)
ˆ φ ⋅ dx
∫
 2  ∂ψ * 
∞
dφ ∂ψ *
= φ
2m  ∂x
− ∫ ⋅
dx ∂x ∫
⋅ dx  + ψ *V(x)
ˆ φ ⋅ dx
 −∞ 
At x → ∞, ψ → 0
2  ∂ψ * 
= 0 −
2m  ∂x∫ ⋅ dφ  + ψ *V(x)

ˆ φ dx
∫
OR
−2 2
Ĥ = ∇ + V̂(x)
2m
†
ˆ † =  −  ∇ 2  + V̂(x) ( )
2 †
(H)
 2m 
−2   †
= (∇ ⋅ ∇) + (V(x))
ˆ †
2m
−2  †  † ˆ
= (∇) ⋅ (∇) + V(x)
2m
−2  † 
= (−∇) ⋅ (−∇)† + V(x)
ˆ
2m
−2 2 ˆ
= ∇ + V(x) = H ˆ
2m
ˆ †=
(H) Ĥ
 Wave Packet : -
tc nks ;k nks ls vf/kd rjaxs v/;kjksfir gksdj ,d rjax iSdsV dk fuekZ.k djrh gS rks ml rjax iSdsV
dks ifj.kkeh rjax dgrs gSA
fdlh ,d rjax iSdsV ds osx dks lewg osx dgrs gSA
(Group velocity = Vg )
rFkk fdlh ,d rjax ds osx dks dyk osx (Phase Velocity Vp )dgrs gSA
vr% VP = υλ
h
 λ=
p

30
 Quantum

υh
∴ VP =
P
rFkk E = hυ
vkxs okyk ges’kk & vk;ke
ihNs okyk & dyk
E
∴ VP =
P

rFkk E = mc 2
P = mv
C2
VP = …(1)
V
ns&czksXyh ds vuqlkj
leh-(1) ds vuqlkj
leh- (1) ls fl) gS fd dyk osx VP dk eku d.k osx V ls cgqr vf/kd gSA
ijarq ns&czksXyh ds vuqlkj d.k rFkk rjax ,d lkFk pyrs gSA
vr% leh- (1) ds vuqlkj
VP > V gksus ls rjax] d.k dks ihNs NksM nsxhA tks fd DokUVe HkkSfrdh ds vuqlkj lgh ugha gSA
 rjax lehdj.k %&
fdlh rjax dk foLFkkiu fuEu :i ls fn;k tkrk gSA

↑ ↑
y = A sin(Kx − ωt)
OR ⇒ y = Aei(kx −ωt)
y = A cos(Kx − ωt)
;gk¡ K = rjax lapj.k fu;rkad = 2π / λ
2π
ω = dks.kh; vko`fÙk = 2πυ =
T
 dyk osx (Phase Velocity ):-
;fn rjax dh dyk fu;r jgsA bl fLFkfr esa rjax dk osx dyk osx dgykrk gSA
sin(kx − ωt) = fu;r
⇒ kx − ωt = fu;r
leh- dk t ds lkis{k vodyu djus ij
dx
⇒ k −ω= 0
dt
dx ω
⇒ = = VP
dt K

31
 Quantum

ω
VP =
K
 lewg osx (Group Velocity) :-
tc rjax dk vk;ke fu;r jgs rks ml fLFkfr esa rjax dk osx lewg osx dgykrk gSA
vr% rjax leh-
y = A sin(kx − ωt)
dk vodyu djus ij
A = fu;r
dy = A cos(kx − ωt) {xdk − tdω}
y → fu;r ⇒ dy = 0
⇒ xdk = tdω
x dω
⇒ = Vg =
t dk
V
Q. fl) dhft, fd Vg = P ] ;fn ω = gk
2
;gk¡ Vg - lewg osx] VP - dyk osx] g = xq:Roh; fu;rkad]
Ans.We know that
dω
Vg =
dk
⇒ Vg =
d
dk
( gk )
⇒ Vg = g
( )
d k
1
2

dk
1 − 12
= g× k
2
1 g
= …(1)
2 k
ω gk
rFkk VP = =
k k
g
= …(2)
k
From (1) and (2)
1
Vg = VP
2
ˆ ˆ Hkh gfeZVh ladkjd gksxkA
Q. ;fn nks ladkjd  rFkk B̂ gfeZVh gS rks fl) dhft, fd AB
Ans. ;fn  gfeZVh gS&
ekuk nks rjax Qyu ψ o φ gSA
rFkk nks ladkjd  o B̂ gSA tks fd Øefofues; gSA

32
 Quantum

ˆ ˆ = B̂A
vFkkZr~ AB ˆ
;fn  o B̂ gfeZVh ladkjd gS rks og fuEu izfrca/k dk ikyu djsxkA
∫ (Aˆ ψ ) Bˆ φ dτ = ∫ ψ * AB
ˆ ˆ φ ⋅ dτ
*
…(1)

vc ;fn B̂ gh gfeZVh ladkjd gS rks og fuEu izfrca/k dk ikyu djsxkA

∫ (BA ∫ ˆ ψ ) Bˆ φ ⋅ dτ
ˆ ˆ ψ ) φ dτ = (A
* *
…(2)
leh-(1) o (2) ls
∫ (BA ∫ ˆ ˆ φ ⋅ dτ
ˆ ˆ ψ ) φ ⋅ dτ = ψ AB
* *

 ˆ ˆ = B̂A
AB ˆ

∫
∴ (AB
ˆ ˆ ψ )* φ ⋅ dτ =
∫ ψ AB
ˆ ˆ φ dτ
*

vr% AB ˆ ˆ Hkh gfeZVh ladkjd gksaxsA

ˆ Bˆ nks gfeZVh ladkjd gS rks fl) dhft, fd mudk jSf[kd lewg (A
Q. ;fn A, ˆ + B)
ˆ Hkh gfeZVh ladkjd gksxkA
Ans. (Aˆ + B)ˆ dks gfeZVh fl) djus ds fy, mls fuEu izfrca/k dk ikyu djuk t:jh gSA

∫( )
*
A ˆ +B ˆ ψ  φ dτ =
∫ ψ (Aˆ + B)
ˆ φ ⋅ dτ
*
 
From R.H.S.
∫ ψ * (A
ˆ + B)
ˆ φ⋅ dτ =
∫ ψ {Aˆ φ + Bˆ φ} ⋅ dτ
*

∫ ψ Aˆ φ ⋅ dτ + ∫ ψ Bˆ φ ⋅ dτ
* *
= …(1)

 Â gfeZVh ladkjd gSA

∫ (Aˆ ψ ) φ dτ = ∫ ψ Âφ ⋅ dτ
* *
…(2)

 B̂ gfeZVh ladkjd gSA

∫ (Bˆ ψ ) φ dτ = ∫ ψ B̂φ⋅ dτ
* *
…(3)
(2),(3) → (1)

∫ ψ (Aˆ + B)
ˆ φ ⋅ dτ = (A
∫ ˆ ψ ) φ ⋅ dτ + ∫ (Bˆ ψ ) φdτ
* * *

= ∫ (A
ˆ ψ ) + (Bˆ ψ ) φ ⋅ dτ

* *

∫ (Aˆ + B)
*
⇒ ∫ ψ (Aˆ + B)
* ˆ φ ⋅ dτ = ˆ ψ  φ ⋅ dτ

vr% (Aˆ + B)
ˆ Hkh gfeZVh ladkjd gksxkA
 vkbxu eku vFkok vkbxu Qyu %&
;fn fdlh Qyu ij dksbZ ladkjd ladkfjr djus ij iqu% ogh Qyu izkIr gks rFkk ftldk xq.kkad dksbZ
vpj jkf’k gksA rks ml Qyu dks vkbxsu Qyu rFkk ml vpj jkf’k dks vkbxsu eku dgrs gSA
vFkkZr~ ;fn Qyu ψ ij  ladkjd ladkfjr fd;k tk, rks
Âψ = aψ

33
 Quantum

mijksDr leh- vkbxsu eku leh- dgykrh gSA

ftlesa  = ladkjd
ψ = vkbxsu Qyu
a = vkbxsu eku
mnk-
d
;fn  =
dx
ψ = e gks rks
2x

Âψ =
d 2x
dx
( )
e = 2e 2x

vFkkZr~ Âψ = aψ
vFkkZr~ a = 2 bl leh- dk vkbxsu eku gksxkA
d2
Q. ;fn ladkjd  = 2 gks rks mijksDr Qyuksa dk vkbxsu eku Kkr dhft,&
dx
1
(i) sin 3x (ii) cos 4x (iii) eix (iv) log 3x (v) 3e −5x (vi)
x
Ans.
d2 d
(i) Âψ = 2
(sin 3x) = 3 ( cos3x ) = − q sin 3x
dx dx
vr% vkbxsu eku = -q
d2 −4d
(ii) Âψ = 2
(cos 4x) = (− sin 4x)
dx dx
= −16cos 4x
vr% vkbxsu eku = -16
x 2 ix 3
(iii) e = 1 + ix −
ix
− + ...
2 3
d ix 2x 3ix 2
e =i− − + ...
dx 2 3
d 2 ix d
Âψ = 2
(e ) = i (eix ) = i 2 eix = − eix
dx dx
vkbxsu eku = -1
d2
(iv) Âψ = (log 3x)
dx 2
d  1  3 d  1 1
= 3  =   =− 2
dx  3x  3 dx  x  x
vkbxsu eku = ugha gSA
D;ksafd ;g vkbxsu eku lHkh ugha gSaA
(v) Âψ =
d2
dx
(
2 )
3e −5x = −15
d −5x
dx
e ( )
34
 Quantum

= 75e −5x
vkbxsu eku = 75
d2  1  d2  1 
(vi) Âψ =   = −  
dx 2  x  dx  x 2 
−2
= 3
x
 ;g vkbxu eku leh- ugha gSA
vr% bldk dksbZ vkbxsu eku ugha gksxkA
 viHkz”Vrk %&
;fn ge fdlh ladkjd dks vyx&vyx vkbxsu Qyuksa ij ladkfjr djs vkSj lafØ;k ds i’pkr~ leku
vkbxsu eku izkIr gks rks oks viHkz”V vkbxsu eku dgykrs gSA
vFkkZr~
Âψ1 = aψ1
Âψ 2 = aψ 2
Âψ 3 = aψ 3
leku vkbxsu eku ds lkis{k ftrus vkbxsu Qyu gksrs gS oks ml vkbxsu eku dh viHkz”Vrk dh dksfV
dgykrh gSA vFkkZr~ mijksDr mnk- esa&
vkbxsu eku a ds lkis{k rhu vkbxsu Qyu ψ1 , ψ 2 , ψ 3 gS rks viHkz”Vrk dh dksfV = 3
 ;fn fdlh vkbxsu eku ds lkis{k ,d gh vkbxsu Qyu gks rks og vuviHkz”V vkbxsu eku dgykrk
gSA
vFkkZr~ Âψ1 = aψ1
vFkkZr~ ftuds fy, viHkz”Vrk dh dksfV 1gksrh gSA
 Øefofues;rk (Commutation):-
ekuk nks ladkjd  o B̂ gSA ftuds e/; Øefofues; laca/k fuEu izdkj iznf’kZr gksrk gSA
 A,
ˆ ˆ= ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
 B AB − BA
;fn  o B̂ Øefofues; gks rks
ˆ ˆ = B̂A
(i) AB ˆ
bl fLFkfr esa
 A,
ˆ ˆ
 B = 0
ˆ ˆ ≠ BA
(ii) If AB ˆˆ
∴  A,
ˆ Bˆ≠0

Fog Ex.
;fn Aˆ = xˆ = fLFkfr ladkjd
rFkk Bˆ = Pˆ x = x fn’kk esa laosx ladkjd gks rks
ˆ ˆ  =  x̂, Pˆ  = ?
 A,
 B  x 

  (
 x̂, Pˆ x  ψ = xP )
ˆ ˆ x − Pˆ x xˆ ψ

35
 Quantum

  ∂  ∂ 
=  xˆ  −i  −  −i  xˆ  ψ
  ∂x   ∂x  
∂ψ ∂x
= −ixˆ + i ψ
∂x ∂x
 ∂ψ ∂
= −i  xˆ − ( xψ )
 ∂x ∂x 
 ∂ψ  ∂ψ 
= −i  xˆ − x − ψ 
 ∂x  ∂x 
= i ψ
By Comparing-
 x̂, Pˆ x  = i
 
blh izdkj
 ŷ, Pˆ y  = i
 
rFkk  ẑ, Pˆ z  = i
 
 x̂, Pˆ y  ψ =  xP
ˆˆ ˆ ˆ
   y − Py x  ψ
  ∂  ∂  
=  xˆ −i  −  −i  xˆ  ψ
  ∂y   ∂y  
 ∂ψ ∂ 
= ( − i )  x − (xψ ) 
 ∂y ∂y 
 ∂ψ ∂ψ ∂x 
= ( − i )  x −x −ψ 
 ∂y ∂y ∂y 
 ∂x 
= ( −i) −ψ 
 ∂y 
= (−i)(0)
= 0
  x̂, Pˆ y  = 0
 
 ŷ, Pˆ x  = 0
 
 ẑ, Px  =
ˆ 0
 
 ẑ, Pˆ y  = 0
 
 x̂, Pˆ z  = 0
 
 ŷ, Pz  =
ˆ 0
 
Q.  t̂, Eˆ  = ?

36
 Quantum

Ans.  t̂, Eˆ  ψ =  ˆtEˆ − Et

ˆ ˆ ψ
   
  ∂  ∂ 
= ˆt  i  −  i  ˆt  ψ
  ∂t   ∂t  
∂ψ ∂ ˆ
= iˆt
∂t
− i
∂t
( ) tψ

∂ψ  ∂ψ 
= iˆt − i  ˆt + ψ
∂t  ∂ t 
 ∂ψ ∂ψ 
= i  ˆt − ˆt − ψ
 ∂ t ∂ t 
= = i ψ
∴  t̂, Eˆ  = −i
 
 Øefofues; xq.k %&
1.  A,
ˆ Bˆ  = AB

ˆ ˆ − BA
ˆˆ

2.  A,
ˆ Bˆ  = −  B,

ˆ ˆ
 A
mnk-
ftl izdkj  x̂, Pˆ x  = i
blh izdkj  Pˆ x , xˆ  = −i
 A,
ˆ ˆ ˆ =  A,
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
 B + C  B +  A,C 
3.
 A,
ˆ ˆ ˆ = ˆ ˆ + C)
ˆ − (B
ˆ + C)A
ˆ ˆ
 B + C
 A(B
= ˆ ˆ + AC
AB ˆ ˆ − BA
ˆ ˆ − CA
ˆˆ
= ˆ ˆ − BA
AB ˆ ˆ + AC
ˆ ˆ − CA
ˆˆ
 A,
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
 B +  A,C 
=
 A,
ˆ ˆ ˆ= ˆ  ˆ ˆ  ˆ ˆ ˆ
 BC  B  A,C  +  A, B C
4.
ˆ ˆ = BA
Note :os ladkjd tks Øefofues; lEcU/k dk ikyu djrs gS vFkkZr~ ftuds fy, AB ˆˆ
;k  A,
ˆ Bˆ  = 0 gksrk gSA

,sls ladkjd  A, ˆ  vfHkxeu ladkjd dgykrs gSA
ˆ B

 dks.kh; laosx %&
fdlh ?kw.kZu v{k ds lkis{k ?kwe jgs fi.M ds js[kh; laosx ds vk?kw.kZ dks ml fi.M dk ml v{k ds
lkis{k dks.kh; laosx dgrs gSA
 blds foijhr os ladkjd tks Øefofues; lEcU/k dk ikyu ugha djrs gS vFkkZr~
ABˆ ˆ = B̂A
ˆ
 A,
ˆ ˆ= ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
 B AB − BA
;k

37
 Quantum

v&vfHkxeu ladkjd (Non-Commutative Operator) dgykrs gSaA

 dks.kh; laosx (Angular Momentum) :-
  
dks.kh; laosx L = r × P

L = ˆiL x + ˆjL y + kL
ˆ = dks.kh; laosx
z
 ˆix + ˆjy + kz
ˆ = fLFkfr laosx
r=

P= ˆiP + ˆjP + kP
ˆ = js[kh; laosx
x y z

ˆi ˆj kˆ

L= x y z
Px Py Pz

z z { y z }
ˆ = ˆi yP − zP − ˆj {xP − zP } + kˆ xP − yP
⇒ ˆiL x + ˆjL y + kL x y x { }
  ∂  ∂     ∂  ∂ 
= î  y  −i  − z  −i   − ĵ  x  −i  − z  −i  
  ∂z   ∂y     ∂z   ∂x  
  ∂  ∂  
+ k̂  x  −i  − y  −i  
  ∂y   ∂x  
 ∂ ∂ 
rqyuk& L x = − i  y − z 
 ∂z ∂y 
 ∂ ∂
L y = − i  z −x 
 ∂x ∂z 
 ∂ ∂ 
L z = − i  x −y 
 ∂y ∂x 
Q. fl) dhft, fd gfeZVh ladkjd ds vkbxsu eku lnSo okLrfod gksrs gSA
Ans.
ekuk  ,d gfeZVh ladkjd gSA vFkkZr~
∫ (A ∫
ˆ ψ )* φ ⋅ dτ = ψ *A
ˆ φ ⋅ dτ … (1) gksxkA
;gk¡ ψ vFkok φ nks rjax Qyu gSA
ekuk  dk vkbxsu eku a gSA
vr% Âψ = aψ … (2)
leh-(2) dk la;qXeh ysus ij
(Âψ )
*
= a *ψ * …(3)
  dk vkbxsu eku a gS rks  dks φ ij ladfjr djus ij
Âφ = aφ …(4)
leh-(1) ds L.H.S Hkkx ls
∫ ( Âψ ) φ ⋅ dτ
*
L.H.S = …(5)

38
 Quantum

leh-(3) ls eku (5) esa j[kus ij

∫ a ψ φ ⋅ dτ
* *
L.H.S =

= a ∫ ψ φ ⋅ dτ
* *
…(6)

∫ ψ Âφ ⋅ dτ
*
R.H.S = …(7)
leh-(4) ls (7) esa eku j[kus ij
∫ψ ∫
⋅ aφ ⋅ dτ = a ψ *φ ⋅ dτ
*
R.H.S = …(8)
 L.H.S. = R.H.S. ⇒ (6) = (8)

∫ ψ φ ⋅ dτ = a ∫ ψ φ ⋅ dτ
* * *
a
⇒ Wave function ,dcomplex function gksrs gSA
⇒ a* = a …(9)
vFkkZr~ gfeZVh ladkjd ds vkbxsu eku okLrfod gksrs gSA
 izR;k’kk eku (Expectation Value) :-
izR;k’kk eku lkekU;r% fdlh DokUVe jkf’k dk vkSlr eku dgykrk gSA tSls &
ekuk fdlh ,d fudk; esa 5 ÅtkZ Lrj gS ftudh ÅtkZ,¡ Øe’k% E1 , E 2 , E3 , E 4 , E5 gSA
rks izR;sd ÅtkZ Lrj ds fy, ÅtkZ dk vkSlr eku
E1 + E 2 + E 3 + E 4 + E 5
E= E =
5
vr% DokUVe HkkSfrdh esa fdlh jkf’k vFkok ladkjd dk izR;k’kk eku rjax Qyu ψ (r, t) ds :I esa fn;k
tkrk gS vr% fdlh jkf’k A dk izR;k’kk ekuk fuEu :i esa fn;k tk,xkA
∫ ψ (r, t)Aˆ ψ (r, t) ⋅ dτ
*

A =
∫ ψ (r, t)ψ (r, t) ⋅ dτ
*

vr% fLFkfr dk izR;k’kk eku

∫ ψ (r, t)rˆψ (r, t) ⋅ dτ
*

r =
∫ ψ (r, t)ψ (r, t) ⋅ dτ
*

blh izdkj laosx dk izR;k’kk eku

∫ ψ (r, t)Pˆ ψ (r, t) ⋅ dτ
*

P =
∫ ψ (r, t) ⋅ ψ (r, t) ⋅ dτ
*

Here P̂ = −i∇
ÅtkZ dk izR;k’kk eku
∫ ψ (r, t)Eˆ ψ (r, t) ⋅ dτ
*

E =
∫ ψ (r, t)ψ (r, t) ⋅ dτ
*

∂
;gk¡ Ê = −i
∂t

39
 Quantum

Note: mijksDr lw= esa lekdyu

∫ ψ ψdτ izkf;drk dks O;Dr djrk gSA

*

tks fdlh fuf’pr LFkku ij ml rjax ds ik, tkus dh laHkkouk gSA vkSj lkekU;r% rjax Qyu ψ ds
fy, izkf;drk P = 1 gksrh gSA bu rjax Qyuksa dks izlkekU;hd`r rjax Qyu dgrs gSA
 bl fLFkfr esa A = ∫ ψ *Âψ dτ
2  πx 
Q. ekuk ,d rjax Qyu ψ (x) = sin   ,0 < x < a bl rjax Qyu ds fy, fLFkfr rFkk laosx ds
a  a 
izR;k’kk eku Kkr dhft,A
a

∫ ψ (x) ⋅ xˆ ψ (x)dx
*

0
x = a
…(1)
∫ ψ (x)ψ (x)dx
*

0
a a
2  πx  2  πx 
∴ ∫ ψ * (x)ψ (x)dx = ∫ sin   ⋅ sin   ⋅ dx
a  a  a  a 
0 0
a
2  πx 
=
a0 ∫
sin 2   ⋅ dx
 a 
 cos 2x = 1 − sin 2 x
1 − cos 2x
⇒ sin 2 x =
2
a a
2  2πx 
∴ ∫ ψ * (x)ψ (x)dx = ∫
1 − cos  ⋅ dx
0
2a 0 a 
a
1  2πx 
=
a0 ∫
1 − cos
a 
 ⋅ dx

1 
a a
2πx
a  0 0
∫
=  1 ⋅ dx − cos
a ∫
⋅ dx 

  2πx  
a

 sin   
a 0 
= (x)a0 −
1
a 2π 
 a 
 
1 a  2πa 
= ( a − 0) − sin − sin 0 
a 2π  a 
a
1
∫ ψ (x)ψ (x)dx = × a =1
*
…(2)
0
a

40
 Quantum

a a
2  2πx  2  2πx 
rFkk ∫ ψ (x) ⋅ xˆ ψ (x)dx = ∫
*
sin   sin  ⋅ dx
 a 
.x
a  a  a
0 0
a
2  πx 
=
a0 ∫
x sin 2   ⋅ dx
 a 
a
2  2πx 
=
2a 0  ∫
x 1 − cos
a 
⋅ dx

2  2πx 
a a
=
2a  0 ∫
 x ⋅ dx − 1 x cos
0
a  ∫
 ⋅ dx

2  x 2    2πx   
a a a
2πx  dx
=   −  x cos
2a  2  0  0 a
dx −  cos 
 dx ∫  dx
 a    ∫
 0  
2  a2  2πa   2  a
a
a  2πx  
= 
2a  2
− a sin    +
2π  a   2a 0  2π  a  
 sin  ∫ ⋅ dx

2  a2 a2 a2 a2 
=  − sin ( 2π ) + cos(2π) − cos 0 
2a  2 2π 4π 4π 
1 a2 a
= × =
a 2 2
a
a
x̂ = 2 =
1 2
Lkaosx dk izR;k’kk eku &
∫ ψ (x)Pˆ ψ (x)dx
*

P =
∫ ψ (x)ψ (x)dx
*

2  πx 
 ψ= sin  
a  a 
a a
2  πx 
∫ ψ (x)ψ (x)dx = ∫ a sin   ⋅ dx = 1
* 2

0 0
a
And
a a
2  πx   ∂  2  πx 
∫ 0
ψ * (x)Pˆ ψ (x)dx = ∫
0
a
sin   −i 
 
a  ∂x  a
sin   ⋅ dx
 a 
a
2  πx  ∂   πx  
= ( −i) sin   ∫
sin  .dx
a 0  a  ∂x   a  

41
 Quantum

a
a  πx   π  πx  
= ( −i) sin    ⋅ cos    ⋅ dx
∫
2 0  a  a  a 
a
2π  πx   πx 
= ( − i ) ∫
a a 0  a 
sin ⋅ cos   ⋅ dx
 a 
a
2 π  2πx 
= ( − i ) ⋅ 2 ⋅ sin 
a 20  a  ∫  ⋅ dx

( −i) π 
a   2πx  
a

− cos  
 a  0 
=
a 2  2π  
iπ a
= 2 ×
a 2π
[cos 2π − cos 0]
a

∫ ψ (x)Pˆ ψ (x)dx = 0
*
= …(3)
0
0
 P̂ = = 0
1
 ykfEcdrk izfrca/k %&
;fn nks rjax Qyu ψ m rFkk ψ n bl izdkj gS fd mudk vk;ru lekdy
∫ (ψ ψ m ) ⋅ dτ = δ mn
*
n
V
 δ mn = fMjkd MsYVk Qyu dgykrk gSA tks fuEu izdkj gksrk gSA
(i) n = m ⇒ δ mn = 1
(ii) n ≠ m ⇒ δ mn = 0
rFkk ψ *n , ψ n dk la;qXeh gSA
Condition – 1
;fnn = m rks δ mn = 1
∫ψ n ψ m dτ
*
 = 1
bls izlkekU;hdj.k dh ‘krZ dgrs gSA rFkk bls ikyu djus okyk rjax Qyu izlkekU;hd`r rjax Qyu
dgykrk gSA DokUVe HkkSfrdh esa rjax Qyu rHkh oS/k gksxkA tc oks ‘krZ dk ikyu djsA
Condition – 2
;fn n ≠ m rks δ mn = 0
 ∫ ψ *n ψ m dτ = 0
bls ykfEcdrk izfrcU/k dgrs gSA
 ,sjuQsLV iz;ksx %&
,sjuQsLV izes; ds vuqlkj fdlh fpjlEer d.k dh O;k[;k djus ds fy, fpjlEer fu;eksa ij
vk/kkfjr lehdj.ksa dke esa vkrh gSA

42
 Quantum

 dP 
P = mv or F = = −∇V
dt
;fn ge fpjlEer pjks ds LFkku ij muds izR;k’kk eku dk mi;ksx djs rks fpjlEer lehdj.kksa
DokUVe lehdj.kksa esa ifjofrZr gks tkrh gS vkSj os lehdj.ksa ,sjuQsLV izes; dgykrh gSA
1. izFke ,sjuQsLV izes; %&
fpjlEer lehdj.k %&
laosxP = nzO;eku(m) × osx (v)
dx
P= m
dt
izR;k’kk eku ds :i esa (DokUVe leh-)
dx
P̂ = m
dt
dx P̂
= …(1)
dt m
leh-(1) izFke ,sjuQsLV izes; dgykrh gSA
2. f}rh; ,sjuQsLV izes; %&
fpjlEer lehdj.k %&
dp  −∂V
cyF = = −∇v =
dt ∂x
izR;k’kk eku ds :i esa vFkok DokUVe lehdj.k
dPˆ ∂v
= − …(2)
dt ∂x
leh-(2) f}rh; ,sjuQsLV izes; dgykrh gSA
Proof :-
1. izFke ,sjuQsLV izes; &
d x Px
=
dt m
 fLFkfr dk izR;k’kk eku
∫ ψ x̂ψ ⋅ dτ
*

x = …(1)
∫ ψ ψ dτ
*

∫ ψ ψ dτ = 1
*


x = ∫ ψ x̂ψ ⋅ dτ
*
…(2)
leh-(2) dk t ds lkis{k vodyu djus ij
d x dψ * dx dψ
dt
=
dt∫ ∫
dt ∫
x̂ψ dτ + ψ * ψdτ + ψ * x ⋅
dt
⋅ dτ …(3)
Extra Wrok :
JksfMatj leh- Hˆ ψ = Eˆ ψ

43
 Quantum

Ĥ = dqy ÅtkZ ladkjd = K.E. + P.E.

P̂ 2
= + V̂(x)
2m
( )
 2
− i ∇
= + V̂(r)
2m
∂
Ê = ÅtkZ ladkjd = i
∂t
−2 2
Ĥ = ∇ + V̂(r)
2m
h2 2 ∂
− ∇ ψ + V̂(r)ψ = i ψ
2m ∂t

JksfMatj leh- ls&

∂ψ 2 2
i = − ∇ ψ + V̂(r)ψ
∂t 2m
∂ψ −1 h 2 2 1
= ∇ ψ + V̂(r)ψ …(4)
∂t i 2m i
leh-(4) dk la;qXeh ysus ij
∂ψ * − i 2 * 1
= ∇ ψ − V̂(r)ψ * …(5)
∂t 2m i
(4) & (5) → (3)
 − i −1   i 2
( r ) ψ  ⋅ dτ
d x dx 1 ˆ
∫  2m ∇ ψ V̂(r)ψ *  xψ dτ + ψ * ∫ ∫
⋅ ψdτ + ψ * x  ∇ ψ+ V
2 *
=
dt i  dt  2m i 
 x,t ls Lora= gSA
vr% dx dt = 0
− i
( ) i
( )
d x 1 ˆ 1 ˆ
dt
=
2m ∫ ∇ 2 ψ * xψ dτ − ∫ V(r)
i
ψ * xψ ⋅ dτ + 0 +
2m ∫ ψ * x ∇ 2 ψ dτ + ∫ V(r)
i
ψ * xψ ⋅ dτ


( ) ( )
d x h
dt
=
2mi ∫ ∇ 2 ψ * xψ dτ −
2mi ∫ ψ * x ∇ 2 ψ ⋅ dτ …(6)

(∇ ψ )
*
 ∇2ψ* = 2

 ykIykfl;u ladkjd gfeZVh ladkjd gksrk gSA vr%

∫ (∇ ψ ) x ψ dτ = ∫ ψ ∇ (xψ )dτ
2 * * 2

d x  

dt
=
2mi ∫
ψ *∇ 2 x ψ ⋅ dτ −
2mi
ψ * x ∇ 2 ψ ⋅ dτ∫
∫{ }

= ψ *∇ 2 (x ⋅ ψ ) − ψ * x∇ 2 ψ ⋅ dτ …(7)
2mi

44
 Quantum

Now,
 
ψ *∇ 2 (x ⋅ ψ ) ψ * x ∇ 2 ψ = ψ *∇ ⋅ ∇(x ⋅ ψ ) − ψ * x∇ 2 ψ
{ }
  
= ψ *∇ ∇xψ + x ⋅ ∇ψ − ψ * x∇ 2 ψ

{ }
  
= ψ * ∇ 2 xψ + ∇x ⋅ ∇ψ + ∇x∇ψ + x∇ 2 ψ − ψ * x∇ 2 ψ
 
= ψ *∇ 2 xψ + 2ψ *∇x ⋅ ∇ψ + ψ * x∇ 2 ψ − ψ * x∇ 2 ψ
= ψ *∇ 2 xψ + 2ψ *∇x ⋅ ∇ψ …(8)
leh-(7) o (8) ls

∫( )
d x   
= ψ *∇ 2 xψ + 2ψ *∇x ⋅ ∇ψ ⋅ dτ
dt 2mi
∂  ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂
We know that ∇x = (x) = ˆi =  ˆi + j +k x
∂x  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂
∇ 2 x = ∇(∇x) = (1) = 0
∂x

∫( )
d x  
 = 0 + 2ψ * ⋅ (i) ˆ ⋅ ∇ψ ⋅ dτ
dt 2mi
2 
=
2mi ∫
ψ * ⋅ î∇ψ ⋅ dτ

Here î = unit vector

d x 2 ∂ψ
 = ( −i) ψ * ⋅ ˆi ⋅ ˆi .dx
∫
dt 2m ∂x
1  ∂ 
m∫ 
= ψ * −i ψ ⋅ dx
∂x 
1
=
m ∫
ψ *P̂x ψ ⋅ dx

d x P̂x
=
dt m
2. f}rh; ,sjuQsLV izes; %&
d Pˆ x  ∂V
= Fx = −
dt ∂x

∫ ψ P̂ ⋅ ψ ⋅ dx
*
 P̂x = x

 ∂ 
∫ψ −i  ⋅ ψ ⋅ dx
*
= …(1)
 ∂x 
d Pˆ x d ∂ψ
⇒
dt
= ( − i )
dt
ψ*∫∂x
.dx

45
 Quantum

 dψ * ∂ψ d  ∂ψ  
= − i  ∫
 dt ∂x
⋅ ⋅ dx + ψ * ⋅  ∫ 
dt  ∂x 
⋅ dx 

 ∂ψ ∂ψ
*
∂  ∂ψ  
= − i  ∫
 ∂t ∂x
⋅ ⋅ dx + ψ * ∫  ⋅ dx 
∂x  ∂t  
…(2)

JksfMatj leh- ls &

∂ψ −2 ∂2 ψ
i = + V̂ ( x ) ψ
∂t 2m ∂x 2
∂ψ −  2 ∂ 2 ψ V̂(x)
⇒ = + ⋅ψ
∂t 2m (i) ∂x 2 i
∂ψ −  ∂ 2 ψ V̂(x)
⇒ = + ψ …(3)
∂t 2mi ∂x 2 i
la;qXeh &
∂ψ *  ∂ 2 ψ * V̂(x) *
= − ψ …(4)
∂t 2mi ∂x 2 i
(3) & (4) → (2)
d Pˆ x    ∂ 2 ψ * V(x)   −  ∂ 2 ψ V(x)   
* ∂ψ * ∂
ˆ ˆ
= −i  
2mi ∂x 2
− ψ 
 ∂x
⋅ dx + ψ ∫ ⋅
∂x  2mi ∂x 2
+ ψ   dx 
    
dt i i

 ∂ 2 ψ * ∂ψ V̂(x) * ∂ψ * ∂   −  ∂ ψ 
2
= − i ∫
2mi ∂x 2 ∂x
⋅ ⋅ dx + i ∫
i
ψ
∂x
.dx −i ψ ∫  ⋅  ⋅ dx
∂x  2mi ∂x 2 
∂  V̂ψ 
− i ψ * ∫
∂x  i 
⋅ dx

−2 ∂ 2 ψ * ∂ψ ˆ ψ * ⋅ ∂ψ ⋅ dx +  ψ * ∂ ψ dx − ψ * ∂ (V
2 3
=
2m ∫ ∂x 2
⋅
∂x ∫
⋅ dx + V
∂x ∫
2m ∂x 3 ∫ ∂x
ˆ ψ ) ⋅ dx

∂2
 ,d gfeZVh ladkjd gSA
∂x 2
 ∂ 2 ψ *  ∂ψ ∂ 2  ∂ψ 
∫  ∂x 2  ⋅ ∂x ⋅ dx = ∫ ψ*   ⋅ dx
∂x 2  ∂x 
d −2 * ∂ ψ
3
ˆ ψ * ∂ψ ⋅ dx +  ψ * ∂ ψ dx
2 3

2m ∫ ∫ ∂x 2m ∫
∴ P̂x = ψ dx + V
dt ∂x 3
∂x 3
 ∂V ˆ ∂ψ ⋅ dx 
− ∫ ψ * ψdx + ∫ ψ *V 
 ∂x ∂x 
ˆ
ˆ ψ * ∂ψ ⋅ dx − ψ * ∂V ⋅ ψdx − ψ * ⋅ V ˆ ⋅ ∂ψ dx
d Px
⇒
dt
= V ∫ ∂x ∂x ∫ ∫ ∂x

46
 Quantum

d Pˆ x ∂V
⇒
dt
= − ψ*∫ ∂x
⋅ ψdx

d Pˆx ∂V
⇒ = − Hence Proved
dt ∂x

Unit -II
 JksfMatj leh- ds gy %&
DokUVe ;kaf=dh esa d.k DokUVhd`r :i esa gksrk gS ftldh ÅtkZ E = hυ gksrh gSA ns czksXyh ds vuqlkj
izR;sd d.k ds lkFk ,d rjax gksrh gS ftldh rjaxnS/;Z ;fn λ gks rks
c
υ=
λ
hc
 E = hυ = (1) and (2)
λ
leh-(1)
⇒ E = hυ
2π
⇒ E = hυ ⋅
2π
h
⇒ E= ( 2πυ)
2π
⇒ E = ω
ω = dks.kh; vko`fÙk
h
ns&czksXyh rjaxnS/;Z λ =
P
h
vr% laosx P=
λ
h 2π
P= ⋅
λ 2π
⇒ P= h ( )( )
2π ⋅
2π
λ
⇒ P = K
2π
Where K = rjax lapj.k fu;rkad=
λ
gkbtsucxZ ds vfuf’prk fl)kUr ls ;fn dksbZ d.k vFkok mlls lacaf/kr rjax x-fn’kk esa lapfjr gksA

∆x ⋅ ∆Px ≥
2
ekuk ∆x ≈ 0

∆Px ≥
2(∞)
⇒ ∆Px ≈ 0

47
 Quantum

 h h 
∆λ ≈ 0  Px = λ ⇒ ∆Px = − λ 2 ∆λ 
 
⇒ λ 2 − λ1 = 0
⇒ λ 2 = λ1
vr% rjax bl izdkj gksxh fd ;fn ok nks ;k nks ls vf/kd rjaxksa dk v/;kjksi.k gS rks mlds fy,
izR;sd rjax dh rjaxnS/;Z leku gksxhA

bl fLFkfr esa rjax Qyu tks fd fLFkfr o le; dk Qyu gS tks fuEu izdkj gS&
ψ (r, t) ∝ expi(kx − ωt)
ψ (r, t) ∝ cos(kx − ωt)
ψ (r, t) ∝ sin(kx − ωt)
;fn bl rjax Qyu ds gy fuEu leh- }kjk gy fd, tk, &
d 2 ψ (r, t) 2 d ψ (r, t)
2
= r …(1)
dx 2 dt 2
ekuk ψ = A sin ( kx − ωt ) …(2)
d2 2
⇒
dx 2
{ A sin ( kx − ω t )} = r 2 d
dt 2
{A sin ( kx − ωt )}
⇒
d
dx
{ } d
Ak cos ( kx − ωt ) = r 2 {A(−ω ) cos(kx − ωt)}
dt
⇒ − Ak sin ( kx − ωt ) = − r ω A sin ( kx − ωt )
2 2 2

k 2 2 k 2
⇒ r2 = =
ω 2  2ω 2
P2
⇒ r2 =
E2
vr% r 2 dk eku xfrd pjksa ij fuHkZj dj jgk gS tks fd ugha djuk pkfg,A vr% leh- (1) okafNr
rjax leh- dh ewy fo’ks”krk ds vuq:i ugha gSA vc ekuk rjax lehdj.k
ψ = A exp {i(kx − ωt)}
d 2 ψ (r, t) dψ (r, t)
2
= r2 …(3)
dx dt
d2
2 {
A exp {i(kx − ωt}} = r 2 {A exp {i(kx − ωt)}}
d
⇒
dx dt
i(kx −ωt) i(kx −ωt)
⇒ (ik) Ae
2
= (−iω )r Ae
2

48
 Quantum

k 2 2 k 2
⇒ r2 = =
iω  2 iω
P2
=
iE
m2 v2
⇒ r2 =
1 
i  mv 2 
2 
2m
⇒ r2 = …(4)
i
( 4) → (3)
d2ψ 2m  dψ
2
= ⋅ ⋅
dx i  dt
2 d 2 ψ dψ
⇒ ⋅ 2 = − i
2m dx dt
− d ψ
2 2
dψ
⇒ ⋅ 2 = i …(5)
2m dx dt
leh- (5) ,d foeh; rjax leh- dgykrh gS ftls gy djds ge rjax Qyu ψ (r, t) dk eku Kkr dj
ldrs gSA vr% leh- (5) dks ,dfoeh; JksfMaxj rjax leh- Hkh dgrs gSA
 f=foeh; JksfMaxj lehdj.k %&

;fn ψ → ψ ( r, t ) → ψ (x, y, z, t)

bl fLFkfr esa leh- (5) ls ⇒ Here r = ˆix + yjˆ + zkˆ
−2  ∂2ψ  ∂2ψ  ∂2ψ   ∂ψ 
⇒  2 (r, t) + (r, t) + (r, t)  = i (r, t)
2m  ∂x ∂y 2
∂z 2
 ∂t
 ∂2
−2 ∂2 ∂2   ∂ 
⇒  2 + 2 + 2  ψ (r, t) = i ψ (r, t)
2m ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂t
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
 ∇ 2 = 2 + 2 + 2 = ykIykfl;u ladkjd
∂x ∂y ∂z
−2 2  ∂ψ 
 ∇ ψ (r, t) = i ψ (r, t) …(6)
2m ∂t
leh-(6) ds R.H.S ls
∂ψ ∂
i
∂t
= i
∂t
{
Aei(kx −ωt) }
= (i)(−iω )Aei(kx −ωt)
∂ψ
⇒ i = ωψ
∂t

49
 Quantum

∂ψ
⇒ i = Eψ …(7)
∂t
leh-(7) → (6)
−2 2  
∇ ψ (r, t) = Eψ (r, t) …(8)
2m
leh-(6) o (8) f=foeh; JksfMaxj leh- dgykrh gSA
2 2
− ∇ ψ = Eψ
2m
 ψ = A exp {i(kx − ωt)}
−2 ∂2
⇒
2m ∂x 2
{A exp {i(kx − ωt)}} = Eψ
2 k 2
⇒
2m
{A exp {i(kx − ωt)}} = Eψ
2 k 2
⇒ ψ = Eψ
2m
P2
⇒
2m
ψ = Eψ …(9) [ P = k ]
∂
P = − i
∂x
In 3-D
 
P = − i ∇ …(10)
  ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂
 ∇ = i ∂x + j ∂y + k ∂z 
 
dqy ÅtkZ dh ifjHkk”kk ls&
dqy ÅtkZ = xfrt ÅtkZ + fLFkfrt ÅtkZ
P2
E= +V
2m
 P2 
⇒ Eψ =  + V ψ
 2m 
(P̂) ψ + V̂ψ
2

⇒ Êψ = …(11)
2m
(10) → (11)

{−i∇}
 2

Êψ = ψ + V̂ψ
2m
−2 2
⇒ Êψ = ∇ ψ + V̂ψ …(12)
2m

50
 Quantum

leh-(12) dky&vukfJr JksafMxj leh- dgykrh gSA blds fy, rjax Qyu dsoy fLFkfr ij fuHkZj djrk
gS le; ij ughaA
ψ → ψ (r)
− 22
 Eˆ ψ (r) = ∇ ψ (r) + V
ˆ ψ (r)
2m
 −2 2 
⇒ Êψ (r) =  ∇ + V̂  ψ (r)
 2m 
⇒ Êψ (r) = Ĥψ (r)
Ĥψ = Eψ
−2 2
Here Ĥ = gSfeYVuh ladkjd = ∇ + V̂
2m
 dkykfJr JksfMaxj leh- %&
;fn rjax Qyu fLFkfr ds lkFk&lkFk le; ij Hkh fuHkZj djs vFkkZr~ ψ → ψ (r, t)
ml fLFkfr esa leh-(12) ls
−2 2
Êψ (r, t) = ∇ ψ (r, t) + V
ˆ ψ (r, t)
2m
∂
 Ê = i
∂t
∂ −2 2
 i {ψ (r, t)} = ∇ ψ (r, t) + V
ˆ ψ (r, t) …(13)
∂t 2m
leh-(13) dkykfJr JksfMaxj lehdj.k dgykrh gSA D;ksafd leh- (13) le; ij fuHkZj djrh gSA
 rjax Qyu ψ fLFkfr o le; nksuksa dk Qyu gSA vFkkZr~
ψ (r, t) = ψ (r) ⋅ φ(t) …(14)
(14) → (13)
∂ −2
⇒ i {ψ (r) ⋅ φ(t)} = ∇ 2 {ψ (r) ⋅ φ(t)} + Vˆ {ψ (r) ⋅ φ(t)}
∂t 2m
∂φ(t) −2
⇒ iψ (r) ⋅ = φ(t)∇ 2 ψ (r) + V
ˆ ψ (r) ⋅ φ(t)
∂t 2m
ψ (r) ⋅ φ(t) dk nksuksa i{kksa esa Hkkx nsus ij
ψ (r) ∂φ(t) −  2 φ(t) ˆ ψ (r)φ(t)
V
⇒ i = ∇ 2 ψ (r) +
ψ (r)φ(t) ∂t 2m ψ (r) ⋅ φ(t) ψ (r) ⋅ φ(t)
1 ∂φ(t) −2 1
⇒ i = ∇ 2 ψ (r) + V
ˆ …(15)
φ(t) ∂t 2m ψ (r)
leh-(15) dk L.H.S. o R.H.S. i`Fkd&i`Fkd pjksa ij fuHkZj djrk gSaA tgk¡ L.H.S. iw.kZr% le; dk Qyu
gSA tks fd ÅtkZ dh foek j[krk gSA
vr% L.H.S. dks ,d vpj ÅtkZ ds rqY; j[kus ij

51
 Quantum

1 ∂
⇒ i {φ(t)} = E
φ(t) ∂t
∂ Eφ(t) 1 ∂
⇒ {φ(t)} = = ⋅ i φ(t)
∂t i i ∂t
1 ∂ 1
⇒ . {φ(t)} = E
φ(t) ∂t i
tds lkis{k lekdyu djus ij
Et
ln {φ(t)} =
i
 Et 
⇒ φ(t) = exp  
 i 
 −iEt 
⇒ φ(t) = exp   …(16)
  
leh- (16) le; Qyu dks O;Dr djrk gS tks ÅtkZ ij fuHkZj djrk gS
 JksfMaxj leh- f}rh; dksfV dh jS[kh; vody leh- dgykrh gSA
 rjax Qyu ψ (r, t) dk HkkSfrd egRo %&
DokUVe ;kaf=dh esa fdlh d.k dks rjax Qyu }kjk le>k;k tkrk gS D;ksafd izR;sd d.k ls lEc) ,d
rjax gksrh gS fdlh le; t ij rFkk fLFkfr r ij rjax Qyu ψ (r, t) gksrk gSA
2
ψ (r, t) dk lkekU;r% dksbZ HkkSfrd vFkZ ugha gksrkA ijarq ψ (r, t) }kjk ml rjax ds fdlh fuf’pr LFkku
ij ik, tkus dh izkf;drk le>k;h tkrh gSA
2
vFkkZr~ izkf;drk P = ψ (r, t)
;fn izkf;drk P vf/kd gksxh rks ml LFkku ij d.k ds ik, tkus dh laHkkouk Hkh vf/kd gksxh vkSj ;fn
P de gksxh rks ml LFkku ij d.k ds ik,s tkus dh laHkkouk Hkh de gksxhA
 rjax Qyu ds xq.k %&
1. rjax Qyu lrr~ gksuk pkfg,A
2. rjax Qyu ,dyekuh gksuk pkfg,A
3. rjax Qyu dk izFke vodyt Hkh lrr gksuk pkfg,A
4. rjax Qyu izlkekU;hd`r gksA vFkkZr~ izkf;drk dk eku 1 gksA

∫ψ ∫
2
P= dτ = ψ *ψdτ = 1
5.rjax Qyu vuar lekdyuh; gksuk pkfg,A
 izkf;drk /kkjk ?kuRo rFkk lkarR; leh-%&
We know that – izkf;drk rFkk izkf;drk /kkjk ?kuRo ds e/; laca/k lkarR; leh- dgykrh gSA izkf;drk
/kkjk ?kuRo ,d lfn’k jkf’k gksrh gSA
(
 
)
 
J= ψ *∇ψ − ψ∇ψ *
2mi
dkykfJr JksfMaxj leh-&
∂ψ −2 2
i = ∇ ψ + V̂ψ …(1)
∂t 2m

52
 Quantum

la;qXeh ysus ij
∂ψ * −2 2 *
− i = ∇ ψ + V̂ψ * …(2)
∂t 2m
(1) × ψ *
∂ψ −2 * 2
i ⋅ ψ * = ψ ∇ ψ + V̂ψ *ψ …(3)
∂t 2m
(2) × ψ
∂ψ * −2
−iψ = ψ∇ 2 ψ * + V̂ψψ * …(4)
∂t 2m
(3) − (4)
∂ψ ∂ψ * −  2 * 2 2
iψ *
+ i ψ = ψ ∇ ψ+ ψ∇ 2 ψ * + Vˆ ψ *ψ − V
ˆ ψψ *
∂t ∂t 2m 2m
 ∂ψ ∂ψ 
{ }
* 2

⇒ i  ψ * +ψ = − ψ *∇ 2 ψ − ψ∇ 2 ψ * …(5)
 ∂t ∂t  2m
∂ * ∂ψ ∂ψ *
 (ψ ψ ) = ψ * +ψ …(6)
∂t ∂t ∂t
{ }
      
∇ ⋅ ψ∇ψ * − ψ *∇ψ = ∇ψ ⋅ ∇ψ * + ψ∇ 2 ψ * − ∇ψ *∇ψ

{ }
  
⇒ ∇ ⋅ ψ∇ψ * − ψ *∇ψ = ψ∇ 2 ψ * − ψ *∇ 2 ψ …(7)
(6) & (7) → (5)
2 
{ }
∂   
i  ( ψ * ψ )  = ∇ ⋅ (ψ∇ψ * − ψ *∇ψ )
 ∂t  2m
 P = ψ *ψ
−2 
{ }
∂P  
⇒ = ∇ ⋅ (ψ *∇ψ − ψ∇ψ * )
∂t 2m(i)

{ }
∂P  2   
⇒ + ∇ ⋅ (ψ *∇ψ − ψ∇ψ * ) = 0
∂t 2mi

(
 
)
 
Here J= ψ *∇ψ − ψ∇ψ *
2mi
∂P  
⇒ + ∇⋅J = 0 …(8)
∂t
JkSfMaxj leh-
,d vkbxsu eku leh- dgykrh gSA
Ĥψ = Eψ
Ĥψ → vkbxsu Qyu] Eψ → ÅtkZ vkbxsu eku
leh-(8) lkarR; leh- dgykrh gSA
 ,dfoeh; ckWDl esa d.k dh xfr %&

53
 Quantum

ekuk ,d a pkSM+kbZ dk ckWDl ewy fcUnq 0 ij j[kk gS rFkk mldh lhek 0 ls a gSA
vFkkZr~ x = 0 rFkk x = a ij foHko dk eku vrar gSA bl ckWDl esa ,d d.k Lora= :i ls xfr dj
jgk gSA lhekvksa ij foHko dk eku vuar gksus ls d.k ckWDl ls ckgj ugha tk,xkA vFkkZr~ d.k ckWDl
esa ifjc) gSA
bl fLFkfr esa d.k ds fy, foHko fuEu gksxkA

 0, 0 < x < a
V= 
 ∞, 0 ≥ x ≥ a
;fn d.k dk rjax Qyu ψ gks rks JksfMaxj leh-
−2 ∂2 ψ ˆ
+ Vψ = Eˆ ψ ... (1)
2m ∂x 2
d.k dk vfLrRo dsoy ckWDl ds vanj vFkkZr~ 0 < x < a bl lhek esa gS ftlds fy, foHko V = 0 gSA
vr% bl lhek ds fy, JksfMaxj leh-
−2 ∂2 ψ
= Êψ
2m ∂x 2
∂2ψ −2mEψ
⇒ =
∂x 2
2
∂ ψ 2mEψ
2
⇒ + = 0 ...(2)
∂x 2 2
2mE
Let K2 = ...(3)
2
(3) → (2)
∂2ψ
+ K2ψ = 0
∂x 2
⇒ (D 2 + K 2 )ψ = 0 ...(4)
;g ,d f}rh; dksfV dk vody leh- gS ftldk lkekU; gy
ψ = A 'eikx + B'eikx
⇒ ψ = A ' {cos kx + isin kx} + B' {cos kx − isin kx}
⇒ ψ = cos kx ⋅ (A '+ B') + sin kx(iA '− iB')
⇒ ψ = A cos kx + Bsin kx ...(5)
A o B ;gk¡ fLFkjkad gS ftldk eku ifjlhek izfrca/k }kjk Kkr djsxasA
izFke lhek %&

54
 Quantum

x = 0, V = ∞, ψ = 0
leh- (5) ls
0 = A cos 0 + Bsin 0
⇒ A= 0 ...(6)
(6) → (5)
ψ = Bsin kx ...(7)
f}rh; lhek %&
At x = a, V = ∞, ψ = 0
(6) ⇒ 0 = sin ka
⇒ 0 = sin ka
⇒ sin nπ = sin ka
⇒ nπ = ka
nπ
⇒ k= ...(8) Here n = 1, 2,3...
a
Equation (8) → (7)
nπx
ψ = Bsin ...(9)
a
izlkekU;hdj.k dh ‘krZ ls &
a

∫ ψ ψ ⋅ dx = 1
*

 nπx   nπx 
a

∫  Bsin
0
 ⋅  Bsin
a   a 
 ⋅ dx = 1

nπx
a
⇒ B2 ∫ sin 2 = 1
0
a
 cos 2θ = 1 − 2sin 2 θ
1 − cos 2θ
⇒ sin 2 θ =
2
B 
2 a
2nπx 
∴ ∫ 1 − cos  ⋅ dx = 1
2 0 a 
B2  2nπx 
a a

⇒ ∫ 1 ⋅ dx − ∫ cos ⋅ dx  = 1
2 0 0
a 
 aB2 a  2nπx  
a

⇒ (x)0 − sin   =1
 2 2nπ  a 0 
B2 
{sin 2nπ − sin 0} = 1
a
⇒  a−
a  2nπ 
B2
⇒
2
[a − 0] = 1

55
 Quantum

B2 a
⇒ =1
2
2
⇒ B2 =
a
2
⇒ B= ...(10)
a
(10) → (9)
2 nπx
⇒ ψ= sin ...(11)
a a
Equation (11) ,dfoeh; ckWDl esa d.k ds rjax Qyu dks O;Dr djrk gS tks x fn’kk esa xfr dj jgk
gSA
ÅtkZ&vkbxsu eku %&
(8) → (3)
n 2π2 2mE
=
a 2
2
n 2 π 2 2
⇒ E= ...(12)
2ma 2
Here n = 1,2,3, ...
π 2 2
If n = 1, E1 =
2ma 2
4π 2  2
n = 2, E2 =
2ma 2
9π 2  2
n = 3, E3 =
2ma 2
:
:
:
E1 : E 2 : E 3 ... = 1: 4 : 9...

fofoDr ÅtkZ oØ
rjax Qyu oØ %&
From (11)

56
 Quantum

2 nπx
ψ (x) = sin
a a
If n = 1
2 πx
ψ1 = sin ,n = 1, ψ2
a a
x = 0, ψ1 = 0
a 2 1
x= ⇒ ψ1 = ⋅
4 a 2
a 2
x = ⇒ ψ1 =
2 a
3a 2 1
x= ⇒ ψ1 = ⋅ n = 1, ψ
4 a 2
x = a ⇒ ψ1 = 0
If n = 0

57
 TM

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 Quantum

2 2πx
ψ2 = sin
a a
x = 0 , ψ2 = 0
a 2
x= , ψ2 =
4 a
a
x= , ψ2 = 0
2
3a 2
x= , ψ2 = −
4 a
x = a, ψ2 = 0
 f=foeh; ckWDl esa d.k dh xfr %&

58
 Quantum

ekuk ,d d.k ,d f=foeh; ckWDl esa ifjc) gS ftldk nzO;eku m gSA ;g d.k bl ckWDl esa Lora=
:i ls xfr dj jgk gSA vFkkZr~ bldh fLFkfrt ÅtkZ ckWDl ds vanj ‘kwU; gSA ;fn ckWDl dh yackbZ] pkSMkbZ
o Å¡pkbZ a,b,c gks rks
V = 0, 0<x<a
V = 0, 0<y,b
V = 0, 0<z<c
V= ∞, 0≥x≥a
0≥y≥b
0 ≥≥≥ c
vr% bl d.k ds rjax Qyu ψ ds fy, JksfMaxj leh-
−2 2
⇒ ∇ ψ ( x, y, z ) + Vˆ ψ (x, y, z) = Eˆ ψ (x, y, z) ...(1)
2m
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
 ∇2 = 2 + 2 + 2 ...(2)
∂x ∂y ∂z
⇒ ψ (x, y, z) = X(x)Y(y)Z(z) ...(3)
(2),(3) → (1)
∂ 2
∂2 ∂2  2mV ˆ −2mEˆ X(x)Y(y)
⇒  2 + 2 + 2  X(x)Y(y)Z(z) − 2 ψ (x, y, z) =
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   2 Z(z)
0< x<a
0 < y < b , V = 0 ds fy,
0<z<c
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
⇒ 2 X(x)Y(y)Z(z) + 2 X(x)Y(y)Z(z) + 2 X(x)Y(y)Z(z) + 2mEX(x)Y(y)Z(z) = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ X(x)
2
∂ Y(y)
2
∂2 2mEX(x)Y(y)
⇒ Y(y)Z(z) + X(x)Z(z) + X(x)Y(y) Z(z) +
∂x 2
∂y 2
∂z 2
 2 Z(z)
pjksa ds i`FkDdj.k fof/k ls X(x)Y(y)Z(z) dk Hkkx nsus ij = 0

59
 Quantum

1 ∂ 2 X(x) 1 ∂ 2 Y(y) 1 ∂ 2 Z(z) 2mE

⇒ + + + 2 =0
X(x) ∂x 2 Y(y) ∂y 2 Z(z) ∂z 2 
1 ∂ 2 X(x) 1 ∂ 2 Y(y) 1 ∂ 2 Z(z)
⇒ + + + K2 = 0 ...(4)
X(x) ∂x 2 Y(y) ∂y 2 Z(z) ∂z 2
2mE
 f=foeh; K 2 = K 2x + K 2y + K 2z = 2

1 ∂ 2 X(x) 1 ∂ 2 Y(y) 1 ∂ 2 Z(z)
⇒
X(x) ∂x 2
+
Y(y) ∂y 2
+
Z(z) ∂z 2
( )
= − K 2 = − K 2x + K 2y + K 2z ...(5)

leh- (5) ds L.H.S. dk izR;sd in ,d&nwljs ls fHkUu gS vFkkZr~ izFke in dsoy x dk Qyu] f}rh; in
dsoy y dk Qyu ,oa r`rh; in z dk Qyu gSA
vr% bUgsa i`Fkd~&i`Fkd fu;rkadksa ds cjkcj j[kus ij
1 ∂ 2 X(x)
= − K 2x ...(6)
X(x) ∂x 2
1 ∂ 2 Y(y)
= − K 2y ...(7)
Y(y) ∂y 2
1 ∂ 2 Z(z)
= − K 2z ...(8)
Z(z) ∂z 2
∂ 2 X(x)
⇒ + K 2z X(x) = 0
∂x 2
( )
⇒ D 2 + K z2 X(x) = 0
bldk gy
X(x) = A sin K x x + Bcos K x .x ...(9)
blh izdkj (7) o (8) dk gy
Y(y) = Csin K y y + D cos K y ⋅ y ...(10)
Z(z) = E sin K z Z + E cos K Z Z ...(11)
A,B,C,D,E,F fu;rkad gS ftldk eku ifjlhek izfrca/kksa }kjk Kkr djrs gSa&
So from equation (9)
tc x = 0 rks X(x) = 0
Yz = 0
0 = Asin 0 + Bcos 0
B= 0 ...(12)
(12) → (9)
X(x) = A sin K x X ...(13)
tc x = a, X (x) = 0, Yz ≠ 0
0 = A sin K x a
A ≠ 0
sin K x a = sin n x π
⇒ Kxa = nxπ

60
 Quantum

nxπ
⇒ Kx = ...(14)
a
(14) → (13)
n x πx
X(x) = A sin ...(15)
a
izlkekU;hdj.k ‘krZ ls
a

∫ X (x)X(x)dx = 1
*

n x πx
a

A 2 ∫ sin 2 ⋅ dx = 1
0
a
By solving
a
A2 × = 1
2
2
⇒ A= ...(16)
a
(16) → (15)
2 n π
X(x) = sin x x ...(17)
a a
Similarly from (10) & (11)
2 nyπy
Y(y) = sin ...(18)
b b
2 ππ
Z(z) = sin z z ...(19)
b b
 ψ (x, y, z) = X(x)Y(y)Z(z)
2 2 2 n π nyπy n π
ψ (x, y, z) = sin x x ⋅ sin ⋅ sin z z ...(20)
a b c a b c
ÅtkZ vkbxsu eku %&
K 2 = K 2x + K 2y + K 2z
2
E=
2m
{
K 2x + KL2y + K 2z } ...(21)

n π
Kx = x 
a

nyπ 
Ky =  ...(22)
b 
n π 
Kz = z 
c 
(22) → (21)

61
 Quantum

 n 2x π 2 n 2y π 2 n z2 π 2 
2  
E=  2 + 2 + 2 
2m 
 a b c  
2 π 2 
 nx ny nz 
2 2 2

E=  2 + 2 + 2 ...(23)
2m a
 b c 
leh-(20) f=foeh; ckWDl esa d.k dh xfr ds fy, rjax Qyu gS rFkk leh- (23) ml d.k ds fy, ÅtkZ
vkbxsu eku dks O;Dr djrh gSA
;fn ckWDl ?kukdj gks a = b = c
8 n π nyπy n π
ψ (x, y, z) = 2
sin x x ⋅ sin ⋅ sin z z
a a a a
2 π 2 2
E=
2ma 2
{ }
n x + n 2y + n z2

 f=foeh; ckWDl esa d.k ds fy, viHkz”Vrk %&

ge tkurs gS fd f=foeh; ckWDl esa xfr dj jgs d.k ds fy, ÅtkZ vkbxsu eku o Qyu fuEu izdkj
gS&
8 n π nyπy n π
ψ= 3
sin x x ⋅ sin ⋅ sin z z
a a a a
π 
{ }
2 2
E= n 2x + n 2y + n z2
2ma 2
buesa n x , n y rFkk n z iw.kkZad gS ftuds dbZ leqPp; ,sls gksxsa ftuds fy, ÅtkZ vkbxsu eku E dk eku
leku gksxk] ijarq izR;sd leqPp; ds fy, vkbxsu Qyu vyx&vyx gksxkA vFkkZr~ ,d gh vkbxsu eku ls
lacaf/kr ftrus vkbxsu Qyu gksrs gSA mls viHkz”Vrk dh dksfV dgrs gSaA
dqN leqPp; bl izdkj gSA
π 2 2
viHkz”Vrk dh dksfV nx ny nz E0 =
2ma 2
3π 2  2
1 1 1 1 = 3E 0
2ma 2
2 1 1
 6π 2  2
3 1 2 1 = 6E 0
2ma 2
1 2 2 
2 2 1
 9π 2  2
3 2 1 2 = 9E 0
2ma 2
1 2 2 
3 1 1
 11π 2  2
3 1 3 1 = 11E 0
2ma 2
1 1 3
12π 2  2
1 2 2 2 = 12E 0
2ma 2

62
 Quantum

3 2 1
1 2 3

2 3 1 14π 2  2
6  = 14E 0
1 3 2 2ma 2
2 1 3

3 1 2 

Q. ,d l yackbZ dh Hkqtkvksa okys ?ku esa fLFkr m ek=k ds d.k ds ÅtkZ Lrjksa esa ls ,d ÅtkZ dk eku
9π 2  2
E= gSA bl ÅtkZ Lrj dh viHkz”Vrk dh dksfV crkb,
m 2
Ans.

Given Energy E =
( )
n 2x + n 2y + n z2
(n 2 2
 ) =
9π 2  2
2m 2 m 2
n 2x + n 2y + n z2
= 9
2
⇒ n 2x + n 2y + n z2 = 18
4 1 1 
 
1 4 1  (1) 2 + (4) 2 + (1) 2 = 18
1 1 4 
 
vr dksfV = 3

63
 Quantum

Q. 1 Å pkSMkbZ okys ,dfoeh; ckWDl esa xfr’khy izksVkWu dh U;wure ÅtkZ dh x.kuk dhft, tcfd izksVkWu dk
nzO;eku &
m p = 1.6 × 10−25 kg
 = 1.054 × 10−34 ≈ 10−34
n 2 π 2 2
Ans. En =
2ma 2
U;wure n = 1 a = 1Å = 1 × 10−10 m
π 2 2
E1 =
2ma 2
(3.14) 2 (10−34 )1
=
2 × 1.6 × 10−27 × (10−10 ) 2
9.85 × 10−21
=
32
= 3.08 × 10−21 J
3.08 × 10−21
E1 = −19
= 1.93 × 10−2 eV
1.6 × 10
Q. a pkSM+kbZ ds ,d foeh; ckWDl esa fLFkr d.k dh ewy Lrj ÅtkZ Lrj esa 0.45 a rFkk 0.55 a ds e/; ik,
tkus dh izkf;drk Kkr djsA
0.55a

Ans. P= ∫
0.45a
ψ 2 dx

2 nπx
 ψ= sin
a a
ewy ÅtkZ Lrj ds fy, n = 1
2 πx
ψ1 = sin
a a
0.55a
 2 2 nx 
P= ∫  a sin a  ⋅ dx
0.45a 

2πx 
0.55a
2 1 
= ⋅ ∫ 1 − cos  ⋅ dx
a 2 0.45a  a 

1  2πx  
0.55a 0.55a

=  ∫ 1 ⋅ dx − ∫ cos  ⋅ 
 a 
dx
a  0.45a 0.45a 
1 a  2πx  
0.55a

= x 0.55a
− sin  
2π 
0.45a
a  a 0.45a 
1 2π (0.55a) 2π (0.45a) 
(0.55a − 0.45a ) − sin
a
=  − sin 
a 2π  a a 
 foHko fl)h %&

64
 Quantum

ekuk ,d M nzO;eku dh d.k] ftldh dqy ÅtkZ E gSA V0 tks fd ,d fLFkrj foHko {ks= esa xfr dj
jgk gS vFkkZr~ bl d.k dh xfr ds fy, foHko V0 ,d izkphj (nhokj) ds :i esa ck/kk mRiUu djsxkA vFkkZr~
bl foHko oØ esa fLFkfrt ÅtkZ dk eku foHko flnh dgykrk gSA
vr% oØ ls fLFkfrt ÅtkZ vFkok foHko dk eku
 V = 0, x < 0
V(x) = 
V = V0 , x > 0
izFke {ks=] vFkkZr~ x < 0 ftlds fy, foHko dk eku ‘kwU; gS esa d.k dh rjax Qyu ψ I gSA ,oa f}rh;
{ks= vFkkZr~ x > 0 ftlds fy, foHko dk eku V0 gS esa d.k dk rjax Qyu ψ II gSA ,oa nksuksa {ks= dh lhek
vFkkZr~ x = 0 ij ψ I = ψ II gSA bl d.k dh xfr dks le>us ds fy, fuEu JksfMaxj leh- dk mi;ksx djrs gSA
−2 ∂2 ψ ˆ
+ V(ψ ) = Eˆ ψ ...(1)
2m ∂x 2
fLFkfr & I
tc d.k dh ÅtkZ V0 ls de (E < V0 )
(i) {ks= I ds fy, vFkkZr~ x < 0, V = 0
ψ = ψI
leh- (1) ls &
−2 ∂2 ψ I
+ 0 = Eψ I
2m ∂x 2
∂2ψ I −2mE
⇒ = ψI
∂x 2
2
∂ 2 ψ I 2mE
⇒ + 2 ψI = 0 ...(2)
∂x 2 
2mE
Let K2 =
2
∂ ψI
2
+ K2ψ I = 0
∂x 2
⇒ (D 2 + K 2 )ψ I = 0 ...(3)
;g ,d f}rh; dksfV dh vody leh- gSA
ψ I = Ae + ikx + Be − ikx ...(4)

65
 Quantum

(ii) {ks= II nd vFkkZr~ x > 0, V = V0 , ψ = ψ II

vr% leh- (1) ls
−  2 ∂ 2 ψ III
+ V0 ψ II = Eψ II
2m ∂x 2
∂ 2 ψ II 2mV0 ψ II −2mE
⇒ − = , ψ II
∂x 2 2 2
∂ 2 ψ II 2m
⇒ + 2 (E − V0 )ψ II = 0
∂x 2 
∂ ψ II 2m
2
⇒ − 2 (V0 − E)ψ II = 0 ...(5)
∂x 2 
2m
Let α 2 = 2 (V0 − E) ...(5)*

∂ 2 ψ II
− α 2 ψ II = 0
∂x 2
⇒ (D 2 − α 2 )ψ II = 0
;g ,d f}rh; dksfV dh vody leh- gSA bldk gy
ψ II = Ceαx + De −αx ...(6)
leh- (4) o (6) esa A,B,C,D fu;rkad gSA ftudk eku ifjlhek izfrca/k }kjk Kkr djrs gSaA
(i) x → ∞, ψ II = 0
vr% leh- (6) ls
0 = Ce∞ + De −∞
Ce∞ = 0
 e∞ ≠ 0
C=0 ...(7)
(7) → (6)
ψ II = De −αx ...(8)
Ikfjlhek izfrca/k&
ψI x =0
= ψ II x =0

From (4) and (8)

Ae0 + Be0 = De0
⇒ A+B= D ...(9)
∂ψ I ∂ψ II
=
∂x x = 0 ∂x x =0

⇒ {iKAe ikx
− iKBe − ikx
} x =0
{
= −αDe −αx } x =0

⇒ iK(A − B) = −αD ...(10)

leh- (9) × α + 10
Aα + Bα = Dα
iKA − iKB = −αD

66
 Quantum

A(α + iK) + B(α − iK) = 0

B − (α + iK) i
= ×
A (α − iK ) i
− (iα − K)
=
α − iK
B K − iα
⇒ = ...(11)
A K + iα
From equation (9)
A+B= D ...(9)
A dk Hkkx nsus ij
B D
1+ = ...(12)
A A
(12) → (11)
K − id D
1+ =
K + id A
D 2K
⇒ = ...(13)
A K + iα
 ijkorZu xq.kkad %&
Jr
R= ...(14)
Ji
ijkofrZr izkf;drk /kkjk ?kuRo rFkk vkifrr izkf;drk /kkjk ?kuRo dk vuqikr ijkorZu xq.kkad dgykrk
gSA
J r = ijkofrZr izkf;drk /kkjk ?kuRo

Jr =

2mi
{ψ *r ∇ψ r − ψ r ∇ψ *r} ...(*)
From eqution (4)
ψ I = Aeikx + Be − ikx
x-fn’kk esa lapfjr rjax ψ i = Aeikx ...(15)
y-fn’kk esa izFke {ks= esa lapfjr rjax ψ r = Be − ikx ...(16)
  ikx ∂ ∂ 
∴ Jr = Be (Be − ikx ) − Be − ikx (Beikx ) 
2mi  ∂x ∂x 

=  B2 eikx (−ik)e − ikx − B2 e − ikx (ik) ⋅ eikx 
2mi 

=  − B2ik − B2ik 
2mi
−
= (2B2ik)
2mi
− B2 k
=
m

67
 Quantum

− B2 P
=
m
− B2 mV
=
m
Jr = − B2 V ...(17)

Ji =  ψ *i ∇ψ i − ψ i ∇ψ *i 
2mi 

=  Ae − ikx ∇(Aeikx ) − Aeikx ∇(Ae − ikx ) 
2mi

=  A 2 (ik) + (ik)A 2 
2mi 

= ⋅ 2A 2ik
2mi
k 2
= ⋅A
m
= A2V
Ji = A2V ...(18)
(18) and (17) → (14)
− B2 V
R=
A2V
B2
=
A2
2
B
= ...(19)
A
K − iα
2

 ψ = ψψ *
2
R=
K + iα
 K + iα   K − iα 
=  ⋅
 K − iα   K + iα 
K 2 − (iα ) 2
R=
K 2 − (iα ) 2
K2 + α2
R= =1 ...(20)
K2 + α2
leh-(20) ls Li”V gS fd d.k vFkok rjax ds ijkofrZr gksus dh iwjh&iwjh laHkkouk gSA D;ksafd ijkorZu
xq.kkad (Probability) dk eku 1 gSA
ijkxeu xq.kkad %&
ikjxeu izkf;drk /kkjk ?kuRo rFkk vkifrr izkf;drk /kkjk ?kuRo dk vuqikr ikjxeu xq.kkad dgykrk
gSA

68
 Quantum

Jt
T= ...(21)
Ji
leh- (8) ls ⇒
ψ II = De −αx
ψ t = De −αx (ikjxfer rjax Qyu)

Jt =  ψ *i ∇ψ t − ψ t ∇ψ *t 
2mi

=  De −αx ∇(De −αx ) − De −αx .∇(De −αx ) 
2mi 
  −αx ∂ ∂ 
=  De (De −αx ) − De −αx (De −αx ) 
2mi  ∂x ∂x 
  −αx 
=
2mi 
De ⋅
2mi
{D2 (−α)e−2αx − D2e−2αx (−α)}
J t = 0 = okLrfod Qyuksa dk izkf;drk /kkjk ?kuRo lnSo ‘kwU; gksrk gSA ...(22)
(18) and (22) → (21)
0
T= =C
Ji
T= 0 ...(23)
vr% leh- (23) ls Li”V gS fd E < V0 ds fy, ikjxeu xq.kkad dk eku ‘kwU; gSA vr% E < V0 ds fy,
rjax dk eku ikjxeu laHko ugha gSA ,slk dFku fpjlEer HkkSfrdh esa lgh gks ldrk gSA ijarq Dok.Ve
vo/kkj.kk bl dFku dks ugha ekurhA Dok.Ve ds vuqlkj E < V0 ds fy, f}rh; {ks= esa d.k dk vfLrRo
gksrk gSA ftlds fy, rjax Qyu
ψ II = De −αx
,oa bl {ks= esa d.k ds ik, tkus dh izkf;drk
2
P = ψ II = De −αx
2

P = D 2 e −2αx

;fn d.k dh ÅtkZ foHko izkphj (nhokj) ls vf/kd gks ml fLFkfr esa&
(i) izFke {ks= ds fy, &
x < 0, V = 0, ψ = ψ I
rks JksfMaxj leh- esa &

69
 Quantum

−2 ∂2 ψ I
+ 0 = Êψ I
2m ∂x 2
∂ 2 ψ I 2mE
⇒ + 2 ⋅ ψI = 0
∂x 2 
2mE
Let K2 =
2
∂ ψI
2
+ K2ψ I = 0
∂x 2
⇒ (D 2 + K 2 )ψ I = 0 ...(1)
leh- (1) f}rh; dksfV dh vody leh- gS ftldk lkekU; gy &
ψ I = Aeikx + Be − ikx ...(2)
(ii) f}rh; {ks= esa&
x>0
V = V0
ψ = ψ II
rks JksfMaxj leh- ls &
−  2 ∂ 2 ψ II
+ V0 ψ II = Êψ II
2m ∂x 2
∂ 2 ψ II 2mV0 −2mE
⇒ − ψ II = ψ II
∂x 2
 2
2
∂ 2 ψ II 2m
⇒ + 2 (E − V0 )ψ II = 0
∂x 2 
 E > V0
2m
Let K 2 = 2 (E − V0 )

∂ ψ II
2
+ K '2 ψ II = 0
∂x 2

⇒ (D 2 + K ' )ψ II = 0
2

bldk gy &
ψ II = Geik ' x + Fe − ik ' x ...(3)
Geik ' x → + x fn’kk esa] Fe − ik ' x → − x fn’kk esa
 f}rh; {ks= esa rjax dk ijkorZu laHko ugha gSA vr% ψ II ds fy, F dk eku ‘kwU; gksxkA
ψ II = Geik ' x ...(4)
leh-(2) o (4) esa A,B o G fu;rkad gS ftuds laca/k ifjlhek izfrca/kks }kjk Kkr djrs gSA
At x=0
ψ I x = 0 = ψ II x = 0
leh- (2) o (4)
Ae0 + Be0 = Ge0
⇒ A+B= G ...(5)

70
 Quantum

∂ψ I ∂ψ II
=
∂x x =0 ∂x x =0

⇒ iKAe0 − iKBe0 = iK 'Ge0

⇒ KA − KB = K 'G ...(6)
leh- (5) K’ ls xq.kk dj leh- (6) esa ?kVkus ij
AK '+ BK ' = GK’
AK – BK = GK’
- + -
BK '+ BK + AK '− AK = 0
⇒ B(K '+ K) = A(K − K ')
B K − K'
⇒ = ...(7)
A K + K'
leh- (5) esa A dk Hkkx yxkus ij
B G
1+ =
A A
K − K' G
⇒ 1+ =
K + K' A
G 2K
⇒ = ...(8)
A K + K'
ijkorZu&xq.kkad %&
ijkofrZr /kkjk ?kuRo rFkk vkifrr /kkjk ?kuRo dk vuqikr ijkorZu xq.kkad dgykrk gSA
Jr
R= ...(9)
Ji

Jr =  ψ *r ∇ψ r − ψ r ∇ψ *r 
2mi 
From eqution (9)
ψ i = Aeikx
ψ r = Be − ikx
  2 ikx ∂ − ikx ∂ ikx 
Jr = Be (e ) − B2 e − ikx (e ) 
2mi  ∂x ∂x 
 2 ikx
= B e (− ki)e − ikx − e − ikx (ik)eikx 
2mi 
− 2
= B ⋅ 2ik
2mi
−kB2
= ...(10)
m
− PB2
= ...(11)
m
− mvB2
= ...(12)
m

71
 Quantum

J r = − B2 V ...(13)
⇒ J r = − B2 V ...(13)
vkifrr izkf;drk /kkjk ?kuRo %&

Ji =  ψ *in ∇ψ in − ψ in ∇ψ *in 
2mi 
 ψ in = Aeikx
  − ikx ∂ ∂ 
So, Ji =  Ae (Aeikx ) − (Aeikx ) (Ae − ikx ) 
2mi  ∂x ∂x 

=  A 2 e − ikx ⋅ (ik)eikx − A 2 eikx (−ik)e − ikx 
2mi 
 2
= A (ik + ik)
2mi
A 2
= 2ik
2mi
k ⋅ A 2
=
m
PA 2
= { P = k}
m
mv ⋅ A 2
=
m
2
Ji = A v ...(14)
(13),(14) → (9)
− B2 v B2
R= = 2 ...(15)
A2 v A
(7) → (15)
 k − k '
2

R=  ...(16)
 k + k ' 
 ikjxeu xq.kkad %&
Jt
T= ...(17)
Ji

 Jt =  ψ *t ∇ψ t − ψ t ∇ψ *t  ...(18)
2mi 
From equation (4)
ψ II = ψ t = Geik ' x
Equation (4) → (18)
  ∂ ∂ 
Jt =  (Ge − ik ' x ) (Geik ' x ) − Geik ' x (Ge − ik ' x ) 
2mi  ∂x ∂x 

72
 Quantum


Jt =G 2 e − ik ' x (ik ')Geik ' x − G 2 eik ' x (−ik ')e − ik ' x 
2mi
 k 'G 2
Jt =  2G 2ik ' = ...(19)
2mi m
(14),(19) → (17)
k 'G 2 1
T= × 2
m A v
k 'G 2 1 m
= × 2×
m A k
p k
 P = mv ⇒ v = =
m m
k ' G2
T= ...(19)
k A2
G 2k
 = ...(8)
A k + k'
(8) → (20)
k '  4k 2 
T=  
k  (k + k ') 2 
4kk '
= ...(21)
(k + k ')
[ Transmitted + Reflected = Incident]
(k − k ') 2 4kk '
R +T= +
(k + k ') 2
(k + k ') 2
k 2 + k '2 − 2kk '+ 4kk '
=
(k + k ') 2
R +T= 1
oØ %&

(k − k ') 2
R=
(k + k ') 2

73
 Quantum

{1 − k ' t }
2

=
{1 + k ' k}
2

 foHko izkphj %&

ekuk ,d m nzO;eku dk d.k ftldh ÅtkZ gSA foHko izkphj ftldh Å¡pkbZ V0 rFkk pkSM+kbZ a gS] ds
vUrxZr xfr dj jgk gSA
bl foHko izkphj ds fy, d.k fuEu foHko {ks= esa xfr djsxkA
 V = 0, x < 0, x > a
V(x) = 
V = V0 0≤ x≤a
Case – I
E < V0 vFkkZr~ tc d.k dh ÅtkZ foHko izkphj dh Å¡pkbZ ls de gks rks bl fLFkfr esa JksafMxj leh- ls
−2 2
∇ ψ + v̂ψ = Eψ ...(1)
2m
 d.k x –direction esa xfr dj jgk gSA
∂2
∇2 =
∂x 2
−2 ∂2 ψ
+ v̂ψ = Êψ
2m ∂x
izFke {ks= ds fy, &
vFkkZr~ x < 0, v = 0, ψ = ψ I
vr% JksafMxj leh- ls
−2 ∂2
ψ I + 0 = Êψ I
2m ∂x 2
∂2ψ I −2mEˆ
= ⋅ ψI
∂x 2
2
∂ 2 ψ I 2mEˆ
+ 2 ⋅ ψI = 0
∂x 2 
2mE
Let k2 =
2
∂2ψ I
+ k2ψ I = 0
∂x 2

74
 Quantum

(D 2 + k 2 )ψ I = 0
;g ,d f}rh; dksfV dh vody leh- gSA
ψ I = Aeikx + Be − ikx ...(3)
Ae ikx
→ Incidrd , Be − ikx → ijkofrZr
r`rh; {ks= esa &
x > a, v = 0, ψ = ψ III
JkasfMxj leh- ls &
−2 ∂2 ψ m
+ 0 = Êψ III
2m ∂x 2
(D 2 + k 2 )ψ III = 0
leh- dk gy
ψ III = Ceikx + De − ikx ...(4)
f}rh; {ks= esa &
0≤ x≤a
V = V0
ψ = ψ II
−  ∂ ψ II
2 2
+ V0 ψ II = Êψ II
2m ∂x 2
∂ 2 ψ II 2m
+ 2 (E − V0 )ψ II = 0
∂x 2 
 E < V0
∂ 2 ψ II 2m
− 2 (V0 − E)ψ II = 0
∂x 2 
2m
Let α 2 = 2 (V0 − E)

∂ 2 ψ II
− α 2 ψ II = 0
∂x 2
(D 2 − α 2 )ψ II = 0
leh- dk gy
ψ II = Ge −αx + Fe −αx ...(5)
 {ks= III esa d.k ds ijkorZu ds fy, dksbZ lk/ku ugha gSA vr% {ks= III esa d.k dk ijkorZu laHko ugha
gSA blfy, {ks= III esa d.k dsoy +x – fn’kk esa xfr djsxkA
Ikfjlhek izfrca/kks ls&
lhek x = 0 ij
equation (4) esa d.k dsoy + x fn’kk esa xfr djsxkA
ψ III = Ceikx ...(6)
Now limit x = 0 ij
ψ I x = 0 = ψ II x = 0
From equation (3) and (5)

75
 Quantum

Ae ιkx + Be − ikx x =0
= Geαx + Fe −αx
x =0

A+B= G+F ...(7)

∂ψ I ∂ψ II
Again =
∂x x = 0 ∂x x = 0
{
ik Aeikx − Be − ikx } x =0
{
= α Geαx − Fe −αx } x =0

ik(A − B) = α (G − F)
α
A−B= (G − F) ...(8)
ik
Equation (7) → (8)
α αF
2A = G − +G+F
ik ik
 α  α
2A = G 1 +  + F 1 −  ...(9)
 ik   ik 
(7) → (8)
αG αF
A+ B−A+ B= G + F− +
ik ik
 α  α
2B = G 1 −  + F 1 +  ...(10)
 ik   ik 
Equation (10)
 α  α
G 1 −  + F 1 + 
B
=  ik   ik 
8A  α  α
G 1 +  + F 1 − 
 ik   ik 
 αi   αi 
G 1 +  + F 1 − 
=  k  k
 αi   α i
G 1 −  + F 1 + 
 k  k
G 
F  (k + iα ) + (k − iGa) 
=  
B F
...(11)
A G 
F  (k − iα ) + (k + iα ) 
F 
lhek x = a
ψ II x = a = ψ III x = a
leh-(5) o (6) ls
Geαx + Fe −αx x =a
= Ce − ikx
x =a
αa −αa
Ge + Fe = Ce ika
...(12)

76
 Quantum

∂ψ II ∂ψ III
Again =
∂x x =a ∂x x =a

{ αx
α Ge − Fe −αx
} x =a
= ik ⋅ Ceikx x =a

α
(Geαa − Fe −αa ) = Ceika ...(13)
ik
(13) → (12)
α
(Ge −αa − Fe −αa )
ik =1
Ge −αa + Fe −αa
 G e −αa 
Fe −αa  −1
 F e −αa  ik
=
−αa  G e
−αa
 α
Fe  −αa
+ 1
Fe 
 G 2αa  ik  G −2αx 
 e − 1 =  e + 1
F αF 
G −2αa  ik  1 + ik
e 1 −  =
F a a
ik + α
G
= α
F  α − ik 
e 2αa 
 α 
G  α + ik  −2αa
F  α − ik 
= e

G  iα − k  −2αa
F  iα + k 
= e ...(14)

(14)→ (11)
 iα − k  −2 αa
  (k + iα )e + (k − iα )
B iα + k
=
A  iα − k  −2 αa
  ⋅ (k − iα )e + (k + iα )
α+k
B
=
{
(iα − k)e −2αa + (k − iα ) (iα + k) }
A (iα − k)(k − iα )e −2αa + (k + iα ) 2

=
{−(k − iα)e + (k − iα)} (k + iα)
−2 αa

{−(k − iα) e + (k + iα) }

2 −2 αa 2

(A + iB)(A − iB) = A 2 + B2

77
 Quantum

{− (k ) 2
}
+ α 2 e −2αa + (k 2 + α 2 )

{− (k − α − 2ikα) e + (k − α + 2ikα)}
= 2 2 −2 αa 2 2

B
=
(k + α ) (1 − e )
2 2 −2 αa

A (k − α )(1 − e ) + 2iαk (1 + e )
2 2 −2 αa −2 αa

va'k o gj esa eαa dk xq.kk

B (k 2 + α 2 )(e −αa − e −αa )
=
A (k 2 − α 2 )(e −αa − e −αa ) + 2iαk(eαa + e −αa )
e −αa − e −αa
 sinh αa =
2
e + e −αa
+αa
cosh αa =
2
B (k 2 + α 2 )(2sinh αa)
= ...(15)
A (k 2 − α 2 )(2sinh αa) + 2iαk(2cosh αa)
We know that
2
B2 B
ijkorZu xq.kkad R = 2 =
A A
*
 B  B
=   
 A  A
(k 2 + α 2 )(sinh αa) (k 2 + α 2 )sinh αa
R= ×
(k 2 − α 2 )sinh αa − iαk ⋅ 2cosh αa (k 2 − α 2 )sinh αa + iαk ⋅ 2cosh αa
(k 2 + α 2 ) 2 sinh 2 αa
R=
(k 2 − α 2 ) 2 sinh 2 αa + 4α 2 k 2 cosh 2 αa
(k 2 + α 2 )sinh 2 αa
R=
(
(k 2 − α 2 ) 2 sinh 2 αa + 4α 2 k 2 1 + sinh 2 αa )
 cosh 2 αa = 1 + sinh 2 αa
(k 2 + α 2 ) 2 sinh 2 αa
R=
(k 2 − α 2 ) 2 sinh 2 αa + 4α 2 k 2 + 4α 2 k 2 sinh 2 αa
(k 2 + α 2 ) 2 sinh 2 αa
R= ...(17)
(k 2 + α 2 ) 2 sinh 2 αa + 4α 2 k 2
2mE
 k2 =
2
2m
α2 = (V0 − E)
2
[ E + V0 − E ]
2m
k2 + α2 =
2

78
 Quantum

2mV0
k2 + α2 = ...(18)
2
(18) → (17)
 2mV0 
  2  sinh αa
2

R= 2
 2mV0  m2 E
  2  sinh 2
(αa) + 4.4 (V0 − E)
4
4m 2 V02
4
⋅ sinh 2 (αa)
= 
4m 2 V02  4 4.4m 2 E(V0 − E) 
sinh 2
(αa) 1 + ⋅ 
4  4m V0 sinh αa
2 2 2
4 
−1
 4E(V − E) 
R = 1 + 2 0 2  ...(19)
 V0 sinh (αa) 
vr% ijkorZu xq.kkad mijksDr leh- }kjk O;Dr djrs gSA
 ikjxeu xq.kkad %&
ikjxeu izkf;drk /kkjk ?kuRo rFkk vkiru izkf;drk /kkjk ?kuRo dk vuqikr ikjxeu xq.kkad dgykrk
gSA
Jt
vFkkZr~ T=
Ji
VC2
=
VA 2
2
C
= ...(20)
A
leh- (12)/(9)
 G  iα   iα  
F  1 −  + 1 +  
F k  k 
= 
2A
...(21)
Ce ika
G 
F  eαa + e −αa 
F 
From equation (14)
G iα − k −2αa
= ⋅e ...(14)
F iα + k
(14) → (21)
 (iα − k)e −2αa  iα   iα   ika
 (iα + k) 1 − k  + 1 + k   e
=  
A
C  (iα − k ) −αa 
k2  ⋅ e + e −αa 
 iα + k 

79
 Quantum

 (iα − k)e −αa 

k2  + e −αa 
C
=  (iα + k) 
A 
eika 
( i α − k ) e−2αa 1 − iα  + 1 + iα  
   
 (iα + k) k  k  
 (iα − k ) + (iα + k )  −αa
2
(iα + k) e ⋅k
=  
ika − ( iα − k ) e
 2 −2 αa
+ (iα + k) 2 
e  
 (iα + k) 
2ke −αa (2iα )
=
eika { (α 2 − k 2 + 2(αk)e −2αa + (−α 2 + k 2 ) + 2iαk }
4iαke −αa
=
eika { (k 2 − α 2 )(1 − e −2αa ) + 2iαk(1 + e −2αa )}
va'k o gj esa eαa dk xq.kk djus ij
C 4iαk
{ )}
= ika
A e (k − α )(e − e −αa ) + 2iαk eαa + e −αa
2 2 αa
(
2iαk
{ }
=
e ika
sinh αa(k − α 2 ) + 2(αk ⋅ cosh eαa
2

2 *
C C C
T= =   
A A A
−2iαk 2iαk
⋅
{ }{ }
= − ika αa
e sinh αa(k − α ) − 2iαk cosh e
2 2
sinh αa(k − α ) + 2iαk cosh eαa ⋅ eika
2 2

4α k 2 2
T=
sinh αa(k − α 2 ) 2 + 4α 2 k 2 cosh 2 αa
2 2

 cosh 2 θ = 1 + sinh 2 θ
4α 2 k 2
T=
( )
sinh 2 αa k 4 + α 4 − 2k 2α 2 + 4α 2 k 2 + 4α 2 k 2 sinh 2 αa
4α 2 k 2
T= ...(22)
sinh 2 (αa)(k 2 + α 2 ) 2 + 4α 2 k 2
We know that
2mE
k2 =
2
2m ( V0 − E )
α2 =
2
2m
k 2 + α 2 = 2 (E + V0 − E)


80
 Quantum

2m
k2 + α2 = V0 ...(23)
2
(23) → (22)
 2mE   2m(V0 − E) 
4 2   
   2
T=
 2mE   2m ( V0 − E ) 
2
 2mV 
sinh 2 (αa) ⋅  2 0  + 4  2  ⋅  
       2
2E ( V0 − E )
T=
sinh (αa ) V02 + 4E(V0 − E)
2

−1
 V02 
T = 1 + sinh 2 (αa) ⋅  ...(24)
 4E(V0 − E) 
leh- (24) ls Li”V gS fd f}rh; {ks= esa rFkk r`rh; {ks= esa ikjxeu dh izkf;drk gesa izkIr gksrh gSaA
vr% d.k dh ÅtkZ foHko izkphj ls de gksus ij Hkh d.k f}rh; {ks= esa E < V0 ik;k tk,xkA
fpjlEer :i ls ,slk laHko ugha gSA
tcfd DokUVe us ;g fl) fd;k fd E < V0 ij d.k foHko izkphj dks Hksn dj ikjxfer gksrk gSA bls
lqjaxu izHkko dgrs gSA
;g izHkko α -{k; rFkk vU; ukfHkdh; ?kVukvksa esa ik;k tkrk gSA
(19) + (24)
−1 −1
 V02   4E(V0 − E) 
R + T = 1 + sinh 2 (αa)  + 1 + 2 
 4E(V0 − E)   sinh (αa) ⋅ V0 
2

1 1
= +
 4E(V0 − E) + V0 sinh (α )   sinh (αa)V0 + 4E(V0 − E) 
2 2 2 2

 4E(V0 − E)   sinh 2 (αa)V02 

   
4E(V0 − E) + sinh 2 (αa) ⋅ V02
R +T=
4E(V0 − E) + sinh 2 (αa) ⋅ V02
R +T= 1
izkf;drk ¶yDl laj{k.k
Condition –I If E → 0 rks equation (19) ls &
R = [1 + 0] = 1
−1

R= 1
vr% d.k dk iw.kZ ijkorZu gksxkA
Condition – II If E → V0
rks αa → cgqr NksVk
sinh(αa) → (αa)
From equation (24)
−1
 (αa) 2 ⋅ V02 
T = 1 + 
 4E(V0 − E) 

81
 Quantum

−1
 2m 
 2
(V0 − E)V02 E 2 
T = 1 + 

 4E(V0 − E) 
 
−1
 ma 2 V02   mV02 a 2 
1+ 2  = 1 + 
T=  2 E   2 2 E 
⇓
vikjnf'kZrk dk eki
Condition-3 αa >> 1
V0 → cM+k
eαa − e −αa
sinh (αa ) =
2
eαa
sinh(αa) ≈
2
1 1
[ e −αa = αa = ∞ = = 0 ]
e e ∞
−1
 e 2αa ⋅ V02 
 T = 1 + 
 4 × 4E(V0 − E) 
1 << e 2αa
1 dks ux.; eku ysus ij
−1
 e 2αa ⋅ V02 
T=  
16E ( V0 − E ) 
16E(V0 − E)e −2αa
T=
V02
oØ %&

E > V0 :- tc d.k dh ÅtkZ foHko izkphj dh Å¡apkbZ ls vf/kd gks bl fLFkfr esa&
x < 0] V=0 {ks= & I
V = V0 , a>x>0 {ks= & II
V=0 {ks= & III
{ks= I ds fy, &
x < 0] V = 0

82
 Quantum

∂ 2 ψ I 2mE
+ 2 ψI = 0 ...(1)
∂x 2 
2mE
Let k2 =
2
⇒ (D 2 + k 2 )ψ I = 0 ...(2)
leh- (2) f}rh; dksfV dk vody leh- gSA
lkekU; gy &
ψ I = Aeikx + Be − ikx ...(3)
{ks=&II ds fy, %&
0 < x < a ] V = V0 rFkk ψ = ψ II
∂ ψ II 2m
2
+ 2 (E − V0 )ψ II = 0
∂x 2 
2m
Let k '2 = 2 (E − V0 )

(D 2 + k '2 )ψ II = 0
bldk lkekU; gy gksxk &
ψ II = Geikx + Fe − ik ' x ...(4)
pw¡fd f}rh; {ks= esa d.k dk ijkorZu rFkk ikjxeu nksuksa laHko gSA vr% G rFkk F nksuksa fu;rkadksa dk
vfLrRo gSA
{ks= - III ds fy,
V = 0, x > a, ψ = ψ III
rc JksfMaxj leh- ls
∂ 2 ψ III 2mE
+ 2 ψ III = 0
∂x 2 
⇒ (D + k 2 )ψ III = 0
2

ftldk lkekU; gy gksxkA

ψ III = Ceikx + De − ikx ...(5)
leh- (5) esa c fu;rkad d.k ds r`rh; {ks= esa ikjxeu dks O;Dr djrk gSA ,oa D fu;rkad r`rh; {ks= esa
ijkorZu dks O;Dr djrk gSA pw¡fd r`rh; {ks= esa dksbZ foHko jksf/kdk mifLFkr ugha gSA
vr% ijkorZu dh dksbZ laHkkouk ugha gksxhA
vr% leh- (5) ls %&
ψ III = Ceikx ...(6)
leh- (3), (4) o (6) esa A,B,C,G,F fu;rkad gS ftudk eku ifjlhek izfrca/kks }kjk Kkr djrs gSA
ifjlhek izfrca/kks ls &
(i) lhek x = 0 ls
ψI x =0
= ψ II x =0

leh- (3) o (4) ls

Aeikx + Be − ikx x =0
= Geik ' x + Fe − ik ' x x =0

⇒ (A + B) = (G + F) ...(7)

83
 Quantum

∂ψ I ∂ψ II
Now, =
∂x x =0 ∂x x =0

⇒ ik Ae ( ikx
− Be − ikx
) x =0
(
= ik ' Geik ' x − Fe − ikx ) x =0

k'
⇒ A−B= (G − F) ...(8)
k
leh- (7) o (8) ls
 k '  k '
2A = G 1 +  + F 1 −  ...(9)
 k  k
leh- (7) – (8) ⇒ (7) − (8)
 k '  k '
2B = G 1 −  + F 1 +  ...(10)
 k  k
rc leh- (10)/(9) ls
G
B {k − k '} + {k + k '}
= F
G
A
{k + k '} + {k − k '}
F
(ii) ifjlhek izfrca/k x = a ls
ψ II x = a = ψ III x = a
leh- (4) o (6) ls
Geik ' x + Fe − ik ' x x =a
= Ceikx x =a

⇒ Geik 'a + Fe − ik 'a = Ceika ...(11)

rFkk
∂ψ II ∂ψ III
=
∂x x =a ∂x x =a

⇒ ik ' Ge ( ik 'a
− Fe ) = ik (Ce )
− ik 'a ika

⇒ Ceika =
k'
k
(Ge − Fe ) ik 'a ik 'a
...(12)
rc leh- (12)/(11)
(
k ' Ge − Fe
ik 'a − ik 'a

=1
)
k (Geik 'a + Fe − ik 'a )
k '  Ge 2ik 'a   G 2ik 'a 
⇒ − 1 =  e + 1
k  F  F 
G 2ik 'a  k '   k '
⇒ e 1 −  = − 1 + 
F k k
G − ( k + k ') −2ik 'a
⇒ = e ...(13)
F (k − k ')
leh- (13) ls eku B/A esa j[kus ij

84
 Quantum

− (k + k ') −2ik 'a

e (k − k ') + (k + k ')
B (k − k ')
=
A − (k + k ') −2ika
e (k + k ') + (k − k ')
k − k'

=
( )
− k 2 − k '2 e −2ik 'a + (k 2 − k '2 ) 2
− (k + k ') 2 e −2ik '2 + (k − k ') 2
(k 2 − k '2 )(1 − e −2ik 'a )
=
(k 2 + k '2 )(− e −2ik 'a + 1) − 2kk '(1 + e −2ik 'a )
(k 2 − k '2 )(1 − e −2ik 'a )
=
(k 2 + k '2 )(1 − e −2ik 'a ) − 2kk '(1 + e −2ik 'a )
(k 2 − k '2 )(eik 'a − e − ik 'a )
=
(k 2 + k '2 )(eik 'a − e − ik 'a ) − 2kk '(eik 'a + e − ik 'a )
(k 2 − k '2 )(2isin k 'a)
=
(k 2 + k '2 )(2isin k 'a) − 2kk '(2cos k 'a)
B (k 2 − k '2 )sin k 'a
=
A (k 2 + k '2 )sin k 'a + 2ikk 'cos k 'a
B
=
( )
k 2 − k '2 sin k 'a
A (k 2 + k '2 )sin k 'a + 2ikk '(cos k 'a)
vr% ijkorZu xq.kkad &
Jr
R=
Ji
V − B2
=
V A2
2
B
=
A
*
 B  B
=    
 A  A
(k 2 − k '2 )sin k 'a (k 2 − k '2 )sin k 'a
= ×
(k 2 + k '2 )sin k 'a − 2ikk '(cos k 'a) (k 2 + k '2 )sin k 'a + 2(kk 'cos k 'a)
(k 2 − k '2 ) 2 sin 2 k 'a
=
(k 2 + k '2 ) 2 sin 2 k 'a + 4k 2 k '2 cos 2 k 'a
(k 2 − k '2 )sin 2 k 'a
=
(k 4 + k '4 + 2k 2 k '2 )sin 2 k 'a + 4k 2 k '2 cos 2 k 'a
(k 2 − k '2 )sin 2 k 'a
=
(k 2 − k '2 ) 2 sin 2 k 'a + 4k 2 k '2

85
 Quantum

1
R= ...(19)
4k 2 k '2
1+ 2
(k − k '2 ) 2 sin 2 k 'a
2mE
Here k2 =
2
2m(E − V0 )
k '2 =
2
2mV0
k 2 − k '2 = ...(20)
2
B (k 2 − k '2 )sin(k 'a)
=
A (k 2 + k '2 )sin k 'a + 2ikk '(cos k 'a)
vr% ijkorZu xq.kkad &
Jr
R=
Ji
V − B2
=
V A2
2
B
=
A
*
 B  B
=    
 A  A
−1
  2mE   2m(E − V0 )  
 4   2  ⋅  2  
∴ R = 1 + 
 4m 2 V02 
 4
⋅ sin k 'a
2

  
−1
 4E(E − V ) 
R = 1 + 2 2 0 
 V0 sin k 'a 
 ikjxeu xq.kkad %&
2
J V C2 C
T= t = 2
=
Ji V A A
*
 C  C
T=     ...(21)
 A  A
Now equation (11)/(9)
Ceikx Geik 'a + Fe − ik 'a
=
2A  k '  k '
G 1 +  + F 1 − 
 k  k

86
 Quantum

 G ik 'a 
e + e − ik 'a
C 2k  F 
= ikx  
A e G k + k' + k − k' 
{ } { }
F 
 − (k + k ') 
2k  (k − k ') 
−2ik 'a − ik 'a
=  e ⋅ e ik 'a
+ e 
eika  − (k + k ') e −2ik 'a (k + k ') + (k − k ') 
 (k − k ') 
2k  −(k + k ')e −2ik 'a + (k − k ')e − ik 'a 
eika  −(k + k ') 2 e −2ik 'a + (k − k ') 2 
=

2k  −2k 'e − ik 'a 

= ika 
e  −(k + k ' + 2kk ')e
2 2 −2ik 'a
+ k + k ' − 2kk ' 
2 2

2k  −2k 'e − ika 

ika  −2ik 'a 
= −2ik 'a
e  (k + k ' )(1 − e
2 2
) − 2kk '(1 + e )
 −2kk 'e − ik 'a

=  2 − ik 'a − ik 'a 
 (k + k ' )(e − e ) − 2kk '(e + e ) 
2 ik 'a ik 'a

−2kk 'e − ik 'a × 2

=
(k 2 + k '2 )(2isin k 'a) − 2kk '(2cos k 'a)
C +2ikk 'e − ika
= ...(22)
A (k 2 + k '2 )(sin k 'a) − 2ikk '(cos k 'a)
leh- (22) ls eku (21) esa j[kus ij
−2ikk 'e + ika 2ikk 'e − ika
T= ×
(k 2 + k '2 )sin k 'a + 2ikk 'cos k 'a (k 2 + k '2 )sin k 'a − 2ikk 'cos k 'a
4k 2 k '2
=
(k + k ' )sin k 'a + 4k 2 k '2 cos 2 k 'a
2 2 2

4k 2 k '2
=
(k 2 + k '2 ) 2 sin 2 k 'a + 4k 2 k '2 (1 − sin 2 k 'a)
4k 2 k '2
=
(k 2 − k '2 ) 2 sin 2 k 'a + 4k 2 k '2
−1
 (k 2 − k '2 )sin 2 k 'a 
T = 1 +  ...(23)
 4k 2 k '2 
2mV
 k 2 − k '2 = 0

2
−1
 V 2 sin 2 k 'a 
∴ T = 1 + 0 
 4E(E − V0 ) 
Lkehdj.kksa ls &
R +T= 1

87
 Quantum

E > V0 ds fy, oØ %&

Case :-
;fn E → V0 gks rks
2m(E − V0 )
k' = → 0 (small) gks tk,xkA
2
k 'a → small
leh- (11) ls →
 4E ( E − V0 ) 
−1

R = 1 + 2  (from (11)
 V0 (k 'a) 2 
−1
 
 4E(E − V0 )
2

R = 1 + 
 V 2  2m (E − V )a  
 0   
 2 0

−1
 2E 2 
R = 1 + 2 2 
 mV0 a 
From (13)
−1
 V 2 (k 'a) 2 
T = 1 + 0 
 4E(E − V0 ) 
−1
 mV02 a 2 
T = 1 + 
 2E 2 
oØ %&

88
 Quantum

 oxZ foHko dwi %&

ekuk ,d m nzO;eku dk d.k ftldh dqy ÅtkZ E > 0 gS foHko dwi {ks= ls xqtjrk gSA bl oxZ foHko
dwi{ks= ds fy, foHko dk eku fuEu gS&

 0, 0< x<a

V(x) = − V0 , x<0
 0, x>a

oxZ foHko dwi ds fy, foHko dwi dh xgjkbZ V0 rFkk pkSM+kbZ 0 ls 1 rd gSA bl foHko dwi ds varjxr
d.k dh xfr dks le>us ds fy, JksfMaxj leh- dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA
−2 ∂2 ψ
+ Vψ = Eψ ...(1)
2m ∂x 2
vr% {ks= & I ds fy, %&
x < 0, V = 0 rFkk ψ = ψ I
rc leh- (1) ls &
∂ 2 ψ I 2mE
+ 2 ψI = 0
∂x 2 
2mE
Let k2 =
2
∂2ψ I
+ k2ψ I = 0
∂x 2

(D 2 + k 2 )ψ I = 0
lkekU; gy ψ I = Aeikx + Be − ikx ...(2)
{ks=&III ds fy, &
x > a, V = 0 rFkk ψ = ψ III
vr% leh- (1) ls &
∂ 2 ψ III 2mE
+ 2 .ψ III = 0
∂x 2 
2mE
Let k2 =
2

89
 Quantum

∂ 2 ψ III
+ k 2 ψ III = 0
∂x 2
(D 2 + k 2 )ψ III = 0
lkekU; gy &
ψ III = Ceikx + De − ikx ...(3)
{ks= & II ds fy, &
0< x<a ds fy, V == − V0
rFkk ψ = ψ II
vr% leh- (1) ls &
∂ 2 ψ II 2m
+ 2 (E + V0 ) = 0
∂x 2 
2m
Let β 2 = 2 (E + V0 )

∂ ψ II
2
+ β 2 ψ II = 0
∂x 2
(D 2 + β 2 )ψ II = 0
lkekU; gy %&
ψ II = Geiβx + Fe − iβx ...(4)
leh- (3) ds r`rh; {ks= esa d.k ds ijkorZu ds fy, dksbZ lk/ku ugha gSA vr% {ks= rhu esa d.k dk
ijkorZu laHko ugha gSA vr% {ks=&III esa d.k +x-v{k fn’kk esa xfr djsxkA
vr% D = 0 gksxkA
ψ III = Ceikx ...(5)
 Ikfjlhek izfrca/k %&
(i) izFke ifjlhek izfrca/k %&
At x = 0
ψI x =0
= ψ II x =0
− ikx
(Ae ikx
+ Be ) x = 0 = (Geiβx + Fe − iβx ) x = 0
A+B= G+F ...(6)
vkSj
∂ψ I ∂ψ II
=
∂x x =0 ∂x x =0

(
ik Ae ikx
− Be − ikx
) x =0
(
= iβ Geiβx − Fe − iβx ) x =0

β
(A − B) = (G − F) ...(7)
k
(ii) f}rh; ifjlhek izfrca/k &
At x = a
ψ II x = a = ψ III x = a

90
 Quantum

(Geiβx + Fe − iβx ) x = a = (Ceikx ) x = a

(Geiβa + Fe − iβa ) = Ceika ...(8)
∂ψ II ∂ψ III
And =
∂x x =a ∂x x =a

⇒ iβ Ge( iβx
− Fe − iβx
) x =a
= ikCeikx x =a

β
⇒ (Geiβa − Fe − iβa ) = Ceika ...(9)
k
(6) + (7)
 β  β
2A = G 1 +  + F 1 −  ...(10)
 k  k
leh- (6) – ( 7)
 β  β
2B = G 1 −  + F 1 +  ...(11)
 k  k
leh- 11/10 ls
G
(k − β) + (k + β)
B
= F ...(12)
A G
(k + β) + (k − β)
F
rc leh- (9)/(8)
β  G iβa − iβa   G iβa − iβa 
 e − e  =  e + e 
k F F
G iβa  β   β
⇒ e  − 1 = e − iβa 1 + 
F k   k
G − (k + β) −2iβa
⇒ = e ...(13)
F (k − β)
leh- (13) → (12)
− (k + β) −2iβa
e (k − β) + (k + β)
B (k − β)
=
A − (k + β) −2iβa
e (k + β) + (k − β)
(k − β)

=
( )
− k 2 − β 2 e −2iβa + (k 2 − β 2 )
− (k + β) e −2iβa + (k − β) 2
2

(k 2 − β 2 )(1 − e −2iβa ) (k 2 − β 2 )(1 − e −2iβa )

= =
(− k 2 − β 2 − 2kβ)e −2iβa + k 2 + β 2 − 2kβ (k 2 + β 2 )(1 − e −2iβa ) − 2kβ(1 + e −2iβa )
(k 2 − β 2 )(eiβa − e − iβa )
=
(k + β )(eiβa − e − iβa ) − 2kβ(eiβa + e − iβa )
2 2

(va’k o gj esa eiβa ls xq.kk djus ls)

91
 Quantum

 2cos βa = eiβa + e − iβa

2sin ka = eiβa − e − iβa

rc
B
=
( )
k 2 − β 2 (2isin βa)
A (k 2 + β 2 )(2isin βa) − 2kβ(2cos βa)
B (k 2 − β 2 )sin βa
= ...(14)
A (k 2 + β 2 )sin βa + 2ikβ cos ka
ijkorZu xq.kkad %&
V − B2
2
B
R= 2
=
V A A
*
 B  B
R=     ...(15)
 A  A
leh- (14) → (15)
(k 2 − β 2 )sin βa (k 2 − β 2 )sin βa
R= ×
(k 2 + β 2 )sin βa + 2kiβ(cos βa) (k 2 + β 2 )sin βa − 2ikβ(cos kβa)
(k 2 − β 2 )sin 2 βa
=
(k 2 + β 2 ) 2 sin 2 βa + 4k 2β 2 cos 2 βa
(k 2 − β 2 ) 2 sin 2 βa
R=
(k 2 − β 2 ) 2 sin 2 βa + 4k 2β 2
−1
 4k 2β 2 
R = 1 + 2 
 (k − β ) sin βa 
2 2 2

2mE 2 2m(E + V0 )
 k2 = ,β =
2 2
−2mV0
k 2 − β2 =
2
−1
 4E(E + V ) 
rc R = 1 + 2 2 0  ...(16)
 V0 sin βa 
ikjxeu xq.kkad %&
2
V C2 C
T= 2
=
V A A
*
 C  C
T=     ...(17)
 A  A
leh- (8) / (10)
Ceika Geiβa + Fe − iβa
=
2A  β  β
G 1 +  + F 1 − 
 k   k

92
 Quantum

 G iβa 
e + e − iβa 
C 2k  F
⇒ =  
A eika  G (k + β) + (k − β) 
F 
leh- (13) ls eku j[kus ij
 − (k + β) −2iβa iβa 
 e ⋅ e + e − iβa 
C 2k (k − β)
= ika  
A e  − + β) −2iβa
(k + β) + (k − β) 
(k
e
 (k − β) 
2k  −(k + β)e − iβa + (k − β)e − iβa 
= ika 
e  − (k + β) 2 e −2iβa + (k − β) 2 
2k −2βe − iβa 
=  (− k 2 − β 2 − 2kβ)e −2iβa + k 2 + β 2 − 2kβ 
eika
 
2k  −2βe − iβa

= ika  2 −2iβa −2iβa 
e  (k + β )(1 − e
2
) − 2kβ(1 + e )
2k  −2β 
ika  − iβa 
= iβa − iβa iβa
e  (k + β )(e − e ) − 2kβ(e + e ) 
2 2

2k  −2β 
= ika  2
e  (k + β )(2isin βa) − 2kβ(2cos βa) 
2

 2cos βa = eiβa + e − iβa

And 2sin βa = eiβa − e − iβa
C 2kiβe − ika
=
A (k 2 + β 2 )sin βa + 2ikβ cos βa
C 2ikβe − ika
= ...(18)
A (k 2 + β 2 )sin βa + 2kβi cos βa
leh- (18) → (17)
−2ikβeika 2ikβe − ika
T= ×
(k 2 + β 2 )sin βa − 2ikβ cos βa (k 2 + β 2 )sin βa + 2ikβ cos βa
4k 2β 2
T=
(k 2 + β 2 ) 2 sin 2 βa + 4k 2β 2 cos 2 βa
4k 2β 2
=
(k 2 − β 2 ) 2 sin 2 βa + 4k 2β 2
−1
 (k 2 − β 2 ) 2 sin 2 βa 
T = 1 + 
 4k 2β 2 
− 2mV
 k 2 − β2 = 0

2

93
 Quantum

−1
 V 2 sin 2 βa 
T = 1 + 0  ...(19)
 4E(E + V0 ) 
2m(E + V0 )
Here β=
2
vr% (16) + (17)
R +T= 1
vr% ,dfoeh; xfr dj jgk d.k fdlh foHko dwi ds {ks= ls xqtjrk gS tks mlesa ijkorZu o ikjxeu
nksuksa izkf;drk laHko gSA
lkekU;r% T dk eku ,d ls de gksrk gS pkgs d.k dh ÅtkZ E > V0 gks rFkk foHko dwi ds {ks=
V = − V0 vFkkZr~ xfrt ÅtkZ [ E − (− V0 )] /kukRed gks fQj Hkh lkekU;r% d.k ds ijkorZu dh laHkkouk gksrh
gS bldk dkj.k T < 1 gSA
 vuquknh izdh.kZu %&
π
;fn βa = (2n + 1)
2
(sin 2 βa) max = 1
vr% leh- (16) ls
−1
 4E(E + V0 ) 
R max = 1 + 
 V02 
From equation (19)
−1
 V02 
Tmin = 1 + 
 4E(E + V0 
;fn βa = nπ gks rks
sin 2 βa = 0
rc R min = 0
And Tmax = 1

94
 Quantum

vr% oØ ls Li”V gS fd T dk eku E V ds dqN fo’ks”k ekuksa ds fy, rhoz mfPp”B iznf’kZr djrk gSA
0

rFkk vU; ekuks ds fy, T dk eku vR;Yi gksrk gS

vr% βa = nπ
ij T ds fy, izkIr mfPp”B vuqukn dh fLFkfr dks iznf’kZr djrk gSA
bl fLFkfr esa lEiw.kZ rjax dk ikjxeu gks tk,xkA
bl voLFkk dks vuquknh izdh.kZu dgrs gSA
 jkelkSj VkmulsUM foHko %&
fuf”Ø; xSlksa ds fy, jkelkSj vkSj VkmulsUM us loZizFke buds ijek.kqvksa ls e− ds izdh.kZu esa vuquknh
ikjxeu izsf{kr fd;kA ftls jkelkSj VkmulsUM foHko dgrs gSA
Q. ,d d.k dk rjax Qyu 0 ≤ x ≤ a esa
2  πx 
ψ= sin  
a  a 
rFkk bl {ks= ds ckn ψ = 0 }kjk O;Dr fd;k tkrk gSA d.k dh fLFkfr o laosx ds izR;k’kk eku dh
x.kuk djsaA
a

∫ ψ xψdx
*

0
Sol. x̂ = a
...(1)
∫ ψ ψ dx
*

 πx  2  πx 
a a
2
∫ ψ ψ dx = ∫ sin   ⋅ ⋅ sin   ⋅ dx
*

0 0
a  a  a  a 
a
2⌠  πx 
=  sin 2   ⋅ dx
a⌡  a 
0

2  1 − cos 2πx 
a

a ∫0 
=   ⋅ dx
2
1 cos 2πx
a a
1
=
a0∫ 1 ⋅ dx − ∫
a0 a
⋅ dx
a
1 a 1  2πx  a  
= [ x ] − sin a  2π  
a 0 a  0
1 1 a
= ⋅ a − × [sin 2π − sin 0]
a a 2π
1
= .a − 0
a
a

⇒ ∫ ψ ψ dx = 1
*
...(2)
0
Now,

95
 Quantum

πx πx
a a
2 2
∫ ψ x ψ dx = ∫
*
sin (x) sin dx
0 0
a a a a
πx
a
2
=
a0∫ x sin 2
a
⋅ dx

 2πx 
1 − cos
2  a  ⋅ dx
a
= ∫ x 
a0 2
 
 
1  
a a

= ∫ x ⋅ dx − ∫ x
a 0 0 

1  (x )0 a  2πx  
2 a a

=  − sin 
a  2 2π  a  0 
1  (a 2 − 0) a 
=  − (sin 2π − sin 0) 
a 2 2π 
1 a2 1
= × − ×0
a 2 a
a
1 a2 1
∫0 ψ ψ × − ×a
*
x dx =
a 2 a
a
=
2
a

∫ ψ x ψ dx
*

∴ x̂ = 0
a

∫ψ ψ dx
*

a
= 2
1
= a
2
 α -{k; %&
α -d.k ewy :i ls ukfHkd ls mRlftZr gksrk gSA vr% mRlftZr gksus ls igys α − d.k dk ukfHkd esa
vfLrRo gksrk gSA tc α − d.k ukfHkd ds vanj gksrk gS (r < R) rks ml ij izcy ukfHkdh; cy dk;Z djrk
gSA bu ukfHkdh; cyksa ds dkj.k fLFkfrt ÅtkZ oxkZdkj foHko dwi dh Hkk¡fr ekuh xbZ gSA

96
 Quantum

α − d.k dh fLFkfrt ÅtkZ oØ

ftldh xgjkbZ V0 gS ukfHkd ds ckgj r > R ij ukfHkdh; cy ux.; gS rFkk α − d.k ,oa ukfHkd ds e/;
dwyke izfrd”kZ.k cy dk;Z djrk gSA
k ⋅ 2ze 2
blds dkj.k fLFkfrt ÅtkZ V =
r
oØ esa R ls R C foHko izkphj dks n’kkZrk gS vr% α − d.k dks ukfHkd ls ckgj fudyus ds fy, bl
foHko izkphj dks ikj djuk gksxk ftldh lkekU;r% ÅtkZ 20 MeV gksrh gSA tcfd α − d.kksa dh ÅtkZ 4-6
MeV gksrh gSA
blls Li”V gS fd α − d.k bl jksf/kdk dks Hksndj ukfHkd ls ckgj fudyrk gSA
ftlds ikjxeu dh izkf;drk
16E(V − E)e −2αa
T=
V2

Unit- 3
ifjc) voLFkk leL;k,¡

,dfoeh; foHko dwi esa d.k %&

97
 TM

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 Quantum

fp=kuqlkj ,d m nzO;eku dk d.k ,d foHko dwi ftldh pkSM+kbZ 2a gSA rFkk lhek,¡ -a ls +a gSA bl
foHko dwi ds fy, foHko fuEu izdkj gSA
 0, − a < x < + a
V(x) = 
∞, x ≤ −a, x ≥ a
vr% −a < x < + a lhek esa JksafMxj leh- ls
∂ 2 ψ 2m
+ (E − V)ψ = 0
∂x 2  2
 V= 0
∂ 2 ψ 2mEψ
⇒ + = 0
∂x 2 2
2mE
Let k2 = ...(1)
2
∂2ψ
⇒ + k2ψ = 0
∂x 2
⇒ (D 2 + k 2 )ψ = 0
;g ,d f}rh; dksfV dh vody leh- gS ftldk lkekU; gy
ψ = A 'eikx + β 'e − ikx
= A ' {cos kx + isin kx} + B' {cos kx − i 'sin kx}
(A '+ iB') cos kx + (A 'i − B'i)sin kx
= ⇓
B
⇒ ψ = A cos kx + Bsin kx ...(2)
A o B fu;rkad gS ftudk eku ifjlhek izfrca/kksa }kjk Kkr dj ldrs gSA
(i) At x = -a , ψ = 0
ψ = A cos k(− a) + Bsin k(− a) = 0
⇒ A cos ka − Bsin ka = 0 ...(3)
(ii) At x = a , ψ = 0
A cos ka + Bsin ka = 0 ...(4)
(3) + (4)
2A cos ka = 0

98
 Quantum

⇒ A cos ka = 0 ...(5)
(3) – (4)
Bsin ka = 0 ...(6)
leh- (5) o (6) ls A o B dks ,d lkFk ‘kwU; ugha eku ldrsA
vr% nks fLFkfr;k¡ laHko gSA
Case – I
B= 0
 ψ = A cos kx ...(7)
At x = a
cos ka = 0
nπ
⇒ cos ka = cos
2
nπ
⇒ ka =
2
nπ
⇒ k= ...(8)
2a
Here n = 1,3,5,....
(8) → (7)
nπx
ψ = A cos ...(9), n = 1,3,5,...
2a
izlkekU;hdj.k dh ‘krZ ls &
+a

∫ ψ ψ dx = 1
*

−a
+a
nπx
⇒ ∫A
2
cos 2 = 1
−a
2a
+a
A2   2nπx  
⇒
2 ∫ 1 + cos 
−a
 ⋅ dx = 1
2a  
2A  nπx 
2 a a

⇒  ∫ 1 ⋅ dx + ∫ cos ⋅ dx  = 1
2 0 0
a 
  a nπx  
a

⇒ A 2 (x)a0 +  sin   =1
  nπ a  0 
⇒ A 2 [a + 0] = 1
1
⇒ A= ...(10)
a
(10) → (9)
1 nπx
ψ= cos ...(11) , n = 1,3,5,...
a 2a
Case – 2
A= 0

99
 Quantum

ψ= Bsin kx
At x= a
Bsin ka =0
⇒ sin ka =0
⇒ sin ka =sin n 'π , n ' = 1,2,3,4,...
⇒ ka =n 'π
n 'π
⇒ k= ...(12)
a
(8) o (12) dh rqyuk ij
n
n' =
2
⇒ n = 2n '
n = 2,4,6,...
nπ
 k= , n = 2,4,6,...
2a
 nπx 
∴ ψ = Bsin 
 2a 
...(13), n = 2,4,6,...

Ikfjlhek izfrca/k ls &

+a

∫ ψ ψ dx = 1
∗

−a

nπx
⇒ B2 ∫ sin 2 ⋅ dx = 1
2a
1
⇒ B=
a
1  nπx 
∴ ψ= ⋅ sin 
 2a 
...(14), n = 2,4,6,...
a
vFkkZr~
1  nπx 
ψ (x) = cos 
 2a 
, n = 1,3,5,...
a
1  nπx 
ψ (x) = sin 
 2a 
, n = 2,4,6,..
a
vFkkZr~ leh- (11) o (14) ,dfoeh; vuar foHko dwi esa d.k ds vkbxsu Qyu dks O;Dr djrs gSA
vkbxsu eku %&
leh- (1) o (8) ls &
2mE n 2 π 2
k2 = =
2 4a 2
n 2 π 2 2
⇒ E= ...(15)
8ma 2
n = 1,2,3,...
E1 : E 2 : E 3 :... = 1: 4 : 9 :...

100
 Quantum

leh- (15) ,d foeh; vuar foHko dwi esa d.k ds vkbxsu eku dks O;Dr djrh gS tks fd fofoDr ÅtkZ
Lrj E1 , E 2 ,... ds :i esa gksrs gSA
izR;sd ÅtkZ Lrj ds laxr ,d gh vkbxsu Qyu izkIr gksrk gSA vFkkZr~ ÅtkZ Lrj vuviHkz”V dgykrs
gSA
leh- (11) o (14) ls Li”V gS fd vkbxsu Qyuksa dk le rFkk fo”ke Qyuksa esa foHkDr gks tkuk lefer
foHko dwi dh ,d fo’ks”krk gSA
vr% ,d lefer foHko dwi ds fy, JksfMaxj leh- ds gy lnSo bl izdkj izkIr fd, tk ldrs gS fd
fdlh vkbxsu ÅtkZ ds laxr ;k rks leQyu gksxk ;k fo”keA

 ,dfoeh; ifjfer xgjkbZ ds foHko dwi esa ifjc) d.k %&

fp=kuqlkj ,d m nzO;eku dk d.k ,dfoeh; ifjfer xgjkbZ ds foHko dwi esa ifjc) gSA
d.k dh ÅtkZ ‘kwU; ls de gS vFkkZr~ _.kkRed gSA
vFkkZr~ E = − E
bl d.k ds v/;;u ds fy, JksfMaxj leh- dk mi;ksx djrs gSA
−2 ∂2 ψ
+ Vψ = Eψ
2m ∂x 2
∂ 2 ψ 2m
⇒ + (E − V)ψ = 0
∂x 2  2

101
 Quantum

vr% bl leL;k ds fy, foHko ds fuEu eku gksxsaA

 0, x ≤ − a, ψ = ψI

V(x) = − V0 , − a < x < + a, ψ = ψ II
 0, x ≥ + a, ψ = ψ III

{ks=&I:-
x < −a, V = 0, ψ = ψ I
∂ ψ I 2m
2
+ 2 Eψ = 0
∂x 2 
d.k ds ifjc) gksus ds fy, vko’;d gS fd
E= − E
∂ 2 ψ I 2m E
− ψI = 0
∂x 2 2
−2m E
Let k12 =
2
⇒ (D 2 − k12 )ψ I = 0
ψ I = Ae k1x + Be − k1x ...(1)
At x → −∞ , ψ I = 0
0 = Ae −∞ + Be∞
⇒ 0 + Be∞ = 0
⇒ B= 0 ...(2)
∴ (2) → (1)
ψ I = Ae + k1x ...(3)
{ks=&II esa :- k
−a < x < + a, ψ = ψ II , V = − V0
∂ ψ II 2m
2
⇒ + 2 (E + V0 )ψ II = 0
∂x 2 
E= − E
∂ 2 ψ II 2m
∴ + 2 (V0 − E )ψ II = 0
∂x 2 
2m
Let k 22 = 2 (V0 = E )

⇒ (D 2 + k 22 )ψ II = 0
ψ II = Ceik 2 x + De − ik 2 x ...(4)
{ks=&III esa %&
x > + a, V0 = 0, ψ = ψ III
E= − E

102
 Quantum

∂ 2 ψ III 2m E
⇒ − ψ III = 0
∂x 2 2
⇒ (D 2 − k12 )ψ III = 0
2m E
Let k12 =
2
ψ III = Fe k1x + Ge − k1x ...(5)
At x → ∞ , ψ III = 0
0 = Fe∞ + Ge −∞
⇒ Fe∞ = 0
⇒ F= 0 ...(5)
(5) → (5)
ψ III = Ge − k1x ...(6)
∂ψ I
= Ak1e k1x ...(7)
∂x
∂ψ II
= ik 2 (Ceik 2 x − De − ik 2 x ) ...(8)
∂x
∂ψ III
= − k1Ge − k1x ...(9)
∂x
At x = -a
(ψ I ) x =− a = (ψ II ) x =− a
From equation (3) and (4)
Ae − k1a = Ce − ik 2a + Deik 2a ...(10)
 ∂ψ I   ∂ψ 
  =  II 
∂x x =− a  ∂x  x =− a
From equation (7) and (8)
Ak i e − k1a = ik 2 (Ce − ik 2a − Deik 2a ) ...(11)
At x = +a
ψ II x = a = ψ III x = a
From equation (4) and (6)(
Ceik 2a + De − ik 2a = Ge − k1a ...(12)
 ∂ψ II   ∂ψ III 
And   =  
∂x  x = a  ∂x  x = a
From (8) and (9)
ik 2 (Ceik 2 x − De − ik 2a ) = − k1Ge − k 2a ...(13)
From equatin (4)
ψ II = Ceik 2 x + De − ik 2 x
= C {cos k 2 x + isin k 2 x} + D {cos k 2 x − isin k 2 x}
= D cos k 2 x + Csin k 2 x ...(4)

103
 Quantum

Here C = i(C − D)
D= C+D
ψ III = Ge − k 2 x ...(6)
ifjlhek izfrca/k ls &
1. x = −a So from equation (4) and (6)
ψ I x =− a = ψ II x =− a
⇒ Ae − k1a = − Csin k 2 a + D cos k 2 a ...(7)
∂ψ I ∂ψ II
And =
∂x x =− a ∂x x =− a

⇒  k1Ae 
k1x
= k 2 [Ccos k 2 a + Dsin k 2 a ]
x =− a

⇒ k1Ae − k1a = k 2 [Ccos k 2 a + Dsin k 2 a ] ...(8)

2. x = + a ij
ψ III x =a
= ψ II x =a

⇒ Ge − k1a
= Csin k 2 a + D cos k 2 a ...(9)
∂ψ II ∂ψ III
And =
∂x x =a ∂x x =a

⇒  − k1Ge − k1x  = k 2 [c cos k 2 x − Dsin k 2 x ]x = a

x =a

⇒ − k1Ge = k 2 [Ccos k 2 a − Dsin k 2 a ] ...(10)

− k1a

From equation (7) + (9)

(A + G)e − k1a = 2D cos k 2 a ...(11)
Equation (7) – (9)(
(A − G)e − k1a = −2csin k 2 a ...(12)
From equation (8) + (10)
k1 {A − G} e − k1a = 2k 2 ⋅ Ccos k 2 a ...(13)
(8) – (10)
k1 (A + G)e − k1a = 2k 2 ⋅ Dsin k 2 a ...(14)
leh- (14) esa (11) dk Hkkx nsus ij
k1 {A + G} e − k1a 2k 2 D ⋅ sin k 2 a
= { C = 0}
{A + G } e − k1a
2D ⋅ cos k 2 a
⇒ k1 = k 2 tan k 2 a {C = 0} ...(15)
leh- (13) esa (12) dk Hkkx nsus ij
k1 {A − G} e − k1a 2k 2 c cos k 2 a
− k1a
=
(A − G)e −2c ⋅ sin k 2 a
⇒ k1 = − k 2 cot k 2 a [ D = 0] ...(16)

104
 Quantum

leh- (15) o (16) vchth; leh- dgykrh gS ftudk gy xzkQh; fof/k ls fd;k tkrk gSA ,oa ;s
lehdj.kksa ,d lkFk oS/k ugha gSA
vr% JksfMaxj leh- ds gy nks voLFkkvksa esa izkIr gksxasA
izFke voLFkk %&
leh- (15) ls ;fn k1 = k 2 tan k 2 a
rks bl voLFkk esa C = 0 gksxkA
vr% leh- (12) o (13) ls ;fn C = 0 gksxkA
(A − G)e − k1a = 0
⇒ A−G = 0
⇒ A = G, If C = 0
vr% rjax Qyu leh- (4), (3) o (6) ls &
ψI = Ae k1x 

ψ II = D cos k 2 x  ...(17)
ψ III = Ae − k1x 
⇒ ψ II ,dleQyu gSA vr% blls lEc) voLFkk,¡ levoLFkk,¡ dgyk,xhA
f}rh; voLFkk %&
k1 = − k 2 cot k 2 a when D = 0
vr% leh- (11) o (14) ls &
(A + G)e − k1a = 0
⇒ A = −G , when D = 0
vr% rjax Qyu leh- (3), (4), o (6) ls &
ψI = Ae k1x 

ψ II = Csin k 2 x  ...(18)
ψ III = − Ae − k1x 
⇒ ψ II ,d fo”keQyu gSA vr% blls lEc) voLFkk,¡ fo”ke voLFkk,¡ dgyk,xhA
vkbxsu eku %&

105
 Quantum

leh- (15) o (16) ls

k1 = k 2 tan k 2 a ...(15)
k 2 = − k 2 cot k 2 a ...(16)
a dk xq.kk djus ij
k1a = k 2 a tan k 2 a
And k1a = − k 2 a cot k 2 a
Let k1a = x ...(19)
And k 2a = y ...(20)
So x= y tan y ...(21)
And x= - y cot y ...(22)
(19) 2 + (20) 2
(k12 + k 22 )a 2 = x 2 + y 2 ...(23)
2m E
 k1 =
2
2m
k2 = (V0 − E )
2
vr% leh- (23) ls &
 2m E 2mV0 2m E  2
 2 + − a = x + y
2 2

  2 2 
2mV0 2
⇒ 2
⋅ a = x 2 + y2

2mV0 2
Let γ2= ⋅a
2
∴ γ 2 = x 2 + y2 ...(24)

106
 Quantum

ifjc) voLFkk esa d.k dh ÅtkZ ds vkbxsu eku xzkQh; fof/k ls o`Ùk (leh- 24) rFkk oØ x = y tan y
,oa x = − y cot y ds izfrPNsn fcUnqvksa ls izkIr fd, tkrs gSA
fp= ls Li”V gS fd izR;sd izfrPNsnu fcUnq ds fy, gesa ÅtkZ izkIr gksxhA D;ksafd ;s fcUnq ;k rks
x = y tan y
;k x = − y cot y
dk lek/kku djrs gSA
γ ds fdlh ,d eku ds fy, ekuk oØksa ds izfrPNsnu fcUnqvksa dks bl fLFkfr esa ifjc) d.kksa dh ÅtkZ
leh- (19) ls
x = k1a
2m E
 k1 =
2
2m E
x= a
2
⇒ E= − E
2 x 2
⇒ E =
2ma 2
− 2 x 2
⇒ E=
2ma 2
− 2 x n2
⇒ En = → vkbxsu Value
2ma 2
,dfofe; ifjfer foHko dwi esa ifjc) d.k ds fy, fuEu fu”d”kZ fudyrs gSA
1. ifjc) voLFkk esa d.k ds ÅtkZ Lrj vuviHkz”V gSA
2. ifjfer foHko dwi esa ifjc) d.k ds fy, ÅtkZ Lrjksa dh la[;k Hkh ifjfer gksrh gS tks fd γ ij
fuHkZj djrh gSA
γ = foHko dwi dk izcyrk xq.kkad
3. fuEure ÅtkZ voLFkk vFkok ewy voLFkk lnSo le gksrh gSA blds ckn Øe’k% fo”ke vFkok le
voLFkk,¡ ikbZ tkrh gSA
4. ;fn γ dk eku &
0<r<n
gks rks dsoy ,d le voLFkk izkIr gksrh gSA
ysfdu ;fn π < r < 2π gks rks &
nks le voLFkk,¡ izkIr gksrh gSA
5. ;fn 0 < r < π / 2 gks rks dksbZ fo”ke voLFkk izkIr ugha gksrhA
π 3π
Ysfdu ;fn <r< gks rks ,d fo”ke voLFkk izkIr gksrh gSA
2 2
vr%  N 0 −  π < r <  N 0 +  π
1 1
 2  2
N 0 = fo”ke voLFkkvksa dh la[;k

107
 Quantum

6. ;fn foHko dwi dk izcyrk izkpy ( γ )V0 a 2 c<k;k tk, rks le rFkk fo”ke voLFkkvksa dh la[;k esa
o`f) gks tkrh gSA
π nπ
(N − 1) <r≤
2 2
Here N = le rFkk fo”ke la[;kvksa dh dqy la[;k
ÅtkZ&vkbxsu Qyu %&
ifjfer foHko dwi esa ifjc) d.k dks le&voLFkk esa Qyu&
ψ I (x) = Ae k1x 

ψ II (x) = D cos k 2 x  ...(1)
ψ III (x) = Ae − k1x 
fo"ke voLFkk esa Qyu &
ψ I (x) = Ae k1x 

ψ II (x) = Csin k 2 x  ...(2)
ψ III (x) = − Ae − k1x 
Lkhekar ‘krsZa yxkus ij
(i) at x = -a
ψ = ψ II
I
− k1a
⇒ Ae = D cos k 2 a
⇒ A = D cos k 2 a ⋅ e + k1a ...(3)
le voLFkk rjax Qyu &
ψ I = Ae k1x = D cos k 2 a ⋅ e k1a ⋅ e + k1x
ψ II = D cos k 2 x
ψ III = Ae − k1x = D cos k 2 a ⋅ e − k1a ⋅ e − k1x
(ii) At x = a
ψ II = ψ II
From euquation (2)
Csin k 2 a = − Ae − k1a
⇒ A = − Csin k 2 a ⋅ e k1a ...(5)
(5) → (2)
vr% fo”ke&voLFkk rjax Qyu
ψ I (x) = Ae k1x = − Csin k 2 a ⋅ e k1a ⋅ e k1x 

ψ II (x) = Csin k 2 x  ...(6)
− k1x − k1x 
ψ III (x) − Ae = Csin k 2 a ⋅ e ⋅ e
k1a


108
 Quantum

rjax Qyuksa dk ;g lewg ewy&fcUnq ds lkis{k izfrlefer gksrk gSA

d.k ds rjax Qyu ψ I , ψ II o ψ III dks fuEu&rhu ÅtkZ Lrjksa esa iznf’kZr fd;k x;k gSA
ftuesa ψ I o ψ III lefer o ψ II izfrlefer gSA
 ,dfoeh; ljy vkorhZ nksfy= %&
,sls d.k tks ljy vkorZ xfr dh ‘krksZa dk ikyu djrs gSa] ljy vko`fÙk nksfy= dgykrs gSA ljy
vko`fÙk nksydks ij lkE;koLFkk dh vksj mlds foLFkkiu ds lekuqikrh ,d cy yxrk gS] ftls izR;ku;u cy
dgrs gSA
F∝ x
⇒ F= − kx
⇒ ma = − kx
d2 x
⇒ m 2 = − kx
dt
2
d x k
⇒ + x= 0
dt 2 m
d2 x
⇒ + ω 02 x = 0
dt 2
k
Here ω 02 == dks.kh; vko`fÙk
m
k
⇒ ω=
m
2π m
∴ T= = 2π = vkorZdky
ω k
,oa mijksDr leh- ljy vko`fÙk nksyd dh xfr dk leh- gSA
vr% bl leh- esa x – foLFkkiu dgykrk gSA
ftlds fy, fLFkfrt ÅtkZ

V = − ∫ Fdx  F = −∇V 
 

109
 Quantum

⇒ V = − ∫ − (kx)dx
1 2
⇒ V= kx
2
 k = mω 2
1
V = mω 2 x 2 ...(1)
2

x = 0 ij e/;eku fLFkfr esa V(x) = 0 (minimum)

V(x) = 0 → In this condition - Maximum K.E.
1 1
x = ± a ij vf/kdre foLFkkiu fLFkfr esa V(x) = mω 2 x 2 = mω 2 a 2
2 2
dqy ÅtkZ E ds fy, x = ± a esa ifjc) xfr djrk gSA
ljy vkorhZ nksyd dh fLFkfrt ÅtkZ le; ij fuHkZj ugha djrh gSA vr% bl foHko {ks= esa xfr dj
jgs d.k ds fy,&
,dfoeh; dkykvukfJr JksfMaxj leh- dk mi;ksx djus ij
∂ 2 ψ 2m
+ (E − V)ψ = 0 ...(2)
∂x 2  2
(1) → (2)
∂ ψ 2m 
2
1 
⇒ + 2 E − mω 2 x 2  ψ = 0
∂x 2
  2 
∂ 2 ψ  2mE m 2ω 2 2 
⇒ + − 2 x ψ = 0 ...(3)
∂x 2   2  
mω
Let x=y

∂y mω
⇒ = ...(4)
∂x 
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂y
 = ⋅
∂x ∂y ∂x
∂ψ mω ∂ψ
⇒ = ...(5)
∂x  ∂y
(4),(5) → (6)

110
 Quantum

∂2ψ ∂  ∂ψ 
=  
∂x 2
∂x  ∂x 
∂  ∂ψ  ∂y
=  ⋅ ...(6)
∂y  ∂x  ∂x
∂2ψ ∂  ∂ψ mω  mω
⇒ = ⋅
∂x 2
∂y  ∂y   
∂2ψ mω ∂ 2 ψ
⇒ = ⋅ ...(7)
∂x 2  ∂y 2
(7) → (3)
mω ∂ 2 ψ  2mE m 2 ω 2 x 2 
⋅ + − ψ = 0
 ∂y 2   2 2 
∂ 2 ψ  2E mωx 2 
⇒ + − ψ = 0
∂y 2  ω  
From equation (4)
∂2ψ
⇒ + {α − y 2 } ψ = 0 ...(8)
∂y 2
2E
Here α' =
ω
tks fd gjekbV dh cgqin dh leh- dgykrh gSA
leh- (8) dk gy α ' ds fo’ks”k ekuks gsrq laHko gSA
,oa blls ψ ds tks gy izkIr gksxas os lhekUr ‘krksZ dk ikyu djsxsaA
vFkkZr~ vuUr lhek ij (x → ∞) rjax Qyu ψ (x) → 0
vr% leh- (8) esa x → ∞ ij y → ∞ gksxkA
 mω 
 y = x
  
tcfd ÅtkZ ds eku ifjfer gksrs gSA
vr% ifjfer ÅtkZ ds fy, α ' dk eku ux.; gksxkA
( y 2 dh rqyuk esa)
∂2ψ
 − y2 ψ = 0 ...(9)
∂y 2
leh- (9) esa y ds vf/kdre ekuksa ds fy, fuEu rjax Qyu gksxkA
ψ = e − y / 2 H(y)
2
...(10)
Here H(y) = gjekbV Qyu
leh- (10) dk y ds lkis{k vodyu djus ij
∂ψ −2y − y2 / 2 ∂H(y)
⋅e H(y) + e − y / 2
2
=
∂y 2 ∂y

111
 Quantum

∂2ψ  −2y − y2 / 2  − y 2 / 2 ∂H(y)

= e − y /.2 ⋅ H(y) − y   H(y) − ye ⋅
2
e
∂y 2
 2  ∂y
 −2y  − y2 / 2 ∂H(y) ∂ 2 H(y)
+ ⋅ + e− y / 2 ⋅
2

 2   e
∂y ∂y 2
 ∂ 2 H(y) ∂H(y) 
= e− y  ∂y 2 − 2y ∂y − (1 − y ) ⋅ H(y) 
2
/2 2
...(11)
 
(10),(11) → (8)
 ∂ 2 H(y) ∂H(y) 
e− y  ∂y 2 − 2y ∂y − (1 − y )H(y)  + α '− y ⋅ e (
− y2 / 2
)
H(y) = 0
2
/2 2 2

 
∂ 2 H(y) ∂H(y)
⇒ − 2y − {1 − y 2 − α + y 2 } ⋅ H(y) = 0 ...(12)
∂y 2
∂y
tks fd gjekbV leh- dgykrh gSA
bl leh- dk gy α ' ds (2n + 1) eku ds fy, gh laHko gSA
ÅtkZ vkbxsu eku %&
α ' = (2n + 1)
We know that
2E
α' =
ω
2E
⇒ (2n + 1) =
ω
 2n + 1
⇒ E=  ω
 2 
 1
⇒ E =  n +  ω ...(13)
 2
Here n = 0,1,2,3...
leh- (13) ls Li”V gS fd Dok.Ve ;kaf=dh esa nksfy= dh ÅtkZ DokUVhd`r gksrh gS vkSj bldh ÅtkZ Lrj
dh Åtkvksa esa varj ω gksrk gSA
ftuds ÅtkZ Lrj fuEu gSA
1
n = 0 ⇒ E0 = ω
2
3
n = 1 ⇒ E1 = ω
2

112
 Quantum

1
E 0 = ω
2
1
n = 0 ds fy, leh- (13) ls ljy vkorhZ nksfy= dh U;wure ÅtkZ E 0 = ω gksrh gSA
2
;g d.k dh ewy voLFkk ÅtkZ dgykrh gSA
tcfd fpjlEer ;kaf=dh esa nksfy= dh ÅtkZ ‘kwU; ds cjkcj gks ldrh gSA tc ml nksfy= esa d.k
ewy&fcUnq ij fLFkr gksA ijarq DokUVe ;kaf=dh esa d.k dh U;wure ÅtkZ (ewy&voLFkk ÅtkZ) Hkh ‘kwU;
ugha gksrhA D;ksafd d.k fLFkj ugha jgrkA tcfd oks ifjc) voLFkk esa gksA
vkbxsu Qyu %&
leh- (10) ls ljy&vkorhZ nksfy= dh ÅtkZ E n ds fy, vkbxsu Qyu
ψ n = N n e − y / 2 H n (y)
2
...(14)
Here N n = izlkekU;hdj.k fu;rkad
ftldk eku izlkekU;hdj.k izfrca/k ls Kkr djrs gS vFkkZr~ Dok.Ve ;kaf=dh esa izR;sd rjax Qyu oS/k
rHkh gksxk t cog izlkekU;hdj.k ‘krZ dk ikyu djsA
vFkkZr~ ∫ ψ ψ dx = 1
*
...(15)
mω
 x y=

mω
Let α' =

 y = α 'x ...(16)
From (16) → (14)
ψ n = N n e −α x / 2 H n (x)
2 2
...(17)
(17) → (15)
∞

∫N ⋅ e −α x H n2 (x) = 1
2 2
2
n
−∞
∞
 α 
∫e
−α 2 x 2
⇒ H n2 (x) =  
 π 2 ⋅ n!
n
−∞

2n ⋅ n! n
= ...(18)
α
From equation (17) and (18)
 2n ⋅ n! π 
N 2n  = 1
 α 
1
 α  2
⇒ Nn =  n  ...(19)
 2 ⋅ n! π 
(19) → (17)
1
 α  2 −α 2 x 2 / 2
ψn =  n ⋅ H n (x) ...(20)
 2 ⋅ n! π 
e

113
 Quantum

;gk¡ H n (x) gjekbV Qyu gSA

ftlds eku jksfMªx lw= ls Kkr fd, tkrs gSA
mijksDr leh- y ds :i esa
1
 α  2
e− y ⋅ H n (y)
2
/2
Hn =  n 
 2 ⋅ n! π 
ftuds eku&
H 0 (y) = 1
H1 (y) = 2y
H 2 (y) = 4y 2 − 2
H 3 (y) = 8y3 − 12y
vr% n ds izFke pkj ekuksa ds fy,

(i) n=0 1  α 
1
E 0 = ω
2
ψ0 =  e− y
2
/2
→ le Qyu
2  π 
(ii) n=0 3 1
E1 = ω  α  2 − y2 / 2
ψ1 =  ⋅ 2y → fo”ke
 2 π 
2 e

Qyu
(iii) n=2 5  α 
1
E 2 = ω
2
ψ2 =  e− y ⋅ (4y 2 − 2)
2
/2
2  8 π 
→ le
(iv) n=3 7  α 
1
E 3 = ω
2
ψ3 =  e − y / 2 (8y3 − 12y)
2

2  86 π 
→ fo”ke

114
 Quantum

 lerk (Parity) :-
lerk ladkjd P̂ ,d foek esa lerk ladkjd (P) ˆ ,d ,slk ladkjd gS tks fLFkfr x ds fdlh Qyu
ψ (x) dks lafØ;k ij ψ (− x) esa ifjofrZr dj nsrk gS vFkkZr~
vFkkZr~ P̂ψ (x) = ψ (− x) ...(1)
d.k dh ÅtkZ vkbxu eku rFkk vkbxsu Qyuksa dks Kkr djus ds fy, fuEu leh- dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA
Hψ (x) = Eψ (x)
;gk¡ H = gSfeYVuh ladkjd gksrk gSA
−2 ∂2
vr% Ĥ(x) = + V̂(x)
2m ∂x 2
x → − x djus ij
−2 ∂2
Ĥ(− x) = + V̂(x)
2m ∂(− x) 2
DokUVe ;kaf=dh esa foHko x ds lkis{k lefer gksrk gSA vFkkZr~ V(− x) = V(x) lefer foHko gksrk gSA
−2 ∂2
Ĥ(− x) = + V(x)
ˆ = H(x)
ˆ
2m ∂x 2
⇒ Ĥ(− x) = Ĥ(x) ...(2)
Q. fl) dhft, fd gSfeYVuh ladkjd o lerk ladkjd Øe fofues; gksrs gSA
Ans.
Pˆ  H(x)
ˆ ψ (x)  = PH(x)
ˆˆ ⋅ Pˆ ψ (x)
ˆ − x) ⋅ Pˆ ψ (x)
= H( from equation (1) vfn’k xq.ku ysus ij
leh- (2) ls
Ĥ(− x) = Ĥ(x)
∴ Pˆ  H(x)
ˆ ψ (x)  = H(x)
ˆ ⋅ Pˆ ψ (x)
⇒ PH(x)
ˆˆ ψ (x) − H(x)
ˆ ⋅ Pˆ ψ (x) = 0
⇒ (H(x)
ˆ − Pˆ − PH(x)
ˆˆ ψ (x) = 0
⇒  H
ˆ Pˆ  ψ (x) = 0

H
ˆ ˆ
⇒  P = 0

115
 Quantum

vr% lefer foHko {ks= esa xfr dj jgs gfeZVh ladkjd rFkk lerk ladkjd Øefofues; fu;e dk
ikyu djrs gSA
 JksfMaxj leh- ls &
Ĥ(x)ψ (x) = Êψ (x)
x → −x
Ĥ(− x)ψ (− x) = Êψ (− x)
 Ĥ(− x) = Ĥ(x)
∴ Ĥ(x)ψ (− x) = Êψ (− x)
vr% ψ (− x) Hkh vkbxsu Qyu gksxsaA ftlds laxr ÅtkZ vkbxsu eku E gksxsaA
⇒ ekuk fdlh fudk; dk gSfeYVuh ladkjd rFkk blds ÅtkZ Lrj vuviHkz”V gSA rks ,d ÅtkZ Lrj E
ds laxr ,d gh vkbxsu Qyu Lora= :i ls laHko gSA
ψ (x) = λψ (x) = ψ (− x) ...(1)
x → −x
ψ (x) = λψ (− x) ...(2)
(1) → (2)
ψ (x) = λ {λψ (x)}
⇒ ψ (x) = λ 2 ψ (x)
⇒ λ2 = 1
⇒ λ = ±1 ...(3)
(3) → (2)
λ =1⇒ ψ (x) = ψ (− x) Even
λ = −1 ⇒ ψ (x) = −ψ (− x) Odd
Lkefer rjax Qyu (Symetric Wave function) :-
,slk rjax Qyu ftlds fy, ψ (x) = ψ (− x) gks] lefer rjax Qyu ;k le rjax Qyu dgykrk gSA
lerk ladkjd dh ifjHkk”kk ls &
P̂ψ (x) = ψ (− x)
lefer rjax Qyu ds fy, &
ψ (− x) = ψ (x)
Put the value-
P̂ψ (x) = ψ (x)
vr% lefer rjax Qyu ds fy,
vkbxsu eku = +1 gksrk gSA
For Ex :-
ψ (x) = cos x
ljy vkorhZ nksfy= esa
ψ 0 (x), ψ 2 (x), ψ 4 (x),...
 izfrlefer rjax Qyu %&
,sls rjax Qyu ftuds fy, ψ (x) = −ψ (x) gksrk gS] izfrlefer rjax Qyu dgykrs gSA
lerk ladkjd dh ifjHkk”kk ls &
116
 Quantum

P̂ψ (x) = ψ (− x)
izfrlefer rjax Qyu ds fy, &
ψ (− x) = −ψ (x)
Put the value
P̂ψ (x) = −ψ (x)
vr% izfrlefer rjax Qyu ds fy,
vkbxsu eku = - 1 gksrk gSA
 H-atom :-
loZizFke cksj ds vuqlkj gkbMªkstu ,dy ijek.kq crk;k x;k ,oa blh us H ds jSf[kd o.kZØe LisDVªe
dh O;k[;k dhA
cksj ds vuqlj H-atom ds fy, rhu ifjdYiuk,¡ gksrh gSA
1. byS- ds LFkk;h d{kk dh ifjdYiuk &
blds vuqlkj ijek.kq esa e− ukfHkd ds pkjksa vksj fofHkUu o`Ùkkdkj d{kkvksa esa pDdj yxkrk gSA ;s
d{kk,¡ LFkk;h gksrh gSA
ukfHkd rFkk e− ds chp fo/kqr vkd”kZ.k cy o`Ùkkdkj d{kkvksa esa xfr djus okys e− dks vfHkdsUnzh; cy
iznku djrk gSA
vFkkZr~ fo/kqr vkd”kZ.k cy = vfHkdsUnzh; cy
mVn2 k(Ze)(− e)
= ...(1)
rn rn2
;gk¡ Ze = izksVkWu dh la[;k Z gks rks vkos’k
m= e − dk nzO;eku = 9.1 × 10−31 Kg
z= ijek.kq Øekad (izksVkWu la[;k)
H Atom ds fy, Z = 1
1 Nm 2
K= = 9 × 109 2  F = kq1q 2 / r 2 
4πε 0 c
Vr = n osa d{kk esa xfr djrs e − dk osx
rn = n oha d{kk dh f=T;k
2. byS- ds dks.kh; laosx dk DokUVhdj.k %&
blds vuqlkj e− dsoy bUgha d{kkvksa esa pDdj yxkrk gS ftudk dks.kh; laosx  dk iw.kZ xq.kt gksrk
gSA
vFkkZr~ n oha d{kk ds fy, dks.kh; laosx &
mv n rn = n ...(2)
;gk¡ n = 1,2,3,...
vr% leh- (2) ls Li”V gS fd n dk eku iw.kZ xq.kt gksus ls dks.kh; laosx DokUVhd`r gksrk gSA
n dks eq[; DokUVe la[;k Hkh dgk tkrk gSA
k d{kk ds fy, &
n= 1
blh izdkj L,M,N, ... ds fy, Øe’k% n = 2,3,4,... gksrk gSA
3. ÅtkZ ds DokUVhdj.k dh ifjdYiuk %&

117
 Quantum

blds vuqlkj tc e− ,d LFkk;h d{kk ls nwljh LFkk;h d{kk esa laØe.k djrk gS rks og υ vko`Ùkh vFkok
hυ ÅtkZ dk vi’kks”k.k vFkok mRltZu djrk gSA
ekuk n1 d{kk dh ÅtkZ = E n 1

rFkk n 2 d{kk dh ÅtkZ = E n 2

rks E n − E n = hυ
2 1
...(3)

C
υ=
λ
 n oha d{kk dh f=T;k %&
leh- (1) ls
mv 2n − kze 2
=
rn rn2
− kze 2
⇒ mv 2n =
rn
− kze 2
⇒ rn = ...(4)
mv 2n
v n dk eku leh- (2) ls &
n
Vn = h ...(5)
mrn
(5) → (4)
− kze 2
rn = 2
 n 
m
 mrn 
− kze 2
= × m 2 rn2
m⋅n  2 2

n 2 2
⇒ rn = ...(6)
kze 2 ⋅ m
vr% n oha d{kk dh f=T;k H-atom ds fy, n 2 ds lekuqikrh gksrh gSA
rn ∝ n 2 ...(7)
r1 : r2 :... = 1: 4 : 9...

118
 Quantum

For other atom

n2
rn ∝
z
2. n oha d{kk esa e − dk osx %&
(4) → (5)
n  mVn2 
Vn =   (-sign dk dksbZ vkSfpR; ugha gksxkA)
m  + kze 2 
kze 2
⇒ Vn = ...(8)
n
Bound State ds fy, P.E. = − ve gksrh gSA
z
Vn ∝ ...(9)
n
3. n oha d{kk dh ÅtkZ %&
n oha d{kk dh dqy ÅtkZ E n = xfrt ÅtkZ + fLFkfrt ÅtkZ
1 k(ze)(− e)
⇒ E n = mVn2 + ...(10)
2 rn
leh- (4) ls
− kze 2
Vn2 = ...(11)
mrn
kze 2
= ...(11) ( Velocity – ve ugha ysrs)
mrn
(11) → (10)
1  kze 2  − kze 2
En = m
2  mrn  rn
kze 2 kze 2
= −
2rn rn
kze 2 − 2kze 2
=
2rn
− kze 2
En = ...(12)
2rn
(6) → (12)
−1 kze 2
En = 2 2
⋅ kze 2 m
2 n 
−1 k 2 e 4 m z 2
= ⋅ 2 ...(13)
2 2 n
vr%

119
 Quantum

z2
En ∝ ...(14)
n2
For H-atom –
Z= 1
−1 k 2 e 4 m 1
En = ⋅ 2 ...(15)
2 2 n

;gk¡
1 k 2e4 m
= fu;rkad =
( 9
) −19 7
1 9 × 10 (1.6 × 10 ) (9.1 × 10 )
−31

J
2 2 2 (1.035 × 10−34 ) 2
1 (9 × 109 )(1.6 × 10−19 ) 4 (9.1 × 10−31 )
= eV
2 (1.035 × 10−34 )(1.6 × 10−19 )
= 13.6 eV
−13.6
vr% E n = 2 ...(16)
n
izFke d{kk ds fy, & n = 1
E1 = -13.6 ] izFke d{kk dh ÅtkZ dgykrh gSA
zn
En ∝
n2
n = 1, 2,3,..., ∞
4. ,dy bySDVªkWuh ijek.kq ls mRlftZr fofdj.k dh rjaxnS/;Z %&
tc e− n 2 d{kk ls n1 d{kk esa laØe.k djrk gS rks mRlftZr ÅtkZ

E = hυ = E n 2 − E n1 ...(3)
(15) → (3)
− k 2e4 m k 2 e4 m
hυ = + 2 2
2 2 n 22 2  n1
k 2e4 m  1 1
⇒ hυ = 2  2
− 2 ...(17)
 h   n1 n 2 
2 
 2π 
hc
 E = hυ =
λ
1 E
= υ= [Here υ = vko`fÙk] υ = rjax la[;k]
λ hc
o.kZØe esa izkIr js[kk,¡ vFkkZr~ rjax la[;k dgykrs gSA

120
 Quantum

hc 4π 2 k 2 e 4 m  1 1
∴ =  2 − 2
λ 2h 2
 n1 n 2 
1 4π 2 k 2 e 4 m  1 1
⇒ = υ=  2 − 2
λ 3
2h c  n1 n 2 
4π 2 k 2 e 4 m
;gk¡ R= = Constant (fjMcxZ fu;rkad)
2h 3c
R = 1.09678 × 107 izfr eh-
1 1 1
=R 2 − 2 ...(18) (for H –atom)
λ  n1 n 2 
 H-ijek.kq dh fofHkUu Jsf.k;k¡ %&
tc xSlh; H dk fo|qr foltZu fd;k tkrk gSA rks H-atom fo;ksftr gks tkrk gS rFkk mÙksftr H-atom]
Hydrogen ijek.kq fofdj.kksa dk mRltZu djrs gSA
bu fofdj.kksa dks LisDVªksxzkQ fp= esa n’kkZ;k tkrk gSA
mijksDr fp= ls izkIr fofHkUu LisDVªeh js[kkvksa dks fofHkUu Jsf.k;ksa esa ck¡Vk tkrk gSA
ykbeu Js.kh & If n 2 = 2 rks λ = 10−7 m
n 2 = ∞ rks λ = 10−10 m
BCZ – uV- Reigon
1. ykbeu Js.kh %&
tc e− , n 2 = 2,3, 4,..., ∞ ls n = 1ÅtkZ Lrj esa laØe.k djrk gS rks ykbeu Js.kh izkIr gksrh gSA ;g Js.kh
LisDVªe ds ijkcSaxuh {ks= esa ik;h tkrh gSA
rFkk bldh fofdj.kksa dh rjaxnS/;Z
n1 = 1
1 1 1
= R 2 − 2 
λ  n1 n 2 
1 1 1 
⇒ = R 2 − 2 
λ 1 n 2 
Here n 2 = 2,3,4,..., ∞

121
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 Quantum

2. ckej Js.kh %&

tc e− , n 2 = 3,4,5,..., ∞ ls n1 = 2 ÅtkZ Lrj esa laØe.k djrk gS rks ckej Js.kh izkIr gksrh gSA
vr% ;g Js.kh LisDVªe ds n`’; Hkkx esa ik;h tkrh gSA
blds fy, fofdj.kksa dh rjaxnS/;Z &
n1 = 2
1 1 1
= R 2 − 2 
λ 2 n2 
n 2 = 3,4,5,..., ∞
3. ik’pu Js.kh %&
tc e− , n 2 = 4,5,6,..., ∞ ls n1 = 3 esa laØe.k djrk gS rks ik’pu Js.kh izkIr gksrh gSA
;g Js.kh LisDVªe ds vojDr Hkkx esa ik;h tkrh gSA
Blds fy, fofdj.kksa dh rjaxnS/;Z &
n1 = 3
1 1 1
= R 2 − 2 
λ 3 n2 
n 2 = 4,5,..., ∞
4. czsdsV Js.kh %&
tc e− , n 2 = 5,6,7,..., ∞ ls n1 = 4 ÅtkZ Lrj esa laØe.k djrk gS rks czsdsV Js.kh izkIr gksrh gSA
;g Js.kh LisDVªe ds pje vojDr Hkkx esa ikbZ tkrh gSA
blds fy, fofdj.kksa dh rjaxnS/;Z &
n1 = 4
1 1 1
= R 2 − 2
λ 4 n2 

122
 Quantum

Here n 2 = 5,6,7,8,..., ∞
5. Qq.M Js.kh %&
tc e− , n 2 = 6,7,8,..., ∞ ls n1 = 5 ÅtkZ Lrj esa laØe.k djrk gS rks Qq.M Js.kh izkIr gksrh gSA
;g Js.kh LisDVªe ds pje vojDr Hkkx esa ikbZ tkrh gSA
blds fy, fofdj.kksa dh rjaxnS/;Z &
n1 = 5
1 1 1
= R 2 − 2
λ 5 n2 
Here n 2 = 6,7,8,..., ∞
 Ýsad&gV~Zt iz;ksx (Frank-Hertz Experiment) :-

fp=kuqlkj&dk¡p dh ,d uyh esa Hg xSl (ok”i) yh tkrh gSA bl uyh ds ,d fljs ij Cathode yxk
gksrk gSA ftlls rkik;fud mRltZu }kjk e− izkIr fd, tkrs gSA blds fy, dSFkksM ds lkFk fQykesaV yxk
gksrk gSA
uyh ds nwljs fljs ij laxzkgd IysV yxh gksrh gSA
dSFkksM C rFkk laxzkgd IysV P ds e/; ,d Grid yxk gksrk gSA ftls Cathode ds lkis{k /kukRed foHko V
ij j[kk tkrk gSA /kkjk dk eku Kkr djus ds fy, ifjiFk esa ,d vehVj yxk gksrk gSA
 dSFkksM C ls rkik;fud mRltZu }kjk izkIr e− /kukosf’kr fxzM dh vksj xfr djrs gS rks bldh xfrt
1
ÅtkZ esa o`f) mV 2 = eV1 gksrh gSA
2
tc e− dSFkksM ls fxzM dh vksj Rofjr gksrs gSA rks Hg ok”i ds lkFk Vdjkrs gSA
;fn VDdj iw.kZr;k izR;kLFk gksrh gSA rks fdlh Hkh izdkj dh ÅtkZ dh gkfu ugha gksrhA
Blfy, fxzM rkj ij igq¡pus okys e− dh ÅtkZ eV gksrh gSA lHkh e− tks fxzM rd igq¡ps laxzkgd IysV rd
igq¡p tkrs gSA ftlds QyLo:i ifjiFk esa /kkjk izokfgr gksrh gSA
ijarq ;fn VDdj vizR;kLFk gks rks e− dh ÅtkZ esa dqN gkfu gksrh gSA ftlds dkj.k fxzM ij igq¡pus okys
e − dh ÅtkZ eV ls dqN de gks tkrk gSA
 iz;ksx esa foHkokUrj V dks ‘kwU; ls /khjs&/khjs c<krs gS vkSj vehVj }kjk ifjiFk esa izokfgr /kkjk dk eku
Kkr dj ysrs gSaA
Hg ds fy, dqN izk;ksfxd ifj.kke fuEu gSA

123
 Quantum

Result : -
izkjaHk esa V dk eku c<kus ij /kkjk I dk eku c<+rk gSA ijarq 4.9 V ij /kkjk dk eku ,dne ls fxjus
yxrk gSA D;ksafd Hg ijek.kq ds ewy ÅtkZ Lrj ,oa izFke ÅtkZ Lrj ds e/; 4.9 eV gksrk gSA vr% tc e− dh
ÅtkZ 4.9 eV ls de gksrh gSA rks VDdj iw.kZr; izR;kLFk gksrh gSA ijarq e− dh ÅtkZ 4.9 eV gksus ij Hg ds ÅtkZ
Lrjksa esa e− VDdj }kjk Hg ijek.kqvksa dks ÅtkZ LFkkukUrfjr dj ewy&Lrj ls izFke ÅtkZ Lrj esa loafer dj
nsrk gSA vr% e− eand foHko
∆V = V − V0
dks ikj dj laxzkgd IysV rd igq¡pus esa vlQy jgrs gSaA V dk eku vkSj vf/kd c<+kus ij /kkjk ds
eku esa iqu% o`f) gksrh gSA ijarq 98 ij iqu% /kkjk ds eku esa fxjkoV vkrh gSA
 tc e− dSFkksM o fxzM ds e/; vk/kh nwjh r; djrk gS rks os 4.9 eV ÅtkZ izkIr dj ysrs gSaA
,oa nksuksa ds e/; dh izFke vk/kh nwjh r; dj viuh ÅtkZ ogha [kks nsrs gSaA
vkSj f}rh; vk/kh nwjh esa 4.9 eV ÅtkZ iqu% izkIr dj ysrs gSaA
fxzM ds ikl Hg ijek.kq ls Vdjkdj ewy ÅtkZ Lrj ls izFke ÅtkZ Lrj esa laØfer dj nsrs gSaA
vr% bl iz;ksx ls fu”d”kZ fudyrk gS fd &
ijek.kq ds ÅtkZ Lrj fofoDr gksrs gSA
E eV ÅtkZ ds laxr fofdj.k dh rjax la[;k 1 / λ
1 υ hυ
= =
λ c hc
1 E
⇒ =
λ hc
If E= 1 eV
1 1eV
∴ =
λ hc
1
⇒ = 8065cm −1 (lS)kfUrd eku)
λ
 xksyh; lefer foHko ds fy, JksfMaxj leh- (H-atom) :-
og foHko tks fLFkfr ij fuHkZj djs rFkk dks.kh; funsZ’kkadks θ o φ ij ugha] xksyh; laefer foHko
dgykrk gSA

v → v(r)
,sls foHko ds fy, xfr’khy m nzO;eku ds d.k ds fy, JksfMaxj leh-

124
 Quantum

-ve Potential dk mean – Bound State ls gksrk gSA

 
 2m
( ) 
∇ 2 ψ (r) + 2 E − V(r) ψ (r) = 0

tgk¡ E = d.k dh dqy ÅtkZ gSA

rFkk ψ (r) = d.k dk fLFkfr rjax Qyu gSA
ge tkurs gS fd &
ijek.kq ds ukfHkd esa fLFkfrt ÅtkZ &
kq1q 2
V (r) =
r
k(ze)(− e)
=
r
− kze 2
=
r
For H-atom –

Z= 1
− ke 2
So, v(r) =
r
 ∂  h 2h3 ∂ 
1 ∂  h1 h 3 ∂  ∂  h1 h 2 ∂  
∇2 =   +  +  
 ∂u 1  h 1 ∂u 1  ∂u 2  h 2 ∂u 2  ∂u 3  h 3 ∂u 3  
h1 h 2 h 3
,dy e− ds nzO;eku ds cjkcj m nzO;eku gksrk gSA
vr% mijksDr JksfMaxj leh- esa ∇ 2 ykIykfl;u ladkjd dgykrk gSA ftldk dkrhZ; funsZ’k ra= esa eku
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇2 = + +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
xksyh; funsZ’k ra= esa eku&

125
 Quantum

1 ∂  2 ∂ 1 ∂  ∂ 1 ∂2
∇2 =  r  +  sin θ ⋅  + ⋅
r 2 ∂r  ∂r  r 2 sin θ ∂θ  ∂θ  r 2 sin 2 θ ∂φ 2
vr% xksyh; funsZ’k ra= esa JksfMaxj leh-
1 ∂  2 ∂ 1 ∂  ∂ 1 ∂2  2m
r +
 r 2 ∂r  ∂r  r 2 sin θ ∂θ  sin θ  + 2 
ψ (r, θ, φ) + 2 [ E − V(r) ] ψ (r, θ, φ) = 0 ...(1)
 ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ 
2 2


 ψ (r, θ, φ) = R(r)θ(θ)φ(φ)
pj i`FkDdj.k fof/k ls &
θ(θ)φ(φ) ∂  2 ∂R(r)  R(r)φ(φ) ∂  ∂θ(θ) 
r + 2 sin θ ⋅ 
r 2
∂r  ∂r  r sin θ ∂θ  ∂θ 
R(r)θ(θ) ∂ 2 φ(φ) 2m 
+ 2 2 ⋅ + 2 (E − V(r))R(r)θ(θ)φ(φ) = 0
r sin θ ∂φ 2

mijksDr leh- (1) esa ψ (r, θ, φ) rhu pj r, θ, φ dk Qyu gSA vr% mijksDr leh- dks Solve djus ds fy,
pj i`FkDdj.k fof/k dk mi;ksx djrs gSaA

ψ (r, θ, φ) f=T; pj R(r) ,oa dks.kh; pj (θ, φ) esa i`Fkd&i`Fkd djus ij

ψ (r, θ, φ) = R(r)θ(θ)φ(φ)
R(r)θ(θ)φ(φ) dk Hkkx nsus ij
∂  2 ∂R(r)  ∂  ∂θ(θ)  1 ∂ 2 φ(φ) 2m
+ 2 [ E − V(r) ] = 0
1 1
⋅  r  + sin θ ⋅  + ⋅
R(r)r 2 ∂r  ∂r  θ(θ)r 2 sin θ ∂θ  ∂θ  φr 2 sin 2 θ ∂φ 2 
r 2 sin 2 θ dk xq.kk djus ij
r 2 sin 2 θ ∂  2 ∂R(r)  r 2 sin 2 θ ∂  ∂θ(θ)  1 ∂ 2 φ(φ) 2m
 r  + sin θ ⋅ + + 2 [ E − V(r) ] r 2 sin 2 θ = 0
R(r)r 2 ∂r  ∂r  θ(θ)r 2 sin θ ∂θ  ∂θ  φ ∂φ 2 
sin 2 θ ∂  2 ∂R(r)  sin θ ∂  ∂θ(θ)  2m −1 ∂ 2 φ(φ)
⇒
R(r) ∂r 
 r  +
∂r  θ(θ) ∂θ 
sin θ  +
∂θ   2
[ E − V(r) ] r 2
sin 2
θ =
φ ∂φ 2
...(2)

leh- (2) dk R.H.S. dsoy φ dk Qyu gSA r rFkk θ dk ughaA

vr% nksuksa i{kksa fdlh fu;rkad ds cjkcj gksxsaA
ekuk og fu;rkad m 2 ds cjkcj gksxkA
−1 ∂ 2 φ(φ)
= + m 2 ...(3)
φ ∂φ 2
(3) → (2)
sin θ ∂  2 ∂R(r)  sin θ ∂ 
2
∂θ(θ)  2m
r
R(r) ∂r 
+
∂r  θ(θ) ∂θ 
sin θ ⋅ +
∂θ   2
[E − V(r)] r 2 sin 2 θ = m2
sin 2 θ dk Hkkx nsus ij
1 ∂  2 ∂R(r)  ∂  ∂θ(θ)  2m m 2
[ ]
1
 r  + ⋅ sin θ  + E − V(r) r 2
=
R(r) ∂r  ∂r  θ(θ)sin θ ∂θ  ∂θ   2 sin 2 θ
1 ∂  2 ∂R(r)  2m m 2 1 ∂  ∂θ 
⇒ r  + 2 [ E − V(r) ] r − − sin θ 
2
 ...(4)
R(r) ∂r  ∂r   sin θ θ(θ)sin θ ∂θ 
2
∂θ 
leh- (4) dk L.H.S. dsoy r dk Qyu gS θ dk ughaA

126
 Quantum

vr% leh- (4) dk L.H.S. o R.H.S. i`Fkd&i`Fkd fdlh fu;rkad ds cjkcj gksxsaA
1 ∂  2 ∂R(r)  2m
R(r) ∂r 
r +
∂r   2
[E − V(r)] r 2 = ( + 1)
∂  2 ∂R(r)   2m 
⇒ r + (E − V(r))r 2 − ( + 1)  R(r) = 0 ...(5)
∂r  ∂r    2 
And
m 2 1 ∂  ∂θ(θ) 
− sin θ ⋅  = ( + 1)
sin 2 θ θ(θ)sin θ ∂θ  ∂θ 
θ(θ) dk xq.kk
 m 2  1 ∂  ∂θ(θ) 
 2 − ( + 1)  θ(θ) − sin θ ⋅ =0 ...(6)
 sin θ  sin θ ∂θ  ∂θ 
leh- (3), (5) o (6) f=T; o dks.kh; ?kVdksa esa i`Fkd&i`Fkd lehdj.ksa gSA
ftudk gy ge fuEu izdkj fudkysxsaA
leh- (3) dk gy (Sol of φ )
∂ 2 φ(φ)
= −φm 2
∂φ 2
∂ 2 φ(φ)
⇒ + m 2 φ = 0
∂φ 2
⇒ φ(φ) = Ae ± im2 φ ...(7)
m  ds –ve rFkk +ve eku nksuks laHko gSA
vr% dsoy /kukRed eku ysus ij
φ(φ) = Aeim φ
;gk¡ A = izlkekU;hd`r fu;rkad
ftldk gy izlkekU;hdj.k dh ‘krZ ls fudkyrs gSA
2π

∫ φ φ dφ = 1
*

0
2π

∫ Ae
− im  φ
⇒ ⋅ Aeim φ dφ = 1
0
2π

∫ dφ = 1
2
⇒ A
0

⇒ A (2π ) = 1
2

1
⇒ A=
2π
1
i.e. φ(φ) = eim φ ...(8)
2π
lhekUr izfrcU/kksa ds vuqlkj φ ,dyekuh rFkk vkofr Qyu gksuk pkfg,A
vr% φ ds eku esa 2π ifjorZu djus ij φ dk eku vifjofrZr gksuk pkfg,A

127
 Quantum

vr% φ(φ) = φ(φ + 2 π )

for S-orbital  = 0 (BCZ S orbital has spherical structure)
;gk¡ m  ,d ?kw.kZu jkf’k gSA
m  dk eku m  = 0, ±1, ±2,...
leh- (5) dk gy (Sol. Of r ) :-
∂  2 ∂R(r)   2m 
r  +  2 (E − V(r))r − ( + 1)  R(r) = 0
2

∂r  ∂r    
mijksDr leh- dk gy  = 0 j[kdj izkIr fd;k tk ldrk gSA D;ksafd ;gk¡ foHko V(r) ,d lefer
foHko gksrk gSA
vr% rjax Qyu ψ (r) = R(r)
xksyh; lefefr esa izkIr gksrk gSA
∂R(r) 2 ∂ 2 R(r)  2mr 2 
2r +r +  2 {E − V(r)} R(r) = 0
∂r ∂r 2
  
− ke 2
 V(r) = for H-atom
r
⇒ By dividing r 2
2r ∂R(r) r 2 ∂ R ( r )  2mr 2 
2

⇒ 2 + 2 +  2 2 {E − V(r)} R(r) = 0
r ∂r r ∂r 2
r 
∂ 2 R(r) 2 ∂R(r)  2m  ke 2 
⇒ + +  2 E +  R(r) = 0 ...(9)
∂r r ∂r   r 
ekuk leh- (9) dk gy
R(r) = e −αr ...(10)
vr% leh- (9) mijksDr Qyu dks larq”V djsxkA
(10) → (9)
2  2m  ke 2  −αr
(−α ) 2 e −αr + (−α )e −αr +  2 E +  e = 0
r   r 
 2α 2m  ke 2   −αr
⇒ α 2 − + 2 E + e = 0
 r   r  
∴ e −αr ≠ 0
2d 2m  ke 2 
∴ α2 − + 2 E + =0
r   r 
2mE 2α ke 2 2m
⇒ α2 + 2
= − . ...(11)
 r r 2
2mE 2 kme 2 
⇒ α 2 + 2 = α − 2 
 r  
2mE
∴ α2 + 2 = 0


128
 Quantum

mijksDr leh- ds L.H.S. esa r ugha gS rFkk r ds lHkh ekuksa ds fy, mijksDr leh- dk eku lrr gksxkA
blds fy, vko’;d gS fd nksuksa i{k fdlh ,d fu;rkad ds cjkcj gksA
ekuk nksuksa i{k i`Fkd&i`Fkd ‘kwU; ds cjkcj gSA
2mE
α2 + = 0
2
−2mE
⇒ α2 =
2
−α 2  2
⇒ E=
2m
2
 2  kme 2 
⇒ E=  
2m   2 
− k 2 me 4
⇒ E= ...(12)
2 2
2 kme 2 
rFkk α − 2  = 0
r  
kme 2
⇒ α= = a0 ...(13)
2
=0 ds fy, →
m → − − + 
;gk¡ a 0 = cksj dh izFke d{kk dh f=T;k
leh- (12) tks fd cksj dh izFke ÅtkZ Lrj dh ÅtkZ dk eku gSA ;g H-ijek.kq ds fy, fuEure ÅtkZ
Lrj dh ÅtkZ dgykrh gSA (ewy&voLFkk ÅtkZ)
 H- ijek.kq ds fy, n = 1 o n = 2 voLFkkvksa ds laxr rjax Qyu %&
H- ijek.kq ds fy, rjax Qyu fuEu gksrk gSA
ψ (r, θ, φ) = R n (r)y m (θ, φ)
R n  (r) -f=T;k ?kVd dgykrk gS tks dsoy n o  ds eku ij fuHkZj djrk gS vkSj O;kid :i esa bldk
eku
(2n + )
R n (r) = e − r / r0 ( re → min radius)
3
r
0

y m (θ, φ) -dks.kh; ?kVd dgykrk gSA tks dsoy (θ, φ) ij fuHkZj djrk gSA bldk O;kid eku
y m (θ, φ) = N m Pm (cos θ)
ewy voLFkk ds fy, n = 1,  = 0
(2.1 + 0)
R10 (r) = e − r / r0
3
r
0

2
= e − r / r0
3
r0

y m = y 0m = y 00 = N 00 P0 (cos θ)

129
 Quantum

1
y 00 =
4π
∴ ψ100 = R10 ψ 00
If n = 3 rks  = 2,1,0
m  = (2 + 1)
If  = 2 ⇒ m  = 5 ⇒ ±2, ±1,0
2 − r / r0
= e
r03
1
ψ100 = e − r / r0
πr 3
0

;g H-atom ds fy, ewy&voLFkk rjax Qyu dgykrk gSA

⇒ n = 2 ds fy, &
= 0
m= 0

R 20 =
{2.2 + 0} ⋅ e− r / r 0

r03
4
= e − r / r0
3
r0

y m = y 00 = N 00 ⋅ P00 (cos θ)
1
⇒ y 00 =
4π
ψ 200 = R 20 ⋅ y00
4 − r / r0 1
= e ⋅
r03 4π
2
⇒ y 200 = ⋅ e − r / r0
rπ
3
0

 dks.kh; Qyu vody leh- dk gy rFkk xksyh; gkeksZfuDl %&

leh- (6) ls&
1 ∂  ∂θ   m 2 
sin θ  + ( + 1) − 2  ⋅ θ = 0 ...(1)
sin θ ∂θ  ∂θ   sin θ 
Let x = cos θ
H-atom → ystsUMª
Harmonic → gjekbV
∂x
= − sin θ
∂θ
∂θ ∂θ ∂x
 = ⋅
∂θ ∂x ∂θ

130
 Quantum

∂θ ∂θ
⇒ = {− sin θ} ⋅ ...(2)
∂θ ∂x
1 ∂ ∂
⇒ ⋅ = − ...(3)
sin θ ∂θ ∂x
From (1) and (3)
−∂  ∂θ   m 2 
sin θ ⋅ ( − sin θ ) ⋅ +
   (  + 1) − θ = 0
∂x  ∂x   sin 2 θ 
∂  2 ∂θ   m 2 
⇒ sin θ ⋅  + ( + 1) − 2  ⋅ θ = 0 ...(3)
∂x  ∂x   sin θ 
∂  ∂θ   m 2 
⇒
∂x 
( 2
)
 1 − cos θ ⋅  + ( + 1) − 2  θ = 0
∂x   sin θ 
∂  ∂θ   m 2 
⇒
∂x 
( 2
)
 1 − x ⋅  + ( + 1) − 2  θ = 0
∂x   sin θ 
∂θ ∂ 2θ  m2 
⇒ −2x ⋅ + (1 − x 2 ) 2 + ( + 1) − 2  θ = 0
∂x ∂x  sin θ 
∂θ
2
∂θ  m2 
⇒ (1 − x 2 ) 2 − 2x ⋅ + ( + 1) − 2  θ = 0 ...(4)
∂x ∂x  sin θ 
mijksDr leh- ystsUMsª vody dgykrh gSA
ftldk gy ystsUMª cgqin ds :i esa gksxkA
θ(θ) = N m Pm (cos θ)
Pm → ystsUMsª cgqin
Here N m → izlkekU;hdj.k fu;rkad gS] ftldk eku izlkekU;hdj.k dh ‘krZ ls fudkyrs gSA
n

∫ θ * (θ).θ(θ)sin θ ⋅ dθ = 1
0
1
 (2 + 1)( − m)  2
N m = (−1)   , m≥0
m

 2( + m) 
 ( 2 + 1) ( − m ) 
⇒ N m =  , m<0
 2( + m ) 
 ds izR;sd eku ds fy, m  ds (2 + 1) eku laHko gS tks fd − ls + rd gksrs gSA
y m (θ, φ) = θ(0) ⋅ φ(φ)
e ± imφ
y m (θ, φ) = H m Pm (cos θ) ⋅
2π
bls xksyh; gkeksZfudl dgrs gSA
 cksj dh laxrrk dk fl)kUr %&
bl fl)kUr ds vuqlkj DokUVe la[;k (n) ds o`gr ekuksa ds fy, DokUVe ;kaf=dh ds ifj.kke rFkk
fpjlEer ;kaf=dh ds ifj.kke lfUudV gksrs gSA
131
 Quantum

bUgsa fuEu nks mnk- }kjk le>k tkrk gSA

1. cksj ds vuqlkj e − dsoy mUgha d{kkvksa esa pDdj yxkrs gS ftuesa budk dks.kh; laosx  dk iw.kZ xq.kt
gksrk gSA vr% fpjlEer ;kaf=dh ds vuqlkj
L = mvr = n ...(1)
DokUVe ;kaf=dh ds vuqlkj &
L= ( + 1)
−
e dk fdlh d{kk esa dks.kh; laosx dgykrk gSA
 - iwjs ra= dk dks.kh; laosx
 − ,d e − dks dks.kh; laosx
eq[; DokUVe la[;k n okyh voLFkk ds fy,  dk vf/kdre eku (n − 1) gks ldrk gSA
 max = (n − 1)
∴ L= (n − 1)(n − 1 + 1) 
= n(n − 1) 
= n2 − n 
1
= n 1 −
n
n ds o`gn ekuksa ds fy, n >> m
∴  = n ...(2)
leh- (1), (2) ds rqY; gSA vFkkZr~ n ds o`gn ekuksa ds fy, fpjlEer o DokUVe ;kaf=dh ds ifj.kke esy
[kkrs gSA
2. tc e − mPp ÅtkZ Lrj ls fuEu ÅtkZ Lrj esa laØe.k djrk gSA rks hυ ÅtkZ dk QksVksu mRlftZr djrk
gSA
DokUVe fl)kUr ds vuqlkj &
e − dh fdlh ÅtkZ Lrj n esa ÅtkZ dk eku
− mk 2 z 2 e 4
En =
2n 2  2
− mk 2 z 2 e 4
E n −1 =
2(n − 1) 2  2
1
mk 2 z 2 e 4 1 
E n − E n −1 =  n 2 − (n − 1) 2 
2 2
 
+ mk z e  2n − 1 
2 2 4
⇒ hυ =  n 2 (n − 1) 2 
2 2  
n → o`gn eku ds fy,
2n − 1 ≈ 2n
(n − 1) ≈ n
mk 2 z 2 e 4 2n
υ= ⋅ 2 2
2h 2
n ⋅n

132
 Quantum

mk 2 z 2 e 4
⇒ υ=
h 2 n 3
cksj ds izFke vfHkxzfgr ls&
mv 2 kze 2
= ...(1)
r r2
f}rh; vfHkxzfgr&
mvr = n ...(2)
(1)/(2)
mv 2 kze 2
= 2
r × mvr r (n)
kze 2
⇒ v=
n
 v = rω
rFkk ω = 2πυ
∴ v = 2πυ ⋅ r
kze 2
∴ 2πυr =
n
kze 2
⇒ υ=
(n)(2πr)
n 2 2
 r=
kze 2 m
kze 2 × kze 2 m
∴ υ=
n ⋅ 2π × n 2  2
mk 2 e 4 z 2
⇒ υ=
h
n3 ⋅ ⋅ 2π ⋅  2
2π
mk 2 e 4 z 2
⇒ υ= (**)
n 32 h
leh- (*) o (**) ijLij rqY; gSA vFkkZr~ n ds o`gn~ ekuksa ds fy, fpjlEer o DokUVe ;kaf=dh ds
ifj.kke ijLij esy [kkrs gSA
 LVuZ&xysZd iz;ksx rFkk bySDVªkWu fLiu (izpØ.k) %&
bl iz;ksx dh lgk;rk ls ijek.kq dk pqacdh; vk?kw.kZ Kkr fd;k tk ldrk gSA
fl)kUr %&
;g iz;ksx bl fl)kUr ij vk/kkfjr gS fd tc ijek.kqvksa dks vleku pqacdh; {ks= es j[kk tkrk gS rks
ml ij cy yxrk gS ftlds dkj.k ijek.kq dk vkdkj fopfyr gks tkrk gSA
fopfyr iFk dk eku Kkr dj ijek.kq dk pqacdh; vk?kw.kZ Kkr dj ysrs gSA
cksj ds vuqlkj e− ukfHkd ds pkjksa vksj o`Ùkkdkj d{kk esa pDdj yxkrs gSA bu d{kkvksa esa ifjØe.k
djrk gqvk e− /kkjkokgh ywi ds rqY; gksrk gSA ;fn e− r f=T;k dh o`Ùkkdkj f=T;k esa v osx ls pDdj
yxkrk gS rks /kkjk

133
 Quantum

q − eV
I= =
t 2πr
Dis tan ce 2πr 2πr
[ v = = ⇒t= ]
time t v
pqcdh; vk?kw.kZ M = IA
− eV
⇒ M= ⋅ πr 2  A = πr 2 
2πr
− eVr
⇒ M=
2
m dk xq.kk Åij] uhps djus ij
− evr m
M=
2 m
− e(mvr)
⇒ M=
2m
− eL
⇒ M= (dks.kh; laosx L = mvr)
2m

 L
⇒ M = −µ B

e
;gk¡ µB = = 9.27 × 10−24 J / Tesla = cksj esXusVkWu
2m
 
− ve fpUg dk vFkZ → M o L dh foijhr fn’kk
tc ijek.kq dks pqacdh; {ks= esa j[kk tkrk gS rks blds pqacdh; vk?kw.kZ ds dkj.k blesa fLFkfrt ÅtkZ dk
lap; gks tkrk gSA
 
U = −M ⋅ B [ U = W = − P, E ]
 
rFkk pqacdh; {ks= ds dkj.k yxus okyk cy F = −∇U
   
F = −∇(− M ⋅ B)
ifjorZu dsoy pqacdh; {ks= ds lkis{k fd;k tkrk gSA vr% cká pqacdh; {ks= esa ifjorZu djus ls cy
esa ifjorZu gksrk gSA
   
F = M(∇ ⋅ B)
cy ds rhuks fn’kkvksa esa ?kVd
∂B x
Fx = M x
∂x
∂B y
Fy = M y
∂y

134
 Quantum

fQykesaV & tks xeZ gks lds

∂B z
Fz = M z
∂z
Pkqacdh; {ks= dsoy z-fn’kk ds lkis{k ifjofrZr gks jgk gSA

∴ M z = M cosθ
∂B z
∴ Fz = M cos θ ⋅
∂z
 ∂B x ∂B y 
 =0= 
 ∂x ∂y 
,d leku pqacdh; {ks= ds fy,
∂B z
= 0
∂z
∴ Fz = 0
;fn ijek.kq vleku pqacdh; {ks= esa xfr djrk gS rks Fz dk eku ‘kwU; ugha gksxk vkSj og iFk ls
fopfyr gks tk,xkA iFk dk fopyu pqacdh; vk?kw.kZ M, pqacdh; {ks= esa izo.krk (∂Bz / ∂z ) ij fuHkZj
djrk gSA
ijek.kq dk fopyu Kkr dj M z dk ekiu dj ysrs gSaA
iz;ksx %&

bl iz;ksx esa fQykesaV dks xeZ dj pk¡nh dh /kkrq dks mPp nkc ij ok”i esa ifjofrZr fd;k tkrk gSA
bl ok”i dks nks fLyV& S1 o S2 ls xqtkjdj lekarj fdj.k iqat izkIr dh tkrh gS tks vleku pqacdh; {ks=
ls xqtjdj vius iFk ls fopfyr gks tkrh gSA
bl fdj.k iq¡t dks fopyu ds i’pkr~ B.Mh IysV (Screen) ij vkifrr djrs gSA
;s fdj.ksa fopyu ds i’pkr~ nks js[kkvksa ds :i esa IysV ij te tkrh gSA

135
 Quantum

Bl pqacdh; {ks= ds dkj.k bl fdj.k ij cy

∂B z
Fz = M z ...(1)
∂z
;fn ijek.kq z – fn’kk ds vuqfn’k  nwjh] v osx ls r; djrk gS rks  -nwjh r; djus esa yxk le;

t= ...(2)
v
fdj.k dk z-fn’kk ds vuqfn’k foLFkkiu&
U;wVu ds f}rh; fu;e ls &
1
S = ut + at 2
2
 u= 0 &S=z
1
∴ z = 0 + at 2
2
1 2
⇒ z = at ...(3)
2
U;wVu ds cy fu;e ls&
∂B z
F = ma = M z ⋅
∂z
∂B z M z
∴ a= ⋅ ...(4)
∂z m
(2),(4) → (3)
1 M z ∂B z  2
z=
2 m ∂z v 2
mijksDr leh- dh lgk;rk ls foLFkkiu dk eku Kkr dj pqacdh; f}/kzqo vk?kw.kZ dk eku Kkr fd;k tk
ldrk gSA
fpjlEer ;kaf=dh ds vuqlkj M z dk vf/kdre eku − M ls + M rd gks ldrk gSA
−M ≤ Mz ≤ M
LVuZ&xysZd iz;ksx esa pk¡nh ds ijek.kq ds fy, teko dsoy nks js[kkvksa ds :i esa gksrk gSA

vFkkZr~ ijek.kq ds iq¡t dk pqacdh; {ks= dh mifLFkfr esa nks js[kkvksa esa foHkDr gksuk e− ds pØh; vk?kw.kZ
dk f}d DokUVhdj.k dgykrk gSA
vr% dks.kh; laosx L z = m 
;gk¡ m  -pqacdh; DokUVe la[;k dgykrh gSA ftlds ( 2 + 1) eku laHko gS vFkkZr~  = 1 ds fy,&
m  = 3 eku laHko gSA tks fd − ls + vFkkZr~ −1 ls + 1 vFkkZr~ −1,0, +1 gksrs gSaA
 izpØ.k d{kk ;qXeu %&

136
 Quantum

e − ijek.kq esa d{kh; rFkk pØ.kh; xfr djrk gSA ftlds QyLo:i blesa d{kh; dks.kh; vk?kw.kZ o
pØ.k pqacdh; vk?kw.kZ mRiUu gksrk gSA ftlds QyLo:i buesa vU;ksu; fØ;k gksrh gSA bl vU;ksU; fØ;k
dks izpØ.k d{kk ;qXeu dgrs gSA
 tc e− ukfHkd ds pkjksa vksj xfr djrk gS rks bl vkHkklh xfr ds dkj.k pqacdh; {ks= Hkh mRiUu

gksrk gS ftldh fn’kk L ds lekuqikrh gksrh gSA mRiUu pqacdh; {ks= rFkk bySDVªku dh pØ.k xfr ds
dkj.k mRiUu pqacdh; vk?kw.kZ ds e/; vU;ksU; fØ;k gksrh gS vFkkZr~ paqcdh; {ks= dks.kh; laosx ds
lekuqikrh gksrh gSA

izpØ.k paqcdh; vk?kw.kZ µ s vkSj mRiUu pqacdh; {ks= ds e/; vU;ksu; fØ;k ds dkj.k e− vR;f/kd
fLFkfrt ÅtkZ izkIr dj ysrk gSA
 
∆E ∝ µ S ⋅ B

 − es  
Here µS = ⇒ µs ∝ s


∴ ∆ESL ∝ S.L
 
⇒ ∆ES⋅L = F(r) ⋅ S ⋅ L ...(2)
−
;gk¡ f (r) = fu;rkad gS] tks e dh xfr ls lacaf/kr gSA
1 1  kze 2 
f (r) =
2m 2 c 2 r  r 2 
We know that
  
J = L+S
  1
L ⋅ S =  J 2 − L2 − S2 
2
;gk¡
J 2 = j( j + 1) 2 = dqy dks.kh; laosx
L2 = ( + 1) 2
S2 = S(S + 1) 2
 1
L.S = [ j( j + 1) − ( + 1) − S(S + 1) ]  2 ...(1)
2
leh- (2) dk izR;k’kk eku
 
∆ES⋅L = f (r) ⋅ S ⋅ L ...(3)
(1) → (3)

137
 Quantum

2
∆ES⋅L = f (r) ⋅
2
[ j( j + 1) − ( + 1) − S(S + 1)] ...(4)

 + S,  || S
j= 
 − S,  || S
For S-orbital
= 0
So, j= S
So from equation (4)
2
∆ES.L = f (r) ⋅
2
[S(S + 1) − S(S + 1)]
⇒ ∆ES⋅L = 0
vFkkZr~  = 0 gksus ij e− dksbZ vfrfjDr ÅtkZ izkIr ugha djrkA
ftlds dkj.k ÅtkZ Lrj foHkkftr ugha gksrsA
;fn ≠ 0
1
And S= ±
2
1
1. If  || S ⇒ j =  +
2
+1
 S=
2
From equation(4)
2 1  1  1 1 
∆ES.L = f (r)   + 2    + 2 + 1 −  (  + 1) − 2  2 + 1 
 2 
 
2
1  3 3
= f (r) ⋅   +    +  − ( + 1) − 
2  2  2 4
2  2  3 3 2 3
= f (r) ⋅  + 2 + 2 + 4 −  −  − 4 
2
2
∆ES⋅L = f (r) ⋅ ( )
2
1
2. L.H.S. ⇒ j =  −
2
From (4)

2 1  1  1 1 
∆ES.L = f (r) ⋅   − 2    − 2 + 1 − ( + 1) + 2  − 2 + 1 
2 
 
2
1  1 1
= f (r) ⋅   −    +  − ( + 1) + 
2  2  2 4
2  2  Kl 1 1
= f (r) ⋅  − 2 + 2 − 4 −  −  + 4 
2

138
 Quantum

2
= f (r) ⋅
( − )
2
mijksDr ls Li”V gS fd tc  ≠ 0 gks rks e− vfrfjDr fLFkfrt ÅtkZ izkIr dj ysrk gS ftlds dkj.k
 ≠ 0 ÅtkZ Lrj nks ÅtkZ Lrjksa
 + 1
 2
j= 
 − 1
2
esa foHkDr gks tkrk gSA
tc L rFkk S lekarj gksrs gSa rks ml fLFkfr esa j =  + S gksrk gSA rFkk S = + 1 2 dh voLFkk esa mijksDr
fLFkfr 1 cu tkrh gSaA
ijarq L rFkk S izfr lekarj gksrs gSaA rc j =  − S gksrk gS tcfd S = + 1 2 gks rks
L || S
1
rks j=  −
2
2 1  1  1 1 
∴ ∆ES⋅L = f (r) ⋅   − 2    − 2 + 1 − ( + 1) − 2  2 + 1 
 2 
 
2
1 3
= f (r) ⋅  2 − −  2 −  − 
2  4 4
2

⇒ ∆ES.L = f (r) ⋅ (−  − 1)
2
vr% e− dh mu ÅtkZ Lrjksa esa varj vk,xk ftuds fy, n o  ds eku leku gksrs gq, Hkh j ds eku esa
Hkh varj vkrk gSA ftuds fy, n o  ds eku leku gksrs gq, Hkh j ds eku esa varj vk,xkA
n o  DokUVe la[;kvksa okyh izR;sd ÅtkZ Lrj nks ÅtkZ Lrjksa
 + 1
 2
j=  esa foHkDr gks tk,xhA
 − 1
2
−
bu ÅtkZ Lrjksa lsa e ds fuEu ÅtkZ Lrj ij laØe.k ls LisDVªeh js[kk esa f}js[kh; lajpuk izkIr gksrh
gSA ftls lw{e lajpuk dgrs gSA
mnk- &
Na ySEi ls izkIr ihys izdk’k esa nks LisDVªeh js[kk,¡ izkIr gksrh gS ftUgsa D1 o D 2 js[kk,¡ dgrs gSaA
;s js[kk,¡ 3p d{kd ls 3s d{kd esa laØe.k ds dkj.k izkIr gksrh gSA

139
 Quantum

 theku izHkko %&

cká pqacdh; {ks= dh mifLFkfr esa ÅtkZ Lrj viusmi ÅtkZ Lrj esa foHkDr gks tkrs gSA bl foHkktu
dks theku foikVu dgykrk gSA
;fn pq- {ks= esa ,d LisDVªeh js[kk] rhu js[kkvksa esa foHkDr gks tk, rks ;g lkekU; theku izHkko dgrs
gSA
;fn pqacdh; {ks= ds izHkko esa LisDVªeh js[kk] rhu ls vf/kd js[kkvksa esa foHkDr gks tk, rks ;g
vlkekU; theku izHkko dgykrk gSA
lkekU; theku izHkko rhoz pq- {ks= ds dkj.k gks tkrk gSA D;ksafd ;gk¡ pØ.k pqa- {ks= ‘kwU; ekuk tkrk
gSA
vr% bl izdkj ,d LisDVªeh js[kk rhu js[kkvksa esa foHkkftr gksrh gSA ftlesa ,d js[kk dh vko`fÙk] ewy
js[kk dh vko`fÙk ds cjkcj ( π - ?kVd), nwljh js[kk dh vko`fÙk] ewy js[kk ls vf/kd (σ + ?kVd) ,oa rhljh
js[kk dh vko`fÙk] ewy js[kk ls de ( σ − ?kVd) gksrh gSA ;s nksuksa js[kk,¡ ewy vko`fÙk dh js[kk ls leku
nwjh ij fLFkr gksrh gSA bls lkekU; theku izHkko dgrs gSaA
 tc ijek.kq esa e− d{kh; xfr djrk gS rks d{kh; paqcdh; vk?kw.kZ µ L mRiUu gks tkrk gSA ftlds
dkj.k e− dk d{kh; dks.kh; laosx
− eL
µL = …(1)
2m
bl ?kw.kZu ds dkj.k e− esa vfrfjDr ÅtkZ (fLFkfrt ÅtkZ) mRiUu gks tkrh gSA ftldk eku
 
U = −µ L ⋅ B …(2)
(1) → (2)

eL 
U= B
2m

[ B = Bzˆ ]

eB  eB 
∴ U= L ⋅ zˆ = L ⋅ zˆ
2m 2m

If L ⋅ zˆ = L z
eB
∴ U= Lz
2m
( L z = m   )

140
 Quantum

eBm  
U=
2m
 
e
= 
 2m 
Bm 

U = µ B ⋅ Bm 
e
Here µB = = cksj eSXusVkWu = 9.27 × 10−24 J / Tesla
2m
 mijksDr leh- ls Li”V gS fd pqacdh; fLFkfrt ÅtkZ dk eku m ij fuHkZj djrk gSA vr%  ds
laxr m ds (2 + 1) eku laHko gksrs gSA tks fd − ls + rd gksrs gSA
  ds eku ÅtkZ Lrjksa dks tcfd m ds eku mi&ÅtkZ Lrjksa dks O;Dr djrs gSA
For Ex.
;fn mPp ÅtkZ Lrj P-d{kd rFkk fuEu ÅtkZ Lrj S-d{kd gksA

Dok.Ve ;kaf=dh ds vuqlkj e− dsoy mUghsa ÅtkZ Lrjksa esa laØe.k djrk gS ftuds fy, ∆m dk eku
0, ±1 gksrk gS ogh laØe.k vuqer gksrs gS bUgsa o.kZ fu;e dgrs gSA
 vkf.od LisDVªksLdksih%&
vkf.od LisDVªksLdksih ds vfHkyk{kf.kd xq.k %&
(i) v.kqvksa ds mRltZu ls izkIr LisDVªe vkf.od LisDVªe dgykrs gSaA ;g LisDVªe lrr~ cS.M :i esa izkIr
gksrs gSaA blfy, bUgsa cS.M LisDVªe Hkh dgrs gSaA
(ii) vkf.od LisDVªe esa vusd js[kk,¡ izkIr gksrh gSaA ;s js[kk,¡ mPp rjaxnS/;Z dh gksrh gS ,o ikl&ikl
ik;h tkrh gS rFkk budh rhozrk vf/kd gksrh gSA vr% ;g cS.M :i /kkj.k dj ysrh gSA bl cS.M ds fdukjs
dks cS.M ‘kh”kZ dgrs gSA
(iii) ,d cS.M cuus ds ckn fu;fer varjky ds ckn nwljk cS.M izkIr gksrk gSA vr% vkf.od LiSDVªe
cS.M lewgksa ds :i esa izkir gksrk gSA

141
 Quantum

(iv) vkf.od LisDVªe dh O;k[;k djus ds fy, ;g ekuk x;k fd v.kqvksa dh vkarfjd ÅtkZ DokUVhd`r
gksrh gSA rFkk mlds fHkUu&fHkUu ÅtkZ Lrj gksrs gSaA v.kqvksa esa ÅtkZ LFkkukUrj.k ÅtkZ ds vfrfjDr rhu
vU; ÅtkZvksa ds :i esa Hkh izkIr gksrh gSA
(I) ?kw.khZ ÅtkZ ( 10−3 eV yxHkx)
(II) dEiUu ÅtkZ ( 10−1 eV yxHkx)
(III) bySDVªkWfud ÅtkZ (5eV yxHkx)
bu rhuksa ÅtkZvksa ds laxr rhu izdkj ds ÅtkZ Lrj gksrs gSaA

 ?kw.khZ LisDVªk (n`<+ ?kw.khZ)%&

n`<+ ?kw.khZ v.kqvksa esa ?kw.kZu ÅtkZ Lrjksa ds e/; gkssus okys laØe.kksa ls ?kw.khZ LisDVªk izkIr gksrs gSaA ;s ?kw.khZ
LisDVªk lw{e rjax {ks= (10−4 − 10−1 m) esa ik, tkrs gSaA
 LFkk;h f}/kzqo vk?kw.kZ okys v.kq tSls & H 2 ,CO 2 ,CH 4 vkfn fo|qr pqacdh; fofdj.kksa ls vU;ksU; fØ;k
dk Loa; dh ?kw.kZu xfr dks mÙksftr dj ysrs gSaA ftlls v.kq ?kw.kZu ÅtkZ Lrj esa laØe.k dj QksVksu
dk mRltZu vFkok vo’kks”k.k djrk gSA ftlls ?kw.khZ LisDVªe izkIr gksrs gSaA
 n`<+ ?kw.kZd %&
;fn nks ijek.kq fdlh fuf’pr nwjh ij fLFkr gksdj v.kq dk fuekZ.k djs rFkk ;g fudk; ijek.kqvksa dks
feykus okyh js[kk ds yacor~ rFkk nzO;eku dsUnz ls xqtjus okys v{k ds lkis{k Lora= xfr djs rks ,slk
fudk; n`<+ ?kw.kZu dgykrk gSA
fp=kuqlkj &

142
 Quantum

nks ijek.kq ftudk nzO;eku m1 o m 2 gSA ,d&nwljs ls r nwjh ij fLFkr gSA ,oa budh nwjh nzO;eku dsUnz
ls Øe’k% r1 o r2 gSA vr%
r = r1 + r2 …(1)
nzO;eku dsUnz ds xq.k/keZ ls&
m1r1 = m 2 r2
m 2 r2
⇒ r1 = …(2)
m1
m 2 r2
∴ r= + r2
m1
m 
=  2 + 1 r2
 m1 
m1r
⇒ r2 = …(3)
m1 + m 2
blh izdkj
m2 r
r1 = …(4)
m1 + m 2
vr% fudk; dk tM+Ro vk?kw.kZ
I = m1r12 + m 2 r22 …(5)
(3),(4) → (5)
 m 22 r 2   m12 r 2 
I = m1  2 
+ m 2  2 
 (m1 + m 2 )   (m1 + m 2 ) 
m1m 2
⇒ I= (m1 + m 2 )r 2
(m1 + m 2 ) 2

m1m 2
⇒ I= r2
(m1 + m 2 )
⇒ I = µr 2 …(6)
m1m 2
tgk¡ µ= = lekfur nzO;eku
m1 + m 2
vr% ?kw.kZu xfrt ÅtkZ
1 2
Iω
Er = …(7)
2
1 I2ω 2 1 J 2
Er = =
2 I 2 I
[ Angular momentum J = Iω ]
 n`<+ ?kw.khZ dk JkSfMaxj leh- dk vkbxsu eku %&
,d n`<+ ?kw.khZ v.kq esa varj ijek.kq nwjh fLFkj jgrh gSA (r = constant) vr% ?kw.kZu xfr esa v.kq dh
fLFkfrt ÅtkZ fLFkj jgrh gS vkSj og ?kw.kZu ij fuHkZj ugha djrh gS vkSj ljyrk ds fy, fLFkfrt ÅtkZ dk
eku ‘kwU; eku ldrs gSaA
143
 Quantum

vr% JkSfMaxj leh- ls &

2µ
∇2ψ +
2
[E − V(r)] ψ = 0 …(1)
xksyh; funsZ’k ra= ds fy,
ψ → ψ (r, θ, φ) − R(r)θ(θ)φ(φ) …(2)
1 ∂  2 ∂ 1 ∂  ∂ 1 ∂2
∇2 =  r  +  sin θ  + …(3)
r 2 ∂r  ∂r  r 2 sin θ ∂θ  ∂θ  r 2 sin 2 θ ∂φ 2
 r → constant
∂
⇒ = 0
∂r
& V(r) = 0 …(4)
J 2 j( j + 1) 2 h2
Er = = = 2 j( j + 1)
2I 2I 8 π ⋅ µr 2
R(r)θ(θ)φ(φ) dk Hkkx nsus o r 2 ls xq.kk djus ij
1 ∂  r 2 ∂R(r)  1 ∂  ∂θ(θ)  1 ∂ 2 φ(φ) 2µEr 2
+  sin θ ⋅  + + =0
R(r) ∂r  ∂r  θ(θ)sin θ ∂θ  ∂θ  sin θφ(φ) ∂φ 2
2
2
 r = constant
∂R(r)
So, = 0
∂r
1 ∂  ∂θ(θ)  1 ∂ 2 φ(φ) 2µr 2
 sin θ .  + + 2 E=0 …(5)
θ(θ)sin θ ∂θ  ∂θ  φ(φ) ⋅ sin 2 θ ∂φ 2 
leh- (5) ,d tkuk&igpkuk leh- gSA gkbMªkstu ijek.kq dh ÅtkZ x.kuk esa bl izdkj ds leh- mi;ksx
esa vkrs gSaA vr% leh- (5) esa ladkjd dks.kh; laosx gSA rjax Qyu xksyh; vko`fÙk rjax Qyu gSA vr%
bldk gy rHkh laHko gSA tc fLFkj in dk eku ,d fu;rkad gksA
2µr 2 E
ekuk = J (J+1)
2
 I = µr 2
J(J + 1) 2
Er = …(6)
2I
;gk¡ J = ?kw.kZu DokUVe la[;k dgykrh gSA
J = 0,1,2,…
rjax la[;k ds :i esa o.kZØe dks ns[kk tkrk gSA
1 E 2 1
= υ= r = J(J + 1)
λ hc 2I hc
2 1
= × ⋅ J(J + 1)
8π I hc
2

υ = BJ(J + 1)
= BJ(J + 1)

144
 Quantum

h
Here B= = ?kw.kZu fu;rkad
8π 2 IC
 f}ijek.kq v.kq esa ?kw.khZ ÅtkZ Lrj %&
ge tkurs gS fd f}ijek.kq v.kq dh ?kw.kZu ÅtkZ DokUVhd`r gksrh gSA vFkkZr~
2
Er = EJ = J(J + 1) …(7)
2I
D;ksafd J = 0,1,2,…ds vk/kkj ij fofoDr ?kw.kZu ÅtkZ Lrj izkIr fd, tk ldrs gS vFkkZr~
J=0 ⇒ E0 = 0
2 2
J =1 ⇒ E1 =
2I
6 2
J=2 ⇒ E2 =
2I
12 2
J=3 ⇒ E3 =
2I
vr% U;wure ?kw.khZ ÅtkZ Lrj J = 1 ij izkIr gksxkA bl izdkj
2
E J +1 = (J + 1)(J + 2) …(2)
2I
bl izdkj nks Øekxr ÅtkZ Lrjksa ds e/; ÅtkZ varjky
∆E J = E J +1 − E J
2
=
2I
[(J + 1)(J + 2) − J(J + 1)]
2
=
2I
[J + 2 − J ](J + 1)
2 2
∆E J = (J + 1)
2I
2
⇒ ∆E J = (J + 1)
I

 ?kw.kZu LiSDVªe %&

145
 Quantum

,d n`<+ ?kw.kZd ds ?kw.kZd ÅtkZ Lrjksa ds e/; laØe.k ls ?kw.kZu LiSDVªe izkIr gksrs gSA DokUVe ;kaf=dh ds
vuqlkj dsoy os gh vkf.od laØe.k vuqer gksrs gSA ftuds fy, ?kw.kZu DokUVe la[;k dk varj ±1 gksrk
gSA ;g vuqer laØe.kksa dk oj.k fu;e dgykrk gSA
vFkkZr~ vuqer laØe.kksa ds fy, oj.k fu;e &
∆J = ±1
vFkkZr~ ftuds fy, ∆J = −1 gksrk gSA os mRltZd LiSDVªk rFkk ftuds fy, ∆J = +1 gksrk gS] vo’kks”k.k
LiSDVªk dgrs gSA v.kqvksa esa vo’kks”k.k LisDVªk izkIr gksrs gS ftuesa QksVksu ÅtkZ varjky ∆E J dks cjkcj ÅtkZ
izkIr dj fuEu Lrj ls mPp Lrj esa laØe.k djrk gSA
2
∆E J = (J + 1) …(1)
I
rFkk rjax la[;k
υ = BJ(J + 1) …(2)
leh- (1) ds fy, rjax la[;k &
∆E J 2
υ= = (J + 1)
hc hIC
υ = 2B(J + 1)

 dEifud LiSDVªk %&

f}ijek.kq v.kq ds ÅtkZ nsus ij v.kq ca/k yackbZ ds yacor~ v{k ds izfr ?kw.kZu djus yxrk gSA ijarq ;fn
rki esa vR;f/kd o`f) dh tk, rks v.kq ds ijek.kqvksa ds e/; ca/ku cy <hys gks tkrs gSA vkSj v.kq ?kw.kZu
ds lkFk&lkFk dEiUu Hkh djus yxrk gSA
dEiUu ÅtkZ Kkr djus ds fy, ekuk v.kq esa m1 o m 2 nzO;eku ds nks ijek.kq ,d ca/k ls ca/ks gq, gSa
tks fLizax dh Hkk¡fr dk;Z djrk gSA ,oa ftldk cy fu;rkad µ gSA
f}ijek.kq v.kq esa ,d ijek.kq dk e− nwljs ijek.kq ds ukfHkd ls vkdf”kZr gksdj igys fudV vkrk gSA
ijarq ,d larqyu voLFkk esa ;fn muds e/; ,d fLFkj nwjh r0 gSA bl r0 ds i’pkr~ nksuksa ijek.kqvksa esa
izfrd”kZ.k cy ds dkj.k nwfj;k¡ vk tkrh gSA
ekuk fdlh {k.k dEiUu ds dkj.k ikjLifjd nwjh r gks tkrh gSA rks foLFkkiu x = r − r0 ,oa v.kq dk
lEekfur nzO;eku µ gks rks
m1m 2
µ=
m1 + m 2

146
 Quantum

vr% xfrt leh- ls &

F∝ x
⇒ F = − kx
2
md x
⇒ = − kx x → r − r0
dt 2
d 2 (r − r0 )
⇒ µ = − k(r − r0 )
dt 2
d 2 (r − r0 ) k
⇒ + (r − r0 ) = 0
dt 2 µ
d 2 (r − r0 )
⇒ + ω 2 (r − r0 ) = 0 …(1)
dt 2
leh- (1) ljy vko`rh nksfy= dk ,d leh- :i gSA ftldh vko`fÙk
n + 1
rFkk ÅtkZ E = ω 
k
ω=  …(2)
µ  2 
;gk¡ n = ,d DokUVe la[;k gSA ;fn ÅtkZ Lrjksa ds DokUVe la[;k v yh tk, rks dEifud ÅtkZ Lrj
 1
E v = ω  v + 
 2
 1  h 
⇒ E v = hυ  υ +  ω = ⋅ 2πυ 
 2  2 π 
;gk¡ υ = 0,1,2,…dEiUu DokUVe la[;k dgykrh gSA ftlds fy, ÅtkZ ds laHkkfor eku
hυ
v =0 ⇒ E0 =
2
3hυ
v =1 ⇒ E1 =
2
5hυ
v=2 ⇒ E2 =
2

147
 Quantum

 f}ijek.kq v.kq esa dEiUu ÅtkZ Lrj %&

f}DokUVe la[;k ds fy, ÅtkZ
 1
E υ = hυ  υ + 
 2
,oa v + 1 ds fy, dEiUu ÅtkZ
 3
E v +1 = hυ  υ + 
 2
vr% nksuksa ÅtkZ Lrjksa ds e/; varj
∆E v = E v +1 − E v
∆E v = hυ
bl izdkj dEifud ÅtkZ Lrjksa ds e/; varjky dEifud DokUVe la[;k ij fuHkZj ugha djrk ,oa
leLr ÅtkZ Lrjksa esa varjky leku ik;k tkrk gSA tc v.kq ds ÅtkZ Lrjksa esa laØe.k gksrk gSA rks ,d
le; esa ,d gh QksVkWu (hυ) dk mRltZu vFkok vo’kks”k.k gksrk gSA vFkkZr~ tc v.kq E v ÅtkZ Lrj esa
laØe.k djrk gS rks hυ ÅtkZ ds QksVkWu dk vo’kks”k.k djrk gS rks hυ QksVksu dk mRltZu djrk gSA bu
ÅtkZ Lrjksa esa laØe.k oj.k fu;e }kjk gksrk gSA
∆υ = ± 1
∆V = +1 vo’kks”k.k ds fy,
∆V = -1 mRltZu ds fy,

148
 Quantum

dEifud ÅtkZ Lrj dks rjax la[;k ds :i esa fy[kus ij

Ev
G(v) =
hc

=
( v + 12) hυ
hc
v+ 1 
=  2
 λ 
υ
 1
G(v) =  v + 
 2
vr% v ls v + 1 ds fy, izkIr LiSDVªeh js[kk dh rjax la[;k
= G(v + 1) − G(v)
 3  1
= υ v +  − υ v + 
 2  2
= υ
 dEiUu ?kw.kZu LisDVªe %&
tc v.kq dks vf/kd ÅtkZ nh tkrh gSA rks vojDr {ks= esa nzo ls izkIr LisDVªe ‘kq) dEifud LisDVªe
gksrs gSA ysfdu xSlh; o ok”ih; voLFkk esa dEiUu o ?kw.kZu nksuksa LisDVªe ik, tkrs gSaA bl voLFkk esa
izR;sd dEifud ÅtkZ Lrj ds lkFk vusd ?kw.kZu ÅtkZ Lrj Hkh tqM+ tkrs gSA ,oa dEifud ÅtkZ Lrj ds
?kw.kZu nwljs dEifud ÅtkZ Lrj ds ?kw.kZd ÅtkZ Lrjksa esa laØe.kksa ls vR;Ur ladqfyr LisDVªeh js[kk,¡ izkIr
gksrh gSA ;s js[kk,¡ dEiUu ?kw.kZu LisDVªeh js[kk cukrh gSA

 cksuZ vkSiu gesj %&

v.kq ds lefer dEiUu o ?kw.kZu xfr ls dqy ÅtkZ dh ?kw.kZu o dEiUu ÅtkZvksa dks ;ksx ds rqY; ekuk
tkrk gSaA
2  1
Ev = J(J + 1) + hυ  v + 
2I  2
bu ÅtkZ Lrjksa esa laØe.k ds fy, dEiUu o ?kw.kZu nksuksa ds oj.k fu;e ,d lkFk dke djrs gSA
vFkkZr~ V = 0 ls V = 1 ds ÅtkZ Lrjksa esa laØe.k fuEu izdkj gksxsaA

149
 Quantum

vFkkZr~ tc v.kq J ls J – 1ÅtkZ Lrj esa laØe.k djrk gS rks P – ‘kk[kk izkIr gksrh gSA ftldh vko`fÙk
hυ = E  ,J −1 - E 0,J
E  ,J −1 − E 0,J
υ=
h
 2
3   2 hυ 
 2I (J − 1)J + hυ  −  J(J + 1) + 
⇒ υp =  2   2I 2 
h
−2 J + hυ
2

2I hυ 2  2 J
= = −
h h 2Ih
2 J
⇒ υp = υ0 −
Ih
blh izdkj tc v.kq J – 1 ls J ÅtkZ Lrj esa laØe.k djrk gS ;k J ls (J+1) ÅtkZ Lrj esa laØe.k djrk
gS rks R- ‘kk[kk izkIr gksrh gS ftldh vko`fÙk
E  ,J +1 − E 0,J
υ=
h
2
υR = υ0 + J(J + 1)
2I
THE END

150
 TM

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8385-049-481 | 9782-958-100
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PHYSICS INSTITUTE JAIPUR Manav Ashram, Gopalpura Mode, Jaipur - 18 physicsinstitute@gmail.com
 TM

PHYSICS INSTITUTE
JAIPUR ....The Great Dream of Dreamers
Ph:8385049481,9782958100
Institute for IIT-JAM, CSIR-NET/JRF, JEST, GATE, TIFR & GRE In PHYSICS

IIT-JAM
CSIR NET/JRF
RPSC
SCHOOL
RPSC LECTURER
COLLEGE DU | CU
BHU
LECTURER Entrances

SUBSCRIBE
https://www.youtube.com/physicsinstitutejaipur

PHYSICS INSTITUTE JAIPUR

8385-049-481 | 9782-958-100
www.facebook.com/physicsinstitue Head Office: 2nd floor, krishna Towar, www.physicsinstitute.org
PHYSICS INSTITUTE JAIPUR Manav Ashram, Gopalpura Mode, Jaipur - 18 physicsinstitute@gmail.com