Chapter 6: 

Data Collection & Sampling Method

Objectives:

1.  Determine and develop data gathering instruments appropriate for the given problem.

2.  Define sampling and know the different methods of sampling.

3.  Differentiate population and sample.

4.  Determine the size of a sample and describe the characteristics of a good sample

Data collection tools refer to the devices/instruments used to collect data, such as a paper questionnaire or
computer-assisted interviewing system. Case Studies, Checklists, Interviews, Observation sometimes, and
Surveys or Questionnaires are all tools used to collect data.

Questionnaires The questionnaire is the main instrument for collecting data in survey research.
Basically, it is a set of standardized questions, often called items, which follow a fixed scheme in order to
collect individual data about one or more specific topics. Sometimes questionnaires are confused with
interviews.

Interviews are used to collect data from a small group of subjects on a broad range of topics. You can use
structured or unstructured interviews. Structured interviews are comparable to a questionnaire, with the
same questions in the same order for each subject and with multiple choice answers.

Focus Groups - is a market research method that brings together 6-10 people in a room to provide
feedback regarding a product, service, concept, or marketing campaign. ... Focus group participants are
recruited based on their purchase history, demographics, psychographics, or behavior and typically do not
know each other.

Observation   is a data collection method, by which you gather knowledge of the researched
phenomenon through making observations of the phenomena, as and when it occurs. There exist various
observation practices, and your role as an observer may vary according to the research approach.

The biggest advantage of observational research has already been noted: it enables businesses to observe
potential customers in a natural setting, which can reveal penetrating insights unavailable through other
methods such as focus groups and surveys.
 

Types of observational research 

 Complete Observer.
 Observer as Participant.
 Participant as Observer.
 Complete Participant.

Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of observations are
taken from a larger population. The methodology used to sample from a larger population depends on the
type of analysis being performed, but it may include simple random sampling or systematic sampling.

Sampling can be explained as a specific principle used to select members of population to be included in
the study. It has been rightly noted that “because many populations of interest are too large to work with
directly, techniques of statistical sampling have been devised to obtain samples taken from larger
populations.”

In other words, due to the large size of the target population, researchers have no choice but to study the a
number of cases of elements within the population to represent the population and to reach conclusions
about the population (see Figure 1 below).

Figure 1. Population, sample and individual cases

Brown (2006) summarizes the advantages of sampling in the following points:

a) Makes the research of any type and size manageable;

b) Significantly saves the costs of the research;

c) Results in more accurate research findings;

d) Provides an opportunity to process the information in a more efficient way;

e) Accelerates the speed of primary data collection.

The Process of Sampling in Primary Data Collection

 

The process of sampling in primary data collection involves the following stages:

1. Defining target population. Target populations represent specific segments within a wider population
that are best positioned to serve as a primary data source for the research. For example, for a dissertation
entitled ‘Impact of social networking sites on time management practices amongst university students in
the UK” target population would consist of individuals residing in the UK.

2. Choosing a sampling frame. Sampling frames can be explained as a list of people within the target
population who can contribute to the research. For a sample dissertation named above, the sampling
frame would be an extensive list of UK university students.

3. Determining sampling size. This is the number of individuals from the sampling frame who will
participate in the primary data collection process. The following observations need to be taken into
account when determining sample size:

a) The magnitude of sampling error can be diminished by increasing the sample size.

b) There are greater sample size requirements in survey-based studies than in experimental studies.

c) Large initial sample size has to be provisioned for mailed questionnaires, because the percentage of
responses can be as low as 20 to 30 per cent.

d) The most important factors in determining the sample size include subject availability and cost factors

For example, for the same research of ‘Impact of social networking sites on time management practices
amongst university students in the UK’ sample size could be determined to include 200 respondents.

4. Selecting a sampling method. This relates to a specific method according to which respondents are
going to be selected to participate in research.

5. Applying the chosen sampling method in practice.

Types of Sampling in Primary Data Collection

Sampling methods are broadly divided into two categories: probability and non-probability.
 

In probability sampling every member of population has a known chance of participating in the study.
Probability sampling methods include simple, stratified systematic, multistage, and cluster sampling
methods.

In non-probability sampling, on the other hand, sampling group members are selected on non-random
manner, therefore not each population member has a chance to participate in the study. Non-probability
sampling methods include purposive, quota, convenience and snowball sampling methods.

The Figure 2 below  illustrates specific sampling methods belonging to each category:

Figure 2. Categorization of sampling techniques

 
The following table illustrates brief definitions, advantages and disadvantages of sampling techniques:

Technique Definition/ Advantages Disadvantages

Explanation 

Random Sample group members are Highly effective if all High level of sampling error
selected in a random manner subjects participate in data when sample size is small
collection

Stratified Representation of specific Effective representation of Knowledge of strata

subgroup or strata all subgroups membership is required

Precise estimates in cases Complex to apply in

of homogeneity or practical levels
heterogeneity within strata

Systematic Including every Nth member of Time efficient High sampling bias if
population in the study periodicity exists
 

Cost efficient

Multistage Sampling conducted on several High level of flexibility at Complex to conduct

stages various levels
Impacted by limitations of
cluster and stratified
sampling methods

Cluster Clusters of participants Time efficient Group-level information

representing population are needs to be known
identified as sample group  
members Usually higher sampling
Cost efficient errors compared to
alternative sampling
methods

Judgement Sample group members are Time efficiency Unscientific approach

selected on the basis of
judgement of researcher    

Samples are not highly Personal bias

representative
Quota Sample group members are High level of reliability High level of subjectivity
selected on the basis of specific than random sampling
criteria  
Usually cost-effective
Difficult to estimate
sampling error

Convenience Obtaining participants High levels of simplicity Highest level of sampling

conveniently with no and ease error
requirements whatsoever
   

Usefulness in pilot studies Selection bias

Snowball Sample group members Possibility to recruit hidden Over-representation of a

nominate additional members
to participate in the study
population particular network
Reluctance of sample group
members to nominate
additional members

 
 

Methods of Sampling

Types of Sampling in Primary Data Collection

Technique Definition/ Explanation

Random Sample group members are selected in a random manner

Stratified Representation of specific subgroup or strata

Systematic Including every Nth member of population in the study

Multistage Sampling conducted on several stages

 
 

Characteristics of a Good Sample

A sample is a smaller, manageable version of a larger group. It is a subset containing the characteristics of
a larger population. Samples are used in statistical testing when population sizes are too large for the test
to include all possible members or observations. A sample should represent the whole population and not
reflect bias toward a specific attribute.

In basic terms, a population is the total number of individuals, animals, items, observation, data, etc. of
any given subject.

(1) Goal-oriented: A sample design should be goal oriented. It is means and should be oriented to the
research objectives and fitted to the survey conditions.

(2) Accurate representative of the universe: A sample should be an accurate representative of the
universe from which it is taken. There are different methods for selecting a sample. It will be truly
representative only when it represents all types of units or groups in the total population in fair
proportions. In brief sample should be selected carefully as improper sampling is a source of error in the
survey.

(3) Proportional: A sample should be proportional. It should be large enough to represent the universe
properly. The sample size should be sufficiently large to provide statistical stability or reliability. The
sample size should give accuracy required for the purpose of particular study.

(4) Random selection: A sample should be selected at random. This means that any item in the group has
a full and equal chance of being selected and included in the sample. This makes the selected sample truly
representative in character.

(5) Economical: A sample should be economical. The objectives of the survey should be achieved with
minimum cost and effort.

Chapter 7:  Research Ethics & Practices

Objectives:

 
            1.  Discuss the basic principles of research ethics.
2.  Define plagiarism and explicate how it may be viewed differently in different research
cultures.

3.  Evaluate one’s work by using a free/any available online plagiarism checker.

 
 Basic Principles of Research Ethics

There are a number of ethical principles that should be taken into account when performing
undergraduate and master's level dissertation research. At the core, these ethical principles stress the need
to 

(a) do good (known as beneficence) and

(b) do no harm (known as non-malfeasance). In practice, these ethical principles mean that as a
researcher, you need to:

 (a) obtain informed consent from potential research participants; 

(b) minimise the risk of harm to participants; 

(c) protect their anonymity and confidentiality;

 (d) avoid using deceptive practices; and 

(e) give participants the right to withdraw from your research. This article discusses these five ethical
principles and their practical implications when carrying out dissertation research.
 Definition and Types of Plagiarism

Plagiarism means using someone else’s words or ideas without proper attribution. The most common
types of plagiarism are:

  Definition Severity

Type of plagiarism

Global plagiarism Presenting an entire text by someone else as your own work. Severe

Paraphrasing plagiarism Rephrasing someone else’s ideas without citation. Serious

Verbatim plagiarism Directly copying a passage of text without citation. Serious

Mosaic plagiarism Combining text and ideas from different sources without citation. Serious

Self-plagiarism Reusing passages and ideas from your own previously submitted Moderate
work.
Incorrect citation Failing to give all the necessary information in your source Moderate
citation.

 
 Paraphrasing

A paraphrase is your own rendition of essential information and ideas expressed by someone else,
presented in a new form.

One legitimate way (when accompanied by accurate documentation) to borrow from a source.

A more detailed restatement than a summary, which focuses concisely on a single main idea.

Paraphrasing is a valuable skill;

 
 It is better than quoting information from an undistinguished passage.
 It helps you control the temptation to quote too much.
 The mental process required for successful paraphrasing helps you to grasp the full meaning of
the original.
  

Steps to Effective Paraphrasing

 
1. Reread the original passage until you understand its full meaning.
2. Set the original aside, and write your paraphrase on a note card.
3. Jot down a few words below your paraphrase to remind you later how you envision using this
material. At the top of the note card, write a key word or phrase to indicate the subject of your
paraphrase.
4. Check your rendition with the original to make sure that your version accurately expresses all the
essential information in a new form.
5. Use quotation marks to identify any unique term or phraseology you have borrowed exactly from
the source.
6. Record the source (including the page) on your note card so that you can credit it easily if you
decide to incorporate the material into your paper.

Some examples to compare

Note that the examples in this section use MLA style for in-text citation.

The original passage:

Students frequently overuse direct quotation in taking notes, and as a result they overuse quotations in the
final [research] paper. Probably only about 10% of your final manuscript should appear as directly quoted
matter. Therefore, you should strive to limit the amount of exact transcribing of source materials while
taking notes. Lester, James D. Writing Research Papers. 2nd ed., 1976, pp. 46-47.

A legitimate paraphrase:

In research papers, students often quote excessively, failing to keep quoted material down to a desirable
level. Since the problem usually originates during note taking, it is essential to minimize the material
recorded verbatim (Lester 46-47).

An acceptable summary:

Students should take just a few notes in direct quotation from sources to help minimize the amount of
quoted material in a research paper (Lester 46-47).

A plagiarized version:

Students often use too many direct quotations when they take notes, resulting in too many of them in the
final research paper. In fact, probably only about 10% of the final copy should consist of directly quoted
material. So it is important to limit the amount of source material copied while taking notes.

A note about plagiarism: This example has been classed as plagiarism, in part, because of its failure to
deploy any citation. Plagiarism is a serious offense in the academic world. However, we acknowledge
that plagiarism is a difficult term to define; that its definition may be contextually sensitive; and that not
all instances of plagiarism are created equal—that is, there are varying “degrees of egregiousness” for
different cases of plagiarism.

Paraphrasing techniques
 Read your text/paragraph and ensure that you understand it.
 Write down your ideas without looking at the original.
 Use synonyms or change the word order of your sentence.
 Compare with the original to see whether you are conveying the same meaning. 

Types of Paraphrasing

A. Change of Parts of Speech - Parts of speech ranging from verbs and nouns to adjectives and adverbs
are replaced with new parts of speech in this type of paraphrasing. 

 Original Sentence:

The boy quickly ran across the finish line, seizing yet another victory.
Paraphrase:

The quick boy seized yet another victory when he ran across the finish line.

In this example, many parts of speech are changed: the adverb quickly becomes the adjective quick, and
the verb phrase with the gerund seizing becomes the verb seized. 

B. Change of Structure - This type of paraphrasing involves changing the sentence’s structure,
sometimes creating a passive voice from an active voice and vice versa. The change in structure can be
used to reflect the writer’s interpretation of the original quote. Here is an example of change of structure
paraphrasing.

 Original Sentence:

Puppies were adopted by numerous kind souls at the puppy drive.

Paraphrase:

Many kind souls adopted puppies during the puppy drive.

In this example, the object of the sentence (kind souls) becomes the subject with an active voice (adopted)
rather than a passive voice (were adopted). 

C. Reduction of Clauses - Reduction of clauses paraphrases reduce the number of clauses in a sentence,
which can be interruptive or confusing, by incorporating the phrases into the sentence. Here is an example
of reduction of clauses paraphrasing: 

Original Sentence:

While I understand where you’re coming from, and truly respect your opinion, I wish you would express
yourself more clearly, like Clara does.

Paraphrase:

I understand where you’re coming from and respect your opinion, but I wish you would be more like
Clara and express yourself more clearly.

D. Synonym Replacement- Synonym replacement paraphrasing is one of the simplest forms of

paraphrasing: replacing words with similar words, or synonyms. Here is an example:

Original Sentence:

The older citizens were honored with a parade for those once in the military.

Paraphrase:

Senior citizens were honored with a march for veterans.

In this example, many synonyms are used: older citizens are senior citizens, a parade becomes a march,
and those once in the military refers to veterans.

 References:

R:1  https://www.bowdoin.edu/dean-of-students/judicial-board/academic-honesty-and-plagiarism/common-types-
of-plagiarism.html

R:2  https://www.plagiarism.org/article/what-is-plagiarism

R:3  https://literaryterms.net/paraphrase/

R:4  https://www.anadolu.edu.tr/en/academics/faculties/course/98432/non-parametric-statistical-
methods/learning-outcomes
 
R:5  https://statistics.laerd.com/spss-tutorials/friedman-test-using-spss-statistics.php
 
R:6  https://www.statisticssolutions.com/using-chi-square-statistic-in-research/
 
R:7  https://libguides.library.kent.edu/SPSS/ChiSquare
 
R:8  https://statistics.laerd.com/spss-tutorials/goodman-and-kruskals-gamma-using-spss-statistics.php
 
R:9  https://www.statisticshowto.com/gamma-coefficient-goodman-kruskal/
 
R:10  https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/researchproposal
 
R:11  https://www.westminster.ac.uk/study/postgraduate/research-degrees/entry-requirements/how-to-
write-your-research-proposal

R:12 http://dissertation.laerd.com/principles-of-research-ethics.php

R:13 https://theintactone.com/2019/03/04/brm-u4-topic-3-sample-characteristics-of-a-good-sample/

R:14  https://research-methodology.net/sampling-in-primary-data-collection/

R:15  https://futureofworking.com/11-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-longitudinal-studies/

R:16https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/using_research/
quoting_paraphrasing_and_summarizing/paraphrasing.html

R:17 https://literaryterms.net/paraphrase/

Prepared by:

Asst. Prof. GLICERIA R. QUIZON

Course Instructor

 
What is a review of the literature?
A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and
researchers. Occasionally you will be asked to write one as a separate assignment (sometimes in the
form of an annotated bibliography—see the bottom of the next page), but more often it is part of the
introduction to an essay, research report, or thesis. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to
convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their
strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding
concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative
thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries
Besides enlarging your knowledge about the topic, writing a literature review lets you gain and
demonstrate skills in two areas
1. information seeking: the ability to scan the literature efficiently, using manual or computerized
methods, to identify a set of useful articles and books
2. critical appraisal: the ability to apply principles of analysis to identify unbiased and valid studies.
A literature review must do these things
1. be organized around and related directly to the thesis or research question you are developing
2. synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known
3. identify areas of controversy in the literature
4. formulate questions that need further research
Ask yourself questions like these:
1. What is the specific thesis, problem, or research question that my literature review helps to
define?
2. What type of literature review am I conducting? Am I looking at issues of theory? methodology?
policy? quantitative research (e.g. on the effectiveness of a new procedure)? qualitative
research (e.g., studies of loneliness among migrant workers)?
3. What is the scope of my literature review? What types of publications am I using (e.g., journals,
books, government documents, popular media)? What discipline am I working in (e.g., nursing
psychology, sociology, medicine)?
4. How good was my information seeking? Has my search been wide enough to ensure I’ve found
all the relevant material? Has it been narrow enough to exclude irrelevant material? Is the
number of sources I’ve used appropriate for the length of my paper?
5. Have I critically analysed the literature I use? Do I follow through a set of concepts and
questions, comparing items to each other in the ways they deal with them? Instead of just listing
and summarizing items, do I assess them, discussing strengths and weaknesses?
6. Have I cited and discussed studies contrary to my perspective?
7. Will the reader find my literature review relevant, appropriate, and useful?
Ask yourself questions like these about each book or article you include:
1. Has the author formulated a problem/issue?
2. Is it clearly defined? Is its significance (scope, severity, relevance) clearly established?
3. Could the problem have been approached more effectively from another perspective?
4. What is the author’s research orientation (e.g., interpretive, critical science, combination)?
5. What is the author’s theoretical framework (e.g., psychological, developmental, feminist)?
 6. What is the relationship between the theoretical and research perspectives?
7. Has the author evaluated the literature relevant to the problem/issue? Does the author include
literature taking positions she or he does not agree with?
8. In a research study, how good are the basic components of the study design (e.g., population,
intervention, outcome)? How accurate and valid are the measurements? Is the analysis of the
data accurate and relevant to the research question? Are the conclusions validly based upon the
data and analysis?
9. In material written for a popular readership, does the author use appeals to emotion, one-sided
examples, or rhetorically-charged language and tone? Is there an objective basis to the
reasoning, or is the author merely “proving” what he or she already believes?
10. How does the author structure the argument? Can you “deconstruct” the flow of the argument
to see whether or where it breaks down logically (e.g., in establishing cause-effect
relationships)?
11. In what ways does this book or article contribute to our understanding of the problem under
study, and in what ways is it useful for practice? What are the strengths and limitations?
12. How does this book or article relate to the specific thesis or question I am developing?
Final Notes:
A literature review is a piece of discursive prose, not a list describing or summarizing one piece of
literature after another. It’s usually a bad sign to see every paragraph beginning with the name of a
researcher. Instead, organize the literature review into sections that present themes or identify trends,
including relevant theory. You are not trying to list all the material published, but to synthesize and
evaluate it according to the guiding concept of your thesis or research question
If you are writing an annotated bibliography, you may need to summarize each item briefly, but should
still follow through themes and concepts and do some critical assessment of material. Use an overall
introduction and conclusion to state the scope of your coverage and to formulate the question,
problem, or concept your chosen material illuminates. Usually you will have the option of grouping
items into sections—this helps you indicate comparisons and relationships. You may be able to write a
paragraph or so to introduce the focus of each section

A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is a
specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study.
For example, a study designed to look at the relationship between sleep deprivation and test
performance might have a hypothesis that states, "This study is designed to assess the hypothesis that
sleep-deprived people will perform worse on a test than individuals who are not sleep-deprived."
The Hypothesis in the Scientific Method
In the scientific method, whether it involves research in psychology, biology, or some other area, a
hypothesis represents what the researchers think will happen in an experiment.1 The scientific method
involves the following steps:
Forming a question
Performing background research
Creating a hypothesis
Designing an experiment
Collecting data
Analyzing the results
Drawing conclusions
Communicating the results
The hypothesis is a prediction, but it involves more than a guess. Most of the time, the hypothesis
begins with a question which is then explored through background research. It is only at this point that
researchers begin to develop a testable hypothesis. Unless you are creating an exploratory study, your
hypothesis should always explain what you expect to happen.
In a study exploring the effects of a particular drug, the hypothesis might be that researchers expect the
drug to have some type of effect on the symptoms of a specific illness. In psychology, the hypothesis
might focus on how a certain aspect of the environment might influence a particular behavior.
Remember, a hypothesis does not have to be correct.1 While the hypothesis predicts what the
researchers expect to see, the goal of the research is to determine whether this guess is right or wrong.
When conducting an experiment, researchers might explore a number of factors to determine which
ones might contribute to the ultimate outcome.
In many cases, researchers may find that the results of an experiment do not support the original
hypothesis. When writing up these results, the researchers might suggest other options that should be
explored in future studies.
Formulating a Hypothesis
In many cases, researchers might draw a hypothesis from a specific theory or build on previous research.
For example, prior research has shown that stress can impact the immune system. So a researcher might
hypothesize: "People with high-stress levels will be more likely to contract a common cold after being
exposed to the virus than people who have low-stress levels."
In other instances, researchers might look at commonly held beliefs or folk wisdom. "Birds of a feather
flock together" is one example of folk wisdom that a psychologist might try to investigate. The
researcher might pose a specific hypothesis that "People tend to select romantic partners who are
similar to them in interests and educational level."
Elements of a Good Hypothesis
When trying to come up with a good hypothesis for your own research or experiments, ask yourself the
following questions:
Is your hypothesis based on your research on a topic?
Can your hypothesis be tested?
Does your hypothesis include independent and dependent variables?
Before you come up with a specific hypothesis, spend some time doing background research. Once you
have completed a literature review, start thinking about potential questions you still have. Pay attention
to the discussion section in the journal articles you read. Many authors will suggest questions that still
need to be explored.
In order to form a hypothesis, you should take these steps:
Collect as many observations about a topic or problem as you can.
Evaluate these observations and look for possible causes of the problem.
Create a list of possible explanations that you might want to explore.
After you have developed some possible hypotheses, think of ways that you could confirm or disprove
each hypothesis through experimentation. This is known as falsifiability.
Falsifiability
In the scientific method, falsifiability is an important part of any valid hypothesis.1 In order to test a
claim scientifically, it must be possible that the claim could be proven false.
Students sometimes confuse the idea of falsifiability with the idea that it means that something is false,
which is not the case. What falsifiability means is that if something was false, then it is possible to
demonstrate that it is false.
One of the hallmarks of pseudoscience is that it makes claims that cannot be refuted or proven false.
Operational Definitions
A variable is a factor or element that can be changed and manipulated in ways that are observable and
measurable. However, the researcher must also define how the variable will be manipulated and
measured in the study.
For example, a researcher might operationally define the variable "test anxiety" as the results of a self-
report measure of anxiety experienced during an exam. A "study habits" variable might be defined by
the amount of studying that actually occurs as measured by time.
These precise descriptions are important because many things can be measured in a number of different
ways. One of the basic principles of any type of scientific research is that the results must be replicable.1
By clearly detailing the specifics of how the variables were measured and manipulated, other
researchers can better understand the results and repeat the study if needed.
Some variables are more difficult than others to define. How would you operationally define a variable
such as aggression? For obvious ethical reasons, researchers cannot create a situation in which a person
behaves aggressively toward others.
In order to measure this variable, the researcher must devise a measurement that assesses aggressive
behavior without harming other people. In this situation, the researcher might utilize a simulated task to
measure aggressiveness.
Hypothesis Checklist
Does your hypothesis focus on something that you can actually test?
Does your hypothesis include both an independent and dependent variable?
Can you manipulate the variables?
Can your hypothesis be tested without violating ethical standards?
Examples of Hypotheses
A hypothesis often follows a basic format of "If {this happens} then {this will happen}." One way to
structure your hypothesis is to describe what will happen to the dependent variable if you make
changes to the independent variable.
The basic format might be: "If {these changes are made to a certain independent variable}, then we will
observe {a change in a specific dependent variable}."
A few examples:
"Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math exam than students who do not eat
breakfast."
"Students who experience test anxiety prior to an English exam will get higher scores than students who
do not experience test anxiety."
"Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be more likely to make errors on a driving course
than those who do not talk on the phone."
Collecting Data on Your Hypothesis
Once a researcher has formed a testable hypothesis, the next step is to select a research design and
start collecting data. The research method depends largely on exactly what they are studying. There are
two basic types of research methods: descriptive research and experimental research.

Descriptive Research Methods

Descriptive research such as case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys are often used when it
would be impossible or difficult to conduct an experiment.1 These methods are best used to describe
different aspects of a behavior or psychological phenomenon.
Once a researcher has collected data using descriptive methods, a correlational study can then be used
to look at how the variables are related. This type of research method might be used to investigate a
hypothesis that is difficult to test experimentally.
Experimental Research Methods
Experimental methods are used to demonstrate causal relationships between variables. In an
experiment, the researcher systematically manipulates a variable of interest (known as the independent
variable) and measures the effect on another variable (known as the dependent variable).
Unlike correlational studies, which can only be used to determine if there is a relationship between two
variables, experimental methods can be used to determine the actual nature of the relationship—
whether changes in one variable actually cause another to change.
A Word From Very well
The hypothesis is a critical part of any scientific exploration. It represents what researchers expect to
find in a study or experiment. In situations where the hypothesis is unsupported by the research, the
research still has value. Such research helps us better understand how different aspects of the natural
world relate to one another. It also helps us develop new hypotheses that can then be tested in the
future.
 Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
ARASOF Nasugbu
Nasugbu, Batangas

College of Teacher Education

Bachelor of Secondary Education

MODULE 
in
MEd 315
RESEARCH IN MATHEMATICS 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Overview
    Learning Outcomes
    Time Duration:    3 hours/week
    Study Skills
    Assessment Task
    Materials

Chapter 1.  Research Methodology

Chapter 2.  The Research Problem
Chapter 3.  The Review of Literature
Chapter 4.  The Research Hypotheses
Chapter 5.  The Research Approach & Strategies
Chapter 6.  Data Collection & Sampling Method
Chapter 7.  Research Ethics & Practices
Chapter 8.  Research Defense

Introduction

    This course aims to prepare prospective mathematics teachers to undertake an undertake
research project.  It gives teachers the opportunity to conduct researches that address problems,
issues and concerns in mathematics teaching and learning.  It also showcases their research skills
through the application of the mathematical content and processes they have learned previously.  

Intended Learning Outcomes

1.  Demonstrate literacy of the basic concepts, principles and techniques of educational research.
2.  Demonstrate research skills on questionnaire development and data gathering procedure.
3.  Calculate and employ a suitable sampling technique to obtain the sample size of a given
population.
4.  Explicate, analyze and apply the ethical principles of research, ethical challenges and
approval process in the conduct of one’s research.
5.  Apply appropriate descriptive and/or inferential statistics to gathered data.
6.  Present, analyze and interpret research findings.
7.  Demonstrate abilities in summarizing findings, drawing conclusions and recommendations
for future actions.
8.  Demonstrate proficiency in writing and preparing the full research/manuscript/thesis report
and carry-out a successful final defense.
   
CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Objectives:
1.  Define and identify the following research designs/methodology.
2.  Identify and describe similarities and differences of different research methods.
 3.  Describe the different types of research
4.  Describe the general characteristics and criteria of a good research.

 Definitions and Types of Research

Research is the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order
to establish facts and reach new conclusions.

It is a careful and detailed study into a specific problem, concern, or issue using the
scientific method. It's the adult form of the science fair projects back in elementary school, where
you try and learn something by performing an experiment.

According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “Research is a systematic

inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. Research involves
inductive and deductive methods.”   

Following are the types of research methods:

Basic research: A basic research definition is data collected to enhance knowledge. The
main motivation is knowledge expansion. It is a non-commercial research that doesn’t facilitate
in creating or inventing anything. For example: an experiment to determine a simple fact.

Applied research: Applied research focuses on analyzing and solving real-life problems.

This type refers to the study that helps solve practical problems using scientific methods. Studies
play an important role in solving issues that impact the overall well-being of humans. For
example: finding a specific cure for a disease.

Problem oriented research: As the name suggests, problem-oriented research is

conducted to understand the exact nature of a problem to find out relevant solutions. The term
“problem” refers to multiple choices or issues when analyzing a situation.

Problem solving research: This type of research is conducted by companies to

understand and resolve their own problems. The problem-solving method uses applied research
to find solutions to the existing problems.

Qualitative research: Qualitative research is a process that is about inquiry. It helps

create in-depth understanding of problems or issues in their natural settings. This is a non-
statistical method.
It is heavily dependent on the experience of the researchers and the questions used to
probe the sample. The sample size is usually restricted to 6-10 people. Open-ended questions are
asked in a manner that encourages answers that lead to another question or group of questions.
The purpose of asking open-ended questions is to gather as much information as possible from
the sample.

Quantitative research: Quantitative research is a structured way of collecting data and

analyzing it to draw conclusions. Unlike qualitative methods, this method uses a computational
and statistical process to collect and analyze data. Quantitative data is all about numbers.
It involves a larger population — more people means more data. With more data to
analyze, you can obtain more accurate results. This method uses close-ended questions because
the researchers are typically looking to gather statistical data.

 Objectives of Research 
Research is a tool by which they can test their own, and each others' theories, by using this
antagonism to find an answer and advance knowledge. The purpose of research is really an
ongoing process of correcting and refining hypotheses, which should lead to the acceptance of
certain scientific truths.

There are three purposes of research:

1. Exploratory: As the name suggests, exploratory research is conducted to explore a group
of questions. The answers and analytics may not offer a final conclusion to the perceived
problem. It is conducted to handle new problem areas which haven’t been explored
before. This exploratory process lays the foundation for more conclusive research and
data collection.

2. Descriptive: Descriptive research focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues

through a process of data collection. Descriptive studies are used to describe the behavior
 of a sample population. In a descriptive study, only one variable is required to conduct
the study. The three main purposes of descriptive research are describing, explaining, and
validating the findings. For example, a study conducted to know if top-level management
leaders in the 21st century possess the moral right to receive a huge sum of money from
the company profit.

3. Explanatory:Explanatory research or causal research is conducted to understand the

impact of certain changes in existing standard procedures. Conducting experiments is the
most popular form of casual research. For example, a study conducted to understand the
effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.

 Motivation in Research 
(1) Stimulation of Respondent
(2) Stimulation of Researcher 
(3) A Sense of Participation 
(4) Growth of Knowledge
(5) Quest for Progress
(6) Curiosity to Understand the Cause and Effect Relationship of Various Social
Phenomena.

Interest for increasing knowledge motivates people to do research in their own

field. Research adds to the existing knowledge in a systematic way. The quest for knowledge is
therefore an important motivating factor in social research. Discovering the truth always forces
man to undertake research in own society.

Research is conducted with a purpose to understand:

 What do organizations or businesses really want to find out?

 What are the processes that need to be followed to chase the idea?
 What are the arguments that need to be built around a concept?
 What is the evidence that will be required for people to believe in the idea or concept?

General Characteristics of Research 

1. A systematic approach must be followed for accurate data. Rules and procedures are an
integral part of the process that set the objective. Researchers need to practice ethics and a
code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
2. Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive methods.
3. The data or knowledge that is derived is in real time from actual observations in natural
settings.
4. There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies associated
with it.
5. Research creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more
opportunities for research.
6. Research is analytical in nature. It makes use of all the available data so that there is no
ambiguity in inference.
7. Accuracy is one of the most important aspects of research. The information that is obtained
should be accurate and true to its nature. For example, laboratories provide a controlled
environment to collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of
instruments or tools, and the final result of the experiment.

Criteria of Good Research

1. It is based on the work of others.

2. It can be replicated and doable .
3. It is generalizable to other settings.
4. It is based on some logical rationale and tied to theory. In a way that it has the potential to
suggest directions for future research.
5. It generates new questions or is cyclical in nature.
6. It is incremental.
7. It addresses directly or indirectly some real problem in the world.
8. It clearly states the variables or constructs to be examined.
9. Valid and verifiable such that whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings is
correct and can be verified by you and others.
10. The researcher is sincerely interested and/or invested in this research.

Bad research has the following properties:

1. The opposites of what have been discussed.

2. Looking for something when it simply is not to be found.
3. Plagiarizing other people’s work.
4. Falsifying data to prove a point.
5. Misrepresenting information and misleading participants.

CHAPTER 2 - THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Objectives:  
    1.  Determine and select a research problem.
2.  Identify the different sources of a research problem.
3.  Define a problem and establish the statement of the problem. 
4.  Determine the delimitation of the problem.

What is a Research Problem?

    A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a
difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or
in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation.

There are five factors to consider to find out if a problem is researchable;

1.  The problem is existing in the locality, community or country but no solution to the
problem.
2.  The solution to the problem can be answered using statistical methods and techniques.
3.  There are probable solutions but not yet tested.
4.  The occurrence of phenomena required scientific investigation to arrive at precise
solution.
5.  Serious needs and problems of the people where it demands research.

The research problem must be stated clearly and exactly expressed in an interrogative
form for questions have the virtue of posing a problem directly.

Characteristics of Research Problem

1.  Specific.  The problem should be specifically stated.

2.  Measurable.  It is easy to measure by using research instruments, apparatus and
equipment in gathering data.
3.  Achievable.  The data are achievable by using correct statistical tools to arrive at exact
results.
4.  Realistic.  Results are real and attained because they are gathered scientifically and not
maneuvered.
5.  Time Bound.  Time frame is necessary in every activity because the shorter completion
of the activity, the better.

Sources of Research Problem;

1.  Specialization
2.  Existing and past researches
3.  Thesis, dissertations, and researches
4.  Problems met
5.  Creative ideas of the researcher

In general, there are three types of resources or sources of information: primary,

secondary, and tertiary.  It is important to understand these types and to know what type is
appropriate for your coursework prior to searching for information.
 1. Primary sources are original materials on which other research is based, including:
 original written works – poems, diaries, court records, interviews, surveys, and
original research/fieldwork, and
 research published in scholarly/academic journals.
2. Secondary sources are those that describe or analyze primary sources, including:
 reference materials – dictionaries, encyclopedias, textbooks, and
 books and articles that interpret, review, or synthesize original research/fieldwork.
3. Tertiary sources are those used to organize and locate secondary and primary sources.
 Indexes – provide citations that fully identify a work with information such as
author, titles of a book, article, and/or journal, publisher and publication date,
volume and issue number and page numbers.
 Abstracts – summarize the primary or secondary sources,
 Databases – are online indexes that usually include abstracts for each primary or
secondary resource, and may also include a digital copy of the resource.
~ Mary Woodley, CSUN Oviatt Library

Identifying Research Methodology

To choose the appropriate types of research, you need to clearly identify the objectives. Some
objectives to take into consideration for your business include:

 Find out the needs of your clients.

 Know their preferences and understand what is important to them.
 Find an appropriate way to make your customers aware of your products and services.
 Find ways to improve your products or services to suit the needs of your customers.
After identifying what you need to know, you should ask what research methods will offer you
that information.
Organize your questions within the framework of the 7 Ps of marketing that influence your
company – product, price, promotion, place, people, processes, and physical tests.

 Selecting the Problem

 Sources of the Problem 
 Statement of a Problem 

Delimiting & Evaluation of a   Problem

They are the shortcomings, conditions or influences that cannot be controlled by the
researcher that place restrictions on your methodology and conclusions.  Delimitations are
choices made by the researcher which should be mentioned. They describe the boundaries that
you have set for the study.
Delimitations are set so that your goals do not become impossibly large to
complete. Examples of delimitations include objectives, research questions, variables, theoretical
objectives that you have adopted, and populations chosen as targets to study.
Scope and delimitation of study are two elements of a research paper that inform the
reader what information is included in the research and explain why the author chose that
information. Although scope and delimitation explain the way a study is limited, this information
adds credibility to research.
Delimitations are the definitions you set as the boundaries of your own thesis or
dissertation, so delimitations are in your control. Delimitations are set so that your goals do not
become impossibly large to complete. Examples of delimitations include objectives, research
questions, variables, theoretical objectives that you have adopted, and populations chosen as
targets to study. When you are stating your delimitations, clearly inform readers why you chose
this course of study. 
Limitations of a dissertation are potential weaknesses in your study that are mostly out of
your control, given limited funding, choice of research design, statistical model constraints, or
other factors. In addition, a limitation is a restriction on your study that cannot be reasonably
dismissed and can affect your design and results.

CHAPTER 3:  THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Objectives: 
    1.  Demonstrate understanding of the review of literature. 
2.  Determine the objectives and functions of the review of literature.
3.  Gather different sources of literature and observed necessary precautions in the use of
library.
4.  Know how to conduct the review of literature.

 Meaning of Review of Literature

A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other sources
relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a
description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research
problem being investigated. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of
sources you have explored while researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your
readers how your research fits within a larger field of study.
    "In writing the literature review, the purpose is to convey to the reader what knowledge
and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are.
The literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (eg. your research objective,
the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a
descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries.
(http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/specific-types-of-writing/literature-review)

 Objectives & Functions of Review of Literature

The purpose of a literature review is to:

1.  Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research
problem being studied.
2.  Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
 3.  Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
4.  Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
5.  Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
6.  Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
7.  Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
8.  Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important].

In relation to your own study, the literature review can help in four ways. It can: 
1. bring clarity and focus to your research problem; 
2. improve your research methodology; 
3. broaden your knowledge base in your research area; and 
4. contextualize your findings. The literature review involves a paradox.

 Sources of Literature

Sources for a literature review in education, we generally mean these five areas: the
internet, reference material and other books, empirical or evidence-based articles in
scholarly, peer-reviewed journals, conference proceedings and papers, dissertations and
theses

 How to Conduct the Review of Literature

Steps to conduct the review of literature
1.  Narrow your topic and select papers accordingly.
2.  Search for literature.
3.  Read the selected articles thoroughly and evaluate them.
4.  Organize the selected papers by looking for patterns and by developing subtopics.
5.  Develop a thesis or purpose statement.
6.  Write the paper.
7.  Review your work.
     8.  Precautions in Library Use

Chapter 4:  The Research Hypotheses

Objectives:
    1.  Define hypothesis and describe its nature.  
2.  Discuss the two types of hypotheses and know its importance
3.  Describe the different characteristics of a good hypothesis. 
4.  Determine the different variables in a hypothesis.
5.  Formulate a hypothesis and test the hypothesis.

 Definitions and nature of Hypothesis 

Hypothesis is an assumption that is made on the basis of some evidence. This is
the initial point of any investigation that translates the research questions into a
 prediction. It includes components like variables, population and the relation between the
variables.
In science, a hypothesis is an idea or explanation that you then test through study
and experimentation. Outside science, a theory or guess can also be called a hypothesis.
A hypothesis is something more than a wild guess but less than a well-established theory.
In research a hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in
concrete (rather than theoretical) terms what you expect will happen in your study. Not
all studies have hypotheses. Sometimes a study is designed to be exploratory (see
inductive research).
Hypothesis is a logical prediction of certain occurrences without the support of
empirical confirmation or evidence.
In scientific terms, it is a tentative theory or testable statement about the
relationship between two or more variables i.e. independent and dependent variable.

 Functions and Importance of Hypothesis 

It ensures the entire research methodologies are scientific and valid. It helps to
assume the probability of research failure and progress. It helps to provide link to the
underlying theory and specific research question.

 Kinds of Hypothesis

Different Types of Hypothesis:

1. Simple Hypothesis:
A Simple hypothesis is also known as composite hypothesis.
In simple hypothesis all parameters of the distribution are specified.
It predicts relationship between two variables i.e. the dependent and the independent
variable
2. Complex Hypothesis:
A Complex hypothesis examines relationship between two or more independent variables
and two or more dependent variables.
3. Working or Research Hypothesis:
A research hypothesis is a specific, clear prediction about the possible outcome of a
scientific research study based on specific factors of the population.
4. Null Hypothesis:
A null hypothesis is a general statement which states no relationship between two
variables or two phenomena. It is usually denoted by H .
0

5. Alternative Hypothesis:
An alternative hypothesis is a statement which states some statistical significance
between two phenomena. It is usually denoted by H or H .
1  a

6. Logical Hypothesis:
A logical hypothesis is a planned explanation holding limited evidence.
7. Statistical Hypothesis:
A statistical hypothesis, sometimes called confirmatory data analysis, is an
assumption about a population parameter.
Although there are different types of hypothesis, the most commonly and used
hypothesis are Null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis. So, what is the difference
between null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis

MAJOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NULL HYPOTHESIS AND

ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS:
Null hypothesis Alternative hypothesis
A null hypothesis represents the
hypothesis that there is “no
relationship” or “no association”
or “no difference” between two
variables.
In case of null hypothesis,
researcher tries to invalidate or
reject the hypothesis.
 
It is an assumption that specifies
a possible truth to an event where
there is absence of an effect.
Null hypothesis is a statement
that signifies no change, no effect
and no any differences between
variables.
If null hypothesis is true, any
discrepancy between observed
data and the hypothesis is only
An alternative hypothesis is the opposite
of the null hypothesis where we can find
some statistical importance or relationship
between two variables.
In an alternative hypothesis, the
researcher wants to show or prove some
relationship between variables.
It is an assumption that describes an
alternative truth where there is some
effect or some difference.
Alternative hypothesis is a statement
that signifies some change, some effect
and some differences between variables.
If alternative hypothesis is true, the
observed discrepancy between the
observed data and the null hypothesis is
 due to chance. not due to chance.
A null hypothesis is denoted as An alternative hypothesis is denoted as
H.0 H  or H .
1 a

Example of null hypothesis:

There is no association between Example of an alternative hypothesis:
use of oral contraceptive and There is an association between use of
blood cancer oral contraceptive and blood cancer
H: µ = 0
0 H: µ ≠ 0
a

Importance of Hypothesis:

1.  It ensures the entire research methodologies are scientific and valid.
2.  It helps to assume the probability of research failure and progress.
3.  It helps to provide link to the underlying theory and specific research question.
4.  It helps in data analysis and measure the validity and reliability of the research.
5.  It provides a basis or evidence to prove the validity of the research.
6.  It helps to describe research study in concrete terms rather than theoretical terms.

Characteristics of Good Hypothesis:

1.  Should be simple.
2.  Should be specific.
3.  Should be stated in advance.

 Formulating a Hypothesis 
Formulating a hypothesis requires a specific, testable, and predictable statement driven
by theoretical guidance and/or prior evidence. A hypothesis can be formulated in various
research designs.
In many cases, researchers might draw a hypothesis from a specific theory or build on
previous research.
1.   "People with high-stress levels will be more likely to contract a common cold after
being exposed to the virus than people who have low-stress levels."
2.  "Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math exam than students who do
not eat breakfast."
3.  "Students who experience test anxiety prior to an English exam will get higher scores
than students who do not experience test anxiety."
4.  "Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be more likely to make errors on
a driving course than those who do not talk on the phone."

 Testing the Hypothesis

Once a researcher has formed a testable hypothesis, the next step is to select a
research design and start collecting data. The research method depends largely on exactly
 what they are studying. There are two basic types of research methods: descriptive
research and experimental research.
Descriptive Research Methods
Descriptive research such as case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys are often
used when it would be impossible or difficult to conduct an experiment.1 These methods
are best used to describe different aspects of a behavior or psychological phenomenon.
Once a researcher has collected data using descriptive methods, a correlational
study can then be used to look at how the variables are related. This type of research
method might be used to investigate a hypothesis that is difficult to test experimentally.
Experimental Research Methods
Experimental methods are used to demonstrate causal relationships between
variables. In an experiment, the researcher systematically manipulates a variable of
interest (known as the independent variable) and measures the effect on another variable
(known as the dependent variable).
Unlike correlational studies, which can only be used to determine if there is a
relationship between two variables, experimental methods can be used to determine the
actual nature of the relationship—whether changes in one variable actually cause another
to change.
Example of Hypothesis
"Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math exam than students who do not
eat breakfast."
"Students who experience test anxiety prior to an English exam will get higher scores
than students who do not experience test anxiety."
"Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be more likely to make errors on a
driving course than those who do not talk on the phone."

Chapter 5:  The Research Approach & Strategies

Objectives:
    1. Differentiate the different research approach and strategies.  
 2.  Determine the proper criteria for selecting a research approach.
3.  Choose the appropriate research strategies for a particular topic/problem.  

 The Philosophical Background 

 The Qualitative Approach  - it observe and interview people. They take observations of
people or events and analyze it through qualitative methods.  Qualitative research is
descriptive in nature, because it generally deals with non-numerical and unquantifiable
things
 The Quantitative Approach – this type of research is much more numbers-driven. The
emphasis is on the collection of numerical data. The conclusion then makes inferences
based on that data. 
 Criteria for Selecting a Research Approach

Types of research approaches

In a broad, interdisciplinary field such as Planning, research may be conducted in a
number of ways. Five possible research approaches are suggested below. They are by no means
mutually exclusive: a research project may include two or more of these approaches, or
approaches other than those described.

The descriptive study

This approach attempts to identify the characteristics of a problem through description.
Because the subject cannot be described in all its detail, careful selection of facts must occur.
Facts should be gathered according to pre-determined criteria and for the purpose of
demonstrating relationships of interest. To the extent that the descriptive study of a particular
problem provides one with a generalized understanding of a phenomenon that, in turn, can be
employed to understand other specific problems, this approach is useful and acceptable.
 An example of this approach would be a description of an unusual planning program in
operation in one Municipality, with the objective being to illustrate how the program differs from
similar programs found in other Municipalities.

The explanatory study

This approach attempts to find the answer to an enigmatic question. The explanatory
studies are designed to investigate origin - cause-effect relationships. The typical study includes
the collection of empirical data for the formulation of hypotheses or less pretentious hunches and
the subsequent test of these hypotheses by any one of a number of ways available to the
researcher.

The remedial study

The remedial study seeks to formulate plans to correct or improve undesirable social,
economic, political, and environmental conditions. These undesirable conditions, causes and
processes associated with them are analyzed. Plans, strategies, and policies are formulated to
remedy the undesirable conditions. 
 Implementation methods may be suggested. A remedial study may be directed to the
solution of pollution of a lake ringed by cottages or to pedestrian and vehicular conflicts in the
central business district.

The methodological study

The methodological study attempts to devise, test or improve new research methods in
Planning. The study may deal with the development of a specific technique for the discipline or
may take a technique developed by another discipline and attempt to apply it to a Planning
context. 

The historical study

If it is designed to facilitate a deeper understanding of historical processes and is not
merely an attempt to fill gaps in our factual knowledge, the historical approach can be very
useful.

A suggested essay format

The following is a suggested outline for the essay. The structure may well vary,
depending on the topic, the treatment given, and the advice of an advisor as how to most
effectively present the material and research findings.

What are the Research Strategies   

    A research strategy is an overall plan for conducting a research study.  It  guides

a researcher in planning, executing, and monitoring the study. Research methods tell
the researcher how to collect and analyze data, through interviews, questionnaires, or statistical
methods.
1.   Case study research is a qualitative approach in which the investigator explores a bounded
system (a case) or multiple bounded systems (cases) over time through detailed, in-depth data
collection involving multiple sources of information (e.g., observations, interviews, audiovisual
material, and documents and reports)

    It is based on an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event. Case studies
may be descriptive or explanatory.

2.  Experiments
Experimental research is a study that strictly adheres to a scientific research design. It includes a
hypothesis, a variable that can be manipulated by the researcher, and variables that can be
measured, calculated and compared. Most importantly, experimental research is completed in a
controlled environment. The researcher collects data and results will either support or reject the
hypothesis. This method of research is referred to a hypothesis testing or a deductive research
method (Babbie 4).

    Experimental research seeks to determine a relationship between two (2) variables—the
dependent variable and the independent variable. After completing an experimental research
study, a correlation between a specific aspect of an entity and the variable being studied is either
supported or rejected.

    The purpose of the experimental research strategy is to establish the existence of a cause-
and- effect relationship between two variables. To accomplish this goal, an experiment
manipulates one variable while a second variable is measured and other variables are controlled.

3.  Ethnography 
    Ethnography is a branch of anthropology and the systematic study of individual cultures. In
contrast with ethnology, ethnography explores cultural phenomena from the point of view of the
subject of the study. 

    Ethnographic research is a qualitative method where researchers observe and/or interact with

a study's participants in their real-life environment. Ethnography was popularized by
anthropology, but is used across a wide range of social sciences.

    Ethnographic studies focus on large cultural groups of people who interact over
time. Ethnography is a set of qualitative methods that are used in social sciences that focus on the
observation of social practices and interactions.

    How to Do Ethnography Research

  Identify Research Question. Determine what problem you are seeking to better
understand. 
 Determine Location(s) for Research. ...
 Formulate Presentation Method. ...
 Acquire Permissions and Access. ...
 Observe and Participate. ...
 Interview. ...
 Collect Archival Data. ...
 Code and Analyze Data.

4.  Phenomenology

    Phenomenology helps us to understand the meaning of people's lived experience.

A phenomenological study explores what people experienced and focuses on their experience of
a phenomena.

    It is a form of qualitative research that focuses on the study of an individual's lived

experiences within the world. Although it is a powerful approach for inquiry, the nature of this
methodology is often intimidating to HPE researchers.

    The general purpose of the phenomenological study is to understand and describe a specific

phenomenon in- depth and reach at the essence of participants' lived experience of the
phenomenon. reality in phenomenology is based on the ideal-material duality; every experience
has a material and ideal component.

5.  Ground Theory - it refers to a set of systematic inductive methods for conducting qualitative
research aimed toward theory development. The term grounded theory denotes dual referents:
(a) a method consisting of flexible methodological strategies and 
(b) the products of this type of inquiry.

It involves the collection and analysis of data. The theory is “grounded” in actual data, which
means the analysis and development of theories happens after you have collected the data. It was
introduced by Glaser & Strauss in 1967 to legitimize qualitative research.

In grounded theory-based analysis, the researcher generally analyzes the data as follows:
1.  Finding repeating themes by thoroughly reviewing the data;
2.  Coding the emergent themes with keywords and phrases;
3.  Grouping the codes into concepts hierarchically; and 
4.  Then categorizing the concepts through relationship
6.  Action Research - is a philosophy and methodology of research generally applied in the
social sciences. It seeks transformative change through the simultaneous process of taking action
and doing research, which are linked together by critical reflection.

In schools, action research refers to a wide variety of evaluative, investigative, and

analytical research methods designed to diagnose problems or weaknesses—whether
organizational, academic, or instructional—and help educators develop practical solutions to
address them quickly and efficiently.

    It is also used in real situations, rather than in contrived, experimental studies, since its
primary focus is on solving real problems. It can, however, be used by social scientists for
preliminary or pilot research, especially when the situation is too ambiguous to frame a
precise research question.

Action research is characterized by clear stages, which include:

 A consideration of action (reflection and reconnaissance);
 Implementation of an action for improvement to individual practice;
 The use of data collection on the action;
 A review of the action through consideration of data;

7.  Mixed-methods. The term “mixed methods” refers to an emergent methodology of research
that advances the systematic integration, or “mixing,” of quantitative and qualitative data within
a single investigation or sustained program of inquiry. The basic premise of this methodology is
that such integration permits a more complete and synergistic utilization of data than do separate
quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis. 

Uses of Mixed Methods Research Designs

    1.  Validate findings using quantitative and qualitative data sources.
    2.  Use qualitative data to explore quantitative findings.
    3.  Develop survey instruments.
    4.  Use qualitative data to augment a quantitative outcomes study
    5.  Involve community-based stakeholders. 

Using a mixed methods study has several advantages such as;

1.  Compares quantitative and qualitative data. Mixed methods are especially useful in
understanding contradictions between quantitative results and qualitative findings.
2.  Reflects participants’ point of view. Mixed methods give a voice to study participants and
ensure that study findings are grounded in participants’ experiences.
3.  Fosters scholarly interaction. Such studies add breadth to multidisciplinary team research
by encouraging the interaction of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods scholars.
4.  Provides methodological flexibility. Mixed methods have great flexibility and are adaptable
to many study designs, such as observational studies and randomized trials, to elucidate more
information than can be obtained in only quantitative research.
5.  Collects rich, comprehensive data. Mixed methods also mirror the way individuals naturally
collect information—by integrating quantitative and qualitative data. For example, sports stories
frequently integrate quantitative data (scores or number of errors) with qualitative data
(descriptions and images of highlights) to provide a more complete story than either method
would alone.
Characteristics of Mixed Methods Research

1.  The analysis of both qualitative and quantitative data. 

2.  The collection of both open and closed-ended data (qualitative and quantitative data) in
response to research question.

8.  Longitudinal   - is a research design that involves repeated observations of the same variables
(e.g., people) over short or long periods of time 

There are a range of different types of longitudinal studies: cohort studies, panel studies,

record linkage studies. These studies may be either prospective or retrospective in nature.

It can help researchers to distinguish between changes that happen as people get older, known as
'age effects', and generational differences that reflect the historical, economic and social context
within which different cohorts grew up, known as 'cohort' or 'generational' effects.
Longitudinal studies differ from one-off, or cross-sectional, studies. The main difference is
that cross-sectional studies interview a fresh sample of people each time they are carried out,
whereas longitudinal studies follow the same sample of people over time.

List of Advantages of Longitudinal Studies

1. They are effective in determining variable patterns over time.

Because these studies involve the use and collection of data in long periods of time, they can
determine patterns efficiently. By using them, it would be possible for researchers to learn more
about cause and effect relationships and make connections in a clearer manner. Aside from this,
remember that more data over longer periods of time will allow for more concise and better
results. These studies are considered highly valid for determining long-term changes and are
unique in themselves when it comes to being able to provide useful data about these individual
changes.

2. They can ensure clear focus and validity.

With a clear focus, longitudinal studies would let us observe how a certain set of circumstances
or an end state would come to be. And while it is natural for people not to remember past events,
this problem can be addressed by means of actual recording that ensures a high level of validity.

3. They are very effective in doing research on developmental trends.

As mentioned above, these studies are often used in psychology to conduct research on
developmental trends across life spans. They are used in sociology to study life events
throughout lifetimes or generations. This is so because, unlike cross-sectional studies where
different individuals with similar characteristics are being compared, longitudinal studies would
track the same people, which means that the differences observed in a group will be less likely to
be the result of a change or difference in culture across generations.

4. They are more powerful than cross-sectional studies.

As they utilize the observation method without manipulating the state of the world, longitudinal
studies have been argued to having less power in terms of detecting causal relationships
compared with experiments. However, they are known to have more power than cross-sectional
studies when it comes to excluding time-invariants and unobserved individual differences and
when it comes to observing a certain event’s temporal order, as they use repeated observations at
individual levels.

5. They are highly flexible.

Longitudinal studies are often observed to allow flexibility to occur. This means that the focus
they use can be shifted while researchers are collecting data.

6. They can provide high accuracy when observing changes.

With their quality of being the perfect method to conduct research on developmental trends,
these studies can make observation of changes more accurate, making them as the usual option in
various fields. In medicine, for example, longitudinal studies are used to discover predictors or
indicators of certain diseases, while in advertising, they are used to determine changes that a
campaign has made in the behavior of consumers who belong to its target audience and have
seen the advertisement.

Disadvantages of Longitudinal Studies

1. They require huge amounts of time.

Time is definitely a huge disadvantage to any longitudinal study, as it typically takes a
substantial amount of time to collect all the data that is required. Also, it takes equally long
periods to gather results before the patterns can even start to be made.

2. They risk gathering data that is not 100% reliable.

While data is collected at multiple points in this method of conducting research, you cannot pre-
determine and take into account the observation periods regardless of what happens between
these points. Aside from this, respondents would unknowingly change their qualitative responses
over time to better suit what they see as the objective of the observer. Generally, the process
involved in longitudinal studies will change how respondents and subjects the questions that are
being used.
3. They would risk experiencing panel attrition.
One of the biggest disadvantages of conducting longitudinal studies is panel attrition. This means
that, if researchers are only relying upon the same group of subjects for a research that takes
place at certain points in time in years, then there is the possibility that some of the subjects
would no longer be able to participate because of various reasons, such as changes in contact
details, refusal, incapacity and even death, which cuts down the usable data to be drawn to
formulate the conclusion.

4. They require a large sample size.

Another disadvantage that makes longitudinal studies not the perfect option to conduct research
is that they typically require large sample sizes. So, you must have a large number of cooperating
subjects for your research or else it will not realize or be valid.

5. They can be more expensive compared with cross-sectional studies.

Cross-sectional studies are known to be more affordable compared with longitudinal studies and
are much quicker in reaching an observational conclusion as they use fewer touch points.
Considering that they utilize a sample size that is carefully chosen, rather than subsets, the
former can also be more of a help in representing entire populations. The former is observed to
be very beneficial when it comes to considering a change in policy, unlike the latter.

A lot of researchers encourage and welcome the use of longitudinal data sets, where they
can apply and access data via relevant pathways that are set out by the groups that hold such
information. However, longitudinal studies also have some limitations. Based on the advantages
and disadvantages listed on this article, do you think these method are more helpful to society
than not?

Chapter 6:  Data Collection & Sampling Method

Objectives:
    1.  Determine and develop data gathering instruments appropriate for the given problem.
2.  Define sampling and know the different methods of sampling.
3.  Differentiate population and sample.
4.  Determine the size of a sample and describe the characteristics of a good sample

Data collection tools refer to the devices/instruments used to collect data, such as a paper

questionnaire or computer-assisted interviewing system. Case Studies, Checklists, Interviews,
Observation sometimes, and Surveys or Questionnaires are all tools used to collect data.

Questionnaires The questionnaire is the main instrument for collecting data in survey research.

Basically, it is a set of standardized questions, often called items, which follow a fixed scheme in
order to collect individual data about one or more specific topics. Sometimes questionnaires are
confused with interviews.
Interviews are used to collect data from a small group of subjects on a broad range of topics.
You can use structured or unstructured interviews. Structured interviews are comparable to a
questionnaire, with the same questions in the same order for each subject and with multiple
choice answers.

Focus Groups - is a market research method that brings together 6-10 people in a room to

provide feedback regarding a product, service, concept, or marketing campaign. ... Focus
group participants are recruited based on their purchase history, demographics, psychographics,
or behavior and typically do not know each other.

Observation   is a data collection method, by which you gather knowledge of the researched
phenomenon through making observations of the phenomena, as and when it occurs. There exist
various observation practices, and your role as an observer may vary according to the research
approach. 

The biggest advantage of observational research has already been noted: it enables businesses

to observe potential customers in a natural setting, which can reveal penetrating insights
unavailable through other methods such as focus groups and surveys.

Types of observational research 
 Complete Observer.
 Observer as Participant.
 Participant as Observer.
 Complete Participant.

Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of

observations are taken from a larger population. The methodology used to sample from a larger
population depends on the type of analysis being performed, but it may include simple
random sampling or systematic sampling.
Sampling can be explained as a specific principle used to select members of population to be
included in the study. It has been rightly noted that “because many populations of interest are too
large to work with directly, techniques of statistical sampling have been devised to obtain
samples taken from larger populations.” 

In other words, due to the large size of target population, researchers have no choice but
to study the a number of cases of elements within the population to represent the population and
to reach conclusions about the population (see Figure 1 below).
Figure 1. Population, sample and individual cases
Brown (2006) summarizes the advantages of sampling in the following points:

a) Makes the research of any type and size manageable;

b) Significantly saves the costs of the research;
c) Results in more accurate research findings;
d) Provides an opportunity to process the information in a more efficient way;
e) Accelerates the speed of primary data collection.

The Process of Sampling in Primary Data Collection

The process of sampling in primary data collection involves the following stages:

1. Defining target population. Target population represent specific segment within wider
population that are best positioned to serve as a primary data source for the research. For
example, for a dissertation entitled ‘Impact of social networking sites on time management
practices amongst university students in the UK” target population would consist of individuals
residing in the UK.

2. Choosing sampling frame. Sampling frame can be explained as a list of people within the
target population who can contribute to the research. For a sample dissertation named above,
sampling frame would be an extensive list of UK university students.
3. Determining sampling size. This is the number of individuals from the sampling frame who
will participate in the primary data collection process. The following observations need to be
taken into account when determining sample size:

a) The magnitude of sampling error can be diminished by increasing the sample size.
b) There are greater sample size requirements in survey-based studies than in experimental
studies.
c) Large initial sample size has to be provisioned for mailed questionnaires, because the
percentage of responses can be as low as 20 to 30 per cent.
d) The most important factors in determining the sample size include subject availability and cost
factors
For example, for the same research of ‘Impact of social networking sites on time
management practices amongst university students in the UK’ sample size could be determined
to include 200 respondents.

4. Selecting a sampling method. This relates to a specific method according to which 200
university students in the UK are going to be selected to participate in research named above.

5. Applying the chosen sampling method in practice.

 
Types of Sampling in Primary Data Collection

Sampling methods are broadly divided into two categories: probability and non-

probability.

In probability sampling every member of population has a known chance of participating in the

study. Probability sampling methods include simple, stratified systematic, multistage, and cluster
sampling methods.

In non-probability sampling, on the other hand, sampling group members are selected on non-
random manner, therefore not each population member has a chance to participate in the study.
Non-probability sampling methods include purposive, quota, convenience and snowball
sampling methods. 

The Figure 2 below  illustrates specific sampling methods belonging to each category:
Figure 2. Categorization of sampling techniques

The following table illustrates brief definitions, advantages and disadvantages of sampling
techniques:
 
Technique Definition/ Advantages Disadvantages
Explanation 
Random Sample group members are Highly effective if all High level of sampling
selected in a random subjects participate in error when sample size is
manner data collection small
Stratified Representation of specific Effective representation Knowledge of strata
subgroup or strata of all subgroups membership is required
Precise estimates in Complex to apply in
cases of homogeneity or practical levels
heterogeneity within
strata
Systematic Including every Nth Time efficient High sampling bias if
member of population in the   periodicity exists
study Cost efficient
Multistage Sampling conducted on High level of flexibility Complex to conduct
several stages at various levels Impacted by limitations of
cluster and stratified
sampling methods
Cluster Clusters of participants Time efficient Group-level information
representing population are   needs to be known
 identified as sample group Cost efficient Usually higher sampling
members errors compared to
alternative sampling
methods
Judgement Sample group members are Time efficiency Unscientific approach
selected on the basis of    
judgement of researcher Samples are not highly Personal bias
representative
Quota Sample group members are High level of reliability High level of subjectivity
selected on the basis of than random sampling  
specific criteria Usually cost-effective Difficult to estimate
sampling error
Convenience Obtaining participants High levels of simplicity Highest level of sampling
conveniently with no and ease error
requirements whatsoever    
Usefulness in pilot Selection bias
studies
Snowball Sample group members Possibility to recruit Over-representation of a
nominate additional hidden population particular network
members to participate in Reluctance of sample
the study group members to
nominate additional
members

Methods of Sampling

Types of Sampling in Primary Data Collection

Technique Definition/ Explanation

Random Sample group members are selected in a random manner

Stratified Representation of specific subgroup or strata

Systematic Including every Nth member of population in the study

Multistage Sampling conducted on several stages

Characteristics of a Good Sample

 A sample is a smaller, manageable version of a larger group. It is a subset containing the
characteristics of a larger population. Samples are used in statistical testing when population
sizes are too large for the test to include all possible members or observations. A sample should
represent the whole population and not reflect bias toward a specific attribute.

In basic terms, a population is the total number of individuals, animals, items,

observation, data, etc. of any given subject.

(1) Goal-oriented: A sample design should be goal oriented. It is means and should be
oriented to the research objectives and fitted to the survey conditions.
(2) Accurate representative of the universe: A sample should be an accurate
representative of the universe from which it is taken. There are different methods for selecting a
sample. It will be truly representative only when it represents all types of units or groups in the
total population in fair proportions. In brief sample should be selected carefully as improper
sampling is a source of error in the survey.
(3) Proportional: A sample should be proportional. It should be large enough to
represent the universe properly. The sample size should be sufficiently large to provide statistical
stability or reliability. The sample size should give accuracy required for the purpose of
particular study.
(4) Random selection: A sample should be selected at random. This means that any item
in the group has a full and equal chance of being selected and included in the sample. This makes
the selected sample truly representative in character.
(5) Economical: A sample should be economical. The objectives of the survey should be
achieved with minimum cost and effort.

Chapter 7:  Research Ethics & Practices

Objectives:

    1.  Discuss the basic principles of research ethics.

2.  Define plagiarism and explicate how it may be viewed differently in different research
cultures.
3.  Evaluate one’s work by using a free/any available online plagiarism checker.

 Basic Principles of Research Ethics

There are a number of ethical principles that should be taken into account when performing
undergraduate and master's level dissertation research. At the core, these ethical principles stress
the need to 
(a) do good (known as beneficence) and
     (b) do no harm (known as non-malfeasance). In practice, these ethical principles mean that as
a researcher, you need to:
 (a) obtain informed consent from potential research participants; 
(b) minimise the risk of harm to participants; 
(c) protect their anonymity and confidentiality;
  (d) avoid using deceptive practices; and 
(e) give participants the right to withdraw from your research. This article discusses these five
ethical principles and their practical implications when carrying out dissertation research.
 Definition and Types of Plagiarism 

Plagiarism means using someone else’s words or ideas without proper attribution. The most
common types of plagiarism are:
Definition Severity
Type of plagiarism
Global plagiarism Presenting an entire text by someone else as your own Severe
work.
Paraphrasing Rephrasing someone else’s ideas without citation. Serious
plagiarism
Verbatim plagiarism Directly copying a passage of text without citation. Serious
Mosaic plagiarism Combining text and ideas from different sources without Serious
citation.
Self-plagiarism Reusing passages and ideas from your own previously Moderate
submitted work.
Incorrect citation Failing to give all the necessary information in your source Moderate
citation.

 Paraphrasing 
A paraphrase is your own rendition of essential information and ideas expressed by someone
else, presented in a new form.

One legitimate way (when accompanied by accurate documentation) to borrow from a

source.
A more detailed restatement than a summary, which focuses concisely on a single main idea.

Paraphrasing is a valuable skill;

 It is better than quoting information from an undistinguished passage.

 It helps you control the temptation to quote too much.
 The mental process required for successful paraphrasing helps you to grasp the full
meaning of the original.


Steps to Effective Paraphrasing

1. Reread the original passage until you understand its full meaning.
2. Set the original aside, and write your paraphrase on a note card.
 3. Jot down a few words below your paraphrase to remind you later how you envision using
this material. At the top of the note card, write a key word or phrase to indicate the
subject of your paraphrase.
4. Check your rendition with the original to make sure that your version accurately
expresses all the essential information in a new form.
5. Use quotation marks to identify any unique term or phraseology you have borrowed
exactly from the source.
6. Record the source (including the page) on your note card so that you can credit it easily if
you decide to incorporate the material into your paper.
Some examples to compare
Note that the examples in this section use MLA style for in-text citation.

The original passage:

Students frequently overuse direct quotation in taking notes, and as a result they overuse
quotations in the final [research] paper. Probably only about 10% of your final manuscript
should appear as directly quoted matter. Therefore, you should strive to limit the amount of exact
transcribing of source materials while taking notes. Lester, James D. Writing Research Papers.
2nd ed., 1976, pp. 46-47.

A legitimate paraphrase:
In research papers, students often quote excessively, failing to keep quoted material down to a
desirable level. Since the problem usually originates during note taking, it is essential to
minimize the material recorded verbatim (Lester 46-47).

An acceptable summary:
Students should take just a few notes in direct quotation from sources to help minimize the
amount of quoted material in a research paper (Lester 46-47).

A plagiarized version:
Students often use too many direct quotations when they take notes, resulting in too many of
them in the final research paper. In fact, probably only about 10% of the final copy should
consist of directly quoted material. So it is important to limit the amount of source material
copied while taking notes.

A note about plagiarism: This example has been classed as plagiarism, in part, because of its
failure to deploy any citation. Plagiarism is a serious offense in the academic world. However,
we acknowledge that plagiarism is a difficult term to define; that its definition may be
contextually sensitive; and that not all instances of plagiarism are created equal—that is, there
are varying “degrees of egregiousness” for different cases of plagiarism.

Paraphrasing techniques
 Read your text/paragraph and ensure that you understand it.
 Write down your ideas without looking at the original.
  Use synonyms or change the word order of your sentence.
 Compare with the original to see whether you are conveying the same meaning.

Types of Paraphrasing

A. Change of Parts of Speech - Parts of speech ranging from verbs and nouns to adjectives and
adverbs are replaced with new parts of speech in this type of paraphrasing. 

Original Sentence:
The boy quickly ran across the finish line, seizing yet another victory.
Paraphrase:
The quick boy seized yet another victory when he ran across the finish line.
In this example, many parts of speech are changed: the adverb quickly becomes the adjective
quick, and the verb phrase with the gerund seizing becomes the verb seized.

B. Change of Structure - This type of paraphrasing involves changing the sentence’s structure,
sometimes creating a passive voice from an active voice and vice versa. The change in structure
can be used to reflect the writer’s interpretation of the original quote. Here is an example of
change of structure paraphrasing.

Original Sentence:
Puppies were adopted by numerous kind souls at the puppy drive.

Paraphrase:
Many kind souls adopted puppies during the puppy drive.
In this example, the object of the sentence (kind souls) becomes the subject with an active voice
(adopted) rather than a passive voice (were adopted).

C. Reduction of Clauses - Reduction of clauses paraphrases reduce the number of clauses in a

sentence, which can be interruptive or confusing, by incorporating the phrases into the sentence.
Here is an example of reduction of clauses paraphrasing:

Original Sentence:
While I understand where you’re coming from, and truly respect your opinion, I wish you would
express yourself more clearly, like Clara does.

Paraphrase:
I understand where you’re coming from and respect your opinion, but I wish you would be more
like Clara and express yourself more clearly.
D. Synonym Replacement- Synonym replacement paraphrasing is one of the simplest forms of
paraphrasing: replacing words with similar words, or synonyms. Here is an example:

Original Sentence:
The older citizens were honored with a parade for those once in the military.

Paraphrase:
Senior citizens were honored with a march for veterans.
In this example, many synonyms are used: older citizens are senior citizens, a parade becomes a
march, and those once in the military refers to veterans.

References:

R:1  https://www.bowdoin.edu/dean-of-students/judicial-board/academic-honesty-and-plagiarism/
common-types-of-plagiarism.html

R:2  https://www.plagiarism.org/article/what-is-plagiarism

R:3  https://literaryterms.net/paraphrase/

R:4  https://www.anadolu.edu.tr/en/academics/faculties/course/98432/non-parametric-statistical-
methods/learning-outcomes

R:5  https://statistics.laerd.com/spss-tutorials/friedman-test-using-spss-statistics.php

R:6  https://www.statisticssolutions.com/using-chi-square-statistic-in-research/

R:7  https://libguides.library.kent.edu/SPSS/ChiSquare

R:8  https://statistics.laerd.com/spss-tutorials/goodman-and-kruskals-gamma-using-spss-
statistics.php

R:9  https://www.statisticshowto.com/gamma-coefficient-goodman-kruskal/

R:10  https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/researchproposal
R:11  https://www.westminster.ac.uk/study/postgraduate/research-degrees/entry-requirements/
how-to-write-your-research-proposal

R:12 http://dissertation.laerd.com/principles-of-research-ethics.php
R:13 https://theintactone.com/2019/03/04/brm-u4-topic-3-sample-characteristics-of-a-good-
sample/
R:14  https://research-methodology.net/sampling-in-primary-data-collection/
R:15  https://futureofworking.com/11-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-longitudinal-studies/
R:16https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/using_research/
quoting_paraphrasing_and_summarizing/paraphrasing.html
R:17 https://literaryterms.net/paraphrase/
Prepared by:
Asst. Prof. GLICERIA R. QUIZON
Course Instructor