By Jason, Trisha and Nathan B
Primary data: data that is collected firsthand by the researcher for a
specific research purpose.
Strengths
Relevance: Primary data is tailored to
meet the specific research objectives,
ensuring its relevance to the study.
. from existing sources.
Control: Researchers have a high
degree of control over the data
collection process, allowing them to
ensure data quality and reliability.
Originality: Primary data is original and
unique to the research, providing fresh
insights and perspectives.
Weaknesses
Cost-effective: Secondary data is
typically less expensive and
time-consuming to obtain compared to
primary data, as it is readily available
Limited Scope: Primary data collection
methods may have limitations in terms
of sample size and scope, which could
affect the generalizability of the
findings.
invasiveness: Some primary data
collection methods, such as interviews
or observations, can be invasive and
disruptive to participants' normal
activities.
Detailed Insights: Primary data
collection methods such as surveys,
interviews, and observations can
provide detailed and specific insights
into the research topic.
Secondary data: data that is collected by someone else for a different
purpose but is reused by researchers for their own studies.
Strengths
Rich Source of Information: Secondary
data is often the richest vein of
information available to researchers
across various topic areas, providing a
wealth of data and insights.
Government Data Collection: Some
large datasets would not exist without
government data collection efforts,
offering valuable resources for
researchers.
Historical Research: Documents and
official statistics can be the only means
of researching the past, providing
important historical context and data.
Comparative Analysis: Official
Limited representation: Primary data
may not be representative of the entire
audience or population of interest,
leading to potential biases in the
findings.
Weaknesses
Biases in Official Statistics: Official
statistics may reflect the biases of
those in power, potentially limiting the
scope of research findings.
Changes in Measurement: The way
things are measured in official statistics
may change over time, making historical
comparisons challenging.
Authenticity Issues: Documents may
lack authenticity due to missing parts or
uncertain authorship, hindering
researchers' ability to verify biases.
Representativeness Concerns:
statistics, such as census data, can be
useful for making comparisons over
time, allowing researchers to track
trends and changes.
Random sampling: a type of sampling method in which the total
population is divided into smaller groups or strata to complete the
sampling process.
Strengths
Practicality of Random Sampling:
Implementing a random sampling
method, such as drawing names out of a
hat or utilizing a computer package to
generate names from a sampling frame,
is a practical approach in research
methodology.
Time Efficiency: Random sampling
saves time for the researcher as it
eliminates the need for the elaborate
process of stratifying the sample. This
streamlined approach allows
researchers to allocate their time and
resources more efficiently toward other
aspects of the research process.
Documents may not be representative
of the wider population, especially with
older documents that may not have
survived or deteriorated over time.
Additionally, some documents may be
deliberately withheld from researchers,
impacting data availability.
Weaknesses
Lack of Representativeness: Despite its
random nature, random sampling does
not always guarantee a representative
sample. There's a possibility that by
chance, the researcher may end up with
a sample that is disproportionately
dominated by one demographic
characteristic such as sex, age, or
ethnicity.
Need for a Sampling Frame: Random
sampling requires a sampling frame,
which may not always be readily
available, especially for certain groups
such as deviant or marginalized
populations. This limitation poses
challenges in accessing and accurately
representing these groups in research
studies.
Prevention of Researcher Bias: By
employing random sampling techniques,
the potential for researcher bias is
significantly reduced. This ensures that
the researcher cannot selectively choose
individuals who might align with or
support the hypothesis of the research,
thus maintaining the integrity and
objectivity of the study.
Enhanced Generalizability: Random
sampling is often utilized when selecting
a large sample size. By incorporating a
diverse range of participants from the
population of interest, findings derived
from random sampling are more likely to
be generalizable to the broader
population.
Quota sampling: is a non-probability sampling method that relies on the
non-random selection of predetermined criteria of a sample
Strengths
Efficiency in Accessing Specific Groups:
Quota sampling can be quicker to
perform compared to some other
sampling types because it allows
researchers to access groups with
specific characteristics more efficiently.
Instead of randomly selecting
participants from a larger population,
researchers can directly target and
recruit individuals who meet the
predetermined quotas for specific
characteristics.
No Requirement for Sampling Frame in
Cost and Accessibility of Sampling
Frame: Obtaining or accessing a
sampling frame can be costly and
impractical for researchers, particularly
when they need to purchase or apply for
access to databases or registries
containing relevant population
information.
Enhanced Generalizability: Random
sampling is often utilized when
selecting a large sample size. By
incorporating a diverse range of
participants from the population of
interest, findings derived from random
sampling are more likely to be
generalizable to the broader population.
Weaknesses
Selection Bias in Quota Sampling:
Quota sampling, by its nature, doesn't
involve random selection, and
researchers decide who is included in
the sample. This can lead to research
biases like selection bias, where the
researcher's subjective decisions about
which individuals to include may
inadvertently introduce bias into the
sample.
Challenges with Mutually Exclusive
Quota Sampling: Quota sampling may
be easier to carry out because it does
not require a sampling frame.
Researchers can simply focus on
meeting predetermined quotas for
various demographics or other relevant
characteristics without needing a
comprehensive list or database of the
population.
Representativeness in Quota Sampling:
Quota sampling is a type of stratified
sampling where researchers aim to find
a certain number or quota of people with
specific characteristics. This approach
may lead to a more representative
sample of the research population
compared to random sampling.
Balanced Representation of Groups:
Quota sampling allows for better
representation of certain groups within
the target population without
over-representing them. By setting
quotas for different characteristics,
researchers can ensure that the sample
reflects the diversity of the population
while avoiding the over-representation of
any particular group.
Groups: It's not always feasible to divide
the population into mutually exclusive
groups, as individuals may belong to
multiple categories simultaneously. This
can complicate the data collection
process and may lead to omitted
variable bias and information bias if
certain characteristics or groups are
overlooked or not adequately
represented in the sample.
Limited Generalizability: Quota
sampling, due to its reliance on
predetermined quotas for certain
characteristics, may result in a sample
that lacks diversity and fails to capture
the full range of variation within the
population.
Balanced Representation of Groups:
Quota sampling allows for better
representation of certain groups within
the target population without
over-representing them. By setting
quotas for different characteristics,
researchers can ensure that the sample
reflects the diversity of the population
while avoiding the over-representation
of any particular group.
Snowball Sampling:Is a sampling method in which research
participants are asked to assist researchers in identifying other potential
subject
Strengths
Access to Hidden Groups: Snowball
sampling provides access to hidden or
hard-to-reach groups, including
individuals motivated to conceal their
identities from outsiders. These groups
may be inherently difficult to locate by
researchers outside of their community.
Quicker and Less Expensive: Snowball
sampling offers a quicker and less
expensive approach compared to other
sampling methods. Instead of extensive
outreach efforts or large-scale
recruitment campaigns, this approach
reduces the time, effort, and funding
required to recruit participants
More Flexible Approach: Snowball
sampling offers a more flexible
approach compared to traditional
sampling methods. This flexibility
allows researchers to prioritize
participants who are most relevant or
influential within the community,
ensuring a more targeted and tailored
approach to participant selection.
Cost-effective: Snowball sampling is
considered cost-effective because
referrals are obtained directly from
primary data sources within the
community. This method eliminates the
need for extensive outreach efforts or
costly recruitment strategies commonly
associated with other sampling
methods.
Weaknesses
Sampling Frame Limitations for
Hard-to-Reach Populations: In cases
where a sampling frame is not readily
available for certain research
populations that are hard to reach, such
as drug users, alternative sampling
methods may be necessary.
Sampling Frame Limitations for
Hard-to-Reach Populations: In cases
where a sampling frame is not readily
available for certain research
populations that are hard to reach, such
as drug users, alternative sampling
methods may be necessary.
Complexity of Snowball Sampling with
Multiple Social Characteristics:
Snowball sampling, while useful for
reaching hard-to-access populations,
can become complex when multiple
social characteristics such as age,
gender, ethnicity, and social class are
needed for the research.
Lack of Cooperation: Despite utilizing
snowball sampling and receiving
referrals from initial participants, there
is a risk that some individuals may not
be cooperative and refuse to participate
in the research studies. This lack of
cooperation can stem from various
reasons such as distrust of the research
process, concerns about privacy or
confidentiality, or simply a lack of
interest or time to participate.
Stratified Sampling; a type of sampling method in which the total
population is divided into smaller groups or strata to complete the
sampling process.
Strengths
stratified sampling overcomes the
problem that random samples are
not always representative in that
the researcher can divide the
sampling frame into relevant
categories such as age, gender,
etc.; stratified sampling
overcomes the problem that
random samples are not always
representative in that the
researcher can divide the
sampling frame into relevant
categories such as age, gender
stratified sampling may allow for
more generalisability of findings
given the sample is likely to
represent the target population in
terms of its subdivisions
stratified sampling may allow for
more generalisability of findings
given the sample is likely to
represent the target population in
terms of its subdivisions
it is still possible to maintain a
randomized approach as random
samples can be taken once the
sampling frame is divided, thus
reducing researcher bias in the
sample selection
Weaknesses
a sampling frame may not be
available for certain research
populations who are hard to reach
(e.g. drug users) so another form
of sampling, such as snowball,
may be needed
it can be hard to stratify as
accurate up-to-date population
data may not be available and it
may be hard to identify people's
age or social background
effectively
it can be complex to do if several
social characteristics are needed
e.g. age, gender, ethnicity, social
class, etc. and therefore requires
some skill
it is more complex to do than
simple random sampling and
hence takes up more researcher
time and money
Qualitative data: consists of non-numerical information, such as
narratives, observations, and interviews, used to understand and explore
complex phenomena in-depth.
Strengths
Explores Attitudes and Behavior
In-Depth: Qualitative research allows for
in-depth exploration of attitudes and
behavior on a personal level, enabling
researchers to gain a comprehensive
understanding of participants' views and
actions. This approach facilitates
detailed examination and hypothesis
generation or examination.
Encourages Discussion: Qualitative
research encourages open discussion
rather than strictly following a fixed set
of questions. This fosters a contextual
understanding of the research topic,
going beyond mere numerical data to
capture the nuances of participants'
perspectives.
Weaknesses
Richness and Depth of Data: Qualitative
research provides rich and in-depth data
that can uncover complex and nuanced
insights about participants' experiences,
perceptions, and behaviors.
Bias in Sample Selection: There is a risk
of bias in sample selection in qualitative
research. Participants selected for
qualitative studies may share similar
opinions on the subject matter,
potentially leading to a lack of diversity
in perspectives. This bias can
undermine the validity of findings,
particularly in focus groups where
diverse viewpoints are valuable
Flexibility: Qualitative research offers
flexibility in the interview process.
Interviewers can probe deeper and ask
follow-up questions based on
participants' responses, allowing for
exploration of topics that may not have
been initially considered.
Richness and Depth of Data: Qualitative
research provides rich and in-depth data
that can uncover complex and nuanced
insights about participants' experiences,
perceptions, and behaviors.
Qualitative data: consists of numerical information that can be
measured and analyzed statistically.
Strengths
Larger Sample Sizes: Quantitative
research allows for larger sample sizes,
facilitating robust analysis and enabling
more generalizations about the target
audience.
Bias in Sample Selection: There is a risk
of bias in sample selection in qualitative
research. Participants selected for
qualitative studies may share similar
opinions on the subject matter,
potentially leading to a lack of diversity
in perspectives. This bias can
undermine the validity of findings,
particularly in focus groups where
diverse viewpoints are valuable
Subjectivity and Interpretation:
Qualitative research is inherently
subjective and reliant on the
interpretation of researchers. The
qualitative data collected may be
influenced by researchers' biases,
perspectives, and preconceptions, which
can introduce subjective interpretations
and potential researcher bias
Weaknesses
Limited by Survey Set Answers:
Quantitative research is limited by the
set answers on surveys, restricting the
depth of exploration into behaviors,
attitudes, and reasons compared to
qualitative research methods.
Impartiality and Accuracy of Data: Data
collected in quantitative research is
impartial and accurate, relying on survey
questions for screening and hard
numerical facts, ensuring reliability in
findings.
Faster and Easier to Run: Quantitative
research, especially online and mobile
surveys, can be conducted quickly and
easily, with real-time results available for
analysis.
Data Anonymity: Quantitative research
methods, such as online surveys, ensure
participant anonymity, particularly for
sensitive topics, through self-completion
exercises.
Research Environment may Seem
Artificial: Quantitative research is often
conducted in controlled environments,
which may seem artificial and not reflect
participants' actual behavior in real life.
Inability to Follow-Up with Participants:
Due to participant anonymity, it's
challenging to follow up with
participants after completing the survey,
potentially impacting the validity of the
findings. viewpoints are valuable.
Subjectivity and Interpretation:
Qualitative research is inherently
subjective and reliant on the
interpretation of researchers. The
qualitative data collected may be
influenced by researchers' biases,
perspectives, and preconceptions, which
can introduce subjective interpretations
and potential researcher bias
Social Surveys: Social surveys are research methods used to collect data
from a sample of individuals or groups within a population through
standardized questionnaires or interviews.
Strengths
Representativeness: Social surveys
enable researchers to gather
information from many people, making
the results more representative of the
wider population, depending on
appropriate sampling techniques.
Reliability: Questionnaires are generally
considered reliable due to the ability to
replicate them easily, ensuring
consistent results over time, and the
absence of a researcher during
self-completion questions reduces the
potential for influence.
Quick and Cheap Data Collection:
Questionnaires provide a quick and
inexpensive way to gather large
amounts of data from a diverse
population, making them suitable for
large-scale studies.
Ease of Analysis: Data collected from
questionnaires is quick to analyze,
especially with online questionnaires.
Limitations
Issues with Validity: Interpretivists
criticize questionnaires as the
researcher's choice of questions may
distort respondents' meanings, and the
lack of close contact may lead to
misinterpretation of questions.
Issues with Representativeness: Postal
questionnaires may have a low
response rate, leading to an
unrepresentative sample, and
self-completion questionnaires suffer
from a self-selecting sample bias, where
certain types of people are more likely
to respond.
Superficial Data: Questionnaires may
only provide relatively superficial data,
necessitating complementary
qualitative methods for deeper
understanding.
Sensitive Topics: Social surveys may
not be suitable for researching sensitive
topics due to the lack of researcher
presence to handle potentially sensitive
responses.
Laboratory Experiments: Research methods conducted in controlled
environments, primarily used in natural sciences like Physics, Chemistry, and
Biology, to precisely measure the effects of independent variables on
dependent variables and establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Strengths Limitations

Accuracy and Precision: Laboratory Lack of Validity: Laboratory

experiments allow for precise
measurement. By controlling various
factors in a controlled environment,
researchers can accurately measure the
participants which will result in precise
and accurate results.
experiments may lack validity as the
controlled environment may not
accurately represent real-world
situations. Findings from laboratory
experiments may not generalize well to
real-life contexts, limiting the
applicability of the results.

Reliability: Laboratory experiments offer Resource Intensive: Laboratory

high reliability due to the controlled
nature of the environment. Researchers
can replicate experiments under the
same conditions, ensuring consistent
results. This reliability enhances the d
validity of the findings, allowing for
more confident conclusions to be
drawn.
experiments can be resource-intensive
in terms of time, equipment, and
personnel required to set up and
conduct the experiments. This can be
particularly challenging for researchers
with limited resources or access to
laboratory facilities.

Efficiency: Laboratory experiments Limited Sample Size: Laboratory

allow researchers to conduct controlled
experiments efficiently in a controlled
environment. Once the experiment is set
up, researchers can collect data without
the need for travel saving time and
resources.
experiments often involve small sample
sizes due to the controlled nature of the
environment and the need for strict
experimental conditions. This limited
sample size may reduce the
generalizability of the findings to
broader populations.
Strengths
Quantitative Data: Laboratory
experiments provide quantitative data
that is easily quantifiable and
measurable.
Field experiments: are research studies conducted in real-life settings, such
as classrooms, workplaces, or public spaces, rather than in controlled
laboratory environments.
Strengths
Higher Validity: Field experiments offer
better external validity than laboratory
experiments because they occur
naturally in social settings. This means
that the results are more likely to reflect
real-life behaviors and interactions.
​
Larger Scale Settings: Field
experiments can be conducted on a
larger scale, such as in schools or
workplaces, involving thousands of
people. This allows researchers to
study in more diverse and complex
environments than laboratory
experiments.
Limitations
Ethical Concerns: Some laboratory
experiments may raise ethical concerns,
particularly if they involve deception or
potential harm to participants. Ensuring
ethical standards are met in laboratory
experiments can be challenging and
may require a lot of time and money/
Limitations
Hawthorne Effect: The Hawthorne
Effect, where respondents may alter
their behavior simply because they are
aware of being observed as part of an
experiment, can be a significant concern
in field experiments. This can lead to
biased results and reduced validity.
Resource Intensive: Laboratory
experiments can be resource-intensive
in terms of time, equipment, and
personnel required to set up and
conduct the experiments. This can be
particularly challenging for researchers
with limited resources or access to
laboratory facilities
Strengths
Higher Validity: Field experiments offer
better external validity compared to
laboratory experiments because they
occur in naturally occurring social
settings. This means that the results
are more likely to reflect real-life
behaviors and interactions.
Rich Data: Field experiments often yield
rich, qualitative data that provide
detailed insights into the social
dynamics and interactions within
real-life settings. This depth of data
allows for a comprehensive
understanding of the phenomena under
study and can uncover nuanced
relationships between variables.
Limitations
Ethical Considerations: Field
experiments may raise ethical concerns,
particularly when they involve
manipulating variables or studying
sensitive topics in real-life settings.
Researchers must navigate ethical
considerations such as informed
consent, privacy, and potential harm to
participants.
Generalizability: While field experiments
offer high validity, the findings may not
always generalize to other contexts or
populations. The specific
characteristics of the research setting
and participants may limit the
generalizability of the results to broader
populations or settings.
Longitudinal Studies: are research studies in which data is collected from
the same group of participants at multiple points in time over an extended
period, allowing researchers to observe changes and trends over time.
Strengths Limitations

Able to observe changes: Longitudinal Small sample: Longitudinal studies

studies enable researchers to observe usually have small samples so may not
changes and developments over time, be representative.
providing insights into how variables
evolve and interact.

Flexibility in Data Analysis: Cost and Resource Intensive:

Longitudinal data allows for various
analytical approaches.
Longitudinal studies require significant
financial and human resources to
maintain data collection efforts over an
extended period, making them costly
and logistically challenging to conduct.

Rich Data: Longitudinal studies provide
rich and detailed data on individual
trajectories and life courses, offering a
comprehensive understanding of
complex phenomena.
Potential for Bias: They may be affected
by the hawthrone effect and change
their actions as they know they’re being
observed.

Resource for Future Research: Continuity Issues: Longitudinal studies

Longitudinal datasets serve as valuable
resources for future research
endeavors, allowing researchers to
address new research questions or
conduct secondary research.
may face challenges related to
continuity, such as changes in research
personnel or methodologies over time,
which can impact the consistency and
reliability of the data collected.
Participant observation: is a qualitative research method where the
researcher immerses themselves in the group being studied, actively
participating in their activities and observing their behavior. There are two
types overt and convert.
Strengths
High Validity: Participant observation
allows researchers to observe real-life
behaviors and interactions in natural
settings, providing a rich and detailed
understanding of social phenomena.
Therefore, it is high in validity.
Flexibility: Participant observation
offers flexibility in data collection,
allowing researchers to adapt their
approach based on emerging insights
and unexpected observations.
Insight and Depth: Researchers can
gain deep insights into the lived
experiences, perspectives, and social
dynamics of the group being studied by
actively participating in their activities
Ethical Considerations: Participant
observation, especially overt
observation, allows for transparency
and informed consent, as participants
know the researcher's presence and
purpose. This transparency promotes
Limitations
Low Reliability: The subjective nature of
participant observation and the reliance
on the researcher's interpretations can
lead to low reliability, as different
researchers may interpret the same
observations differently.
Limited Representativeness: Participant
observation studies often involve small,
non-random samples, limiting the
generalizability of findings to broader
populations. The use of snowball
sampling and the lack of randomization
may result in biased or unrepresentative
samples.
Subjectivity and Bias: Researchers'
personal biases, perspectives, and
preconceptions can influence their
observations and interpretations,
potentially leading to subjective or
biased findings.
Time and Resources Intensive:
Participant observation requires
significant time and resources, including
prolonged immersion in the field,
building rapport with participants, and
extensive data collection and analysis.
 Strengths
ethical research practices and respect
for the autonomy of participants.
Limitations
This intensive nature can make
participant observation impractical for
studies with limited time or budget
constraints.

Non-participant observation: is a research method where researchers observe

and record behaviors without actively participating in the situation being
studied. It involves systematic observation and documentation of a setting,
event, or group from an external perspective.

Strengths Limitations

Practicality: Non-participant Validity Concerns: Non-participant

observations are relatively easy to
conduct and do not require extensive
training for the researchers.
observations may lack validity as
researchers have limited opportunities
to understand the reasons behind
observed behaviors. Without the ability
to engage with participants and gain
insight into their perspectives, the
interpretation of observed actions may
be superficial or incomplete.

Access: While gaining access to Hawthorne Effect: The Hawthorne

observe settings may pose a challenge, Effect, where participants alter their
it is generally easier compared to behavior due to the awareness of being
participant observation. observed, can impact the validity of
observations.

Reliability: Structured observations Ethical Considerations: Non-participant

allow for consistency and reliability in
data collection, as multiple observers
can replicate the process and look for
the same predefined behaviors. This
enhances the credibility of findings and
allows for comparisons across different
observations.
observations may raise ethical
concerns, especially if consent is not
sought from individuals. The observer's
presence may also affect the natural
dynamics of the environment,
potentially influencing behavior.
 Strengths Limitations

Representativeness: Non-participant Potential for observer bias: where the

observations can be conducted with observer's own beliefs or expectations
larger samples, leading to more may influence their interpretation of the
representative data observed behaviors, leading to biased
results.

Interviewing:a research method where an interviewer asks questions verbally

to gather information or insights from a respondent.

Strengths Limitations

Flexibility: Researchers have the Lack of reliability: Each interview is

flexibility to vary questions based on unique, making it difficult to achieve
respondents' answers, allowing for a reliability as questions vary, and
deeper exploration of topics and more responses may be influenced by the
authentic responses. interviewer's characteristics and biases.

Respondent-led: Interviews allow Interviewer bias: Interviewer's values,

respondents to lead the conversation, biases, or demographics may influence
providing researchers with genuine, respondents' answers, introducing bias
answers. and undermining the validity of the
interview.

Empathy: The informal nature of Practical disadvantages: Interviews

interviews fosters a connection may take a long time to conduct, require
between interviewer and respondent, a lot of capital therefore may not be
creating a comfortable environment for capital nor time incentive.
open and honest communication.
 Strengths
Checking understanding: Interviewers
can clarify questions and probe for
deeper understanding, ensuring that
responses are clear and
comprehensive.
Case studies: involve detailed research on one or more examples of
people or thing.
Strengths
In-depth exploration: Case studies
allow researchers to explore different
aspects of the case being studied in
great detail. Researchers can use
appropriate methods to delve deeply
into specific elements of the case,
providing rich and nuanced insights.
Detailed account: Case studies provide
a deep and detailed account of the
case under investigation. By collecting
extensive data through various
methods, researchers can create a
comprehensive understanding of the
complexities involved.
Limitations
Lack of representativeness: Interviews
may not achieve a large enough sample
size to be representative of the
population, limiting generalizability.
Limitations
Limited generalizability: The findings of
case studies may only apply to the
specific case being studied, making it
challenging to generalize the results to
broader populations or contexts. This
limitation restricts the applicability of
case study findings beyond the specific
case under investigation.
Lack of replicability: Case studies often
involve unique or singular cases, and
the findings cannot be replicated in the
same way as experimental or
quantitative research. The absence of
replication hinders the ability to validate
or verify the findings through
independent studies
Strengths
Potential for broader insights:Carefully
chosen cases may offer insights that
can be generalized to broader contexts.
In some cases, findings from a specific
case study can inform understanding or
theory in related areas.
Testable findings: Case studies can
produce findings that are testable by
other research elsewhere. While
generalizations may not be possible,
the specific findings and insights
gained from a case study can serve as
hypotheses for further research in
similar or different contexts
Limitations
Researcher bias and subjectivity: The
deep involvement of researchers in case
studies may lead to bias or subjectivity
in data collection, analysis, and
interpretation. Researchers' personal
feelings, perspectives, or
preconceptions about the case may
influence the research process and the
conclusions drawn from the study.
Limited sample size: Case studies
typically involve a small sample size,
often focusing on one or a few specific
cases. This limited sample size may not
adequately represent the diversity and
complexity of the broader population or
phenomenon under study. As a result,
the findings from case studies may not
be fully representative or applicable to
larger populations or contexts.