PHYSICAL SCIENCE

BIG BANG AND STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS

• Scientists believe that the formation of the universe began through the explosion of a primordial atom which happened 13 billion years ago. It is
known as the Big bang.
• protons and neutrons combined together and formed light elements Hydrogen and Helium in the process of Big Bang Nucleosynthesis.
STELLAR – NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: PROTON- PROTON CHAIN
• Proton-Proton Chain reaction in main sequence star. This is the process by which average star gets their energy and convert Hydrogen into Helium.
STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: CNO (Carbon,Nitrogen, Oxygen) CYCLE
• They undergo CNO (Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen) cycle to convert Hydrogen into Helium.
STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: TRIPLE ALPHA PROCESS
• Tri alpha process happens in red giant star once they leave the stage of main sequence star.
1. As the energy at the core of the star decreases, nuclear fusion cannot produce elements higher than Iron.
2. Neutron capture, a neutron is added to a seed nucleus. Below is the representation of how neutron captured, and heavier nucleus is formed.

STAR LIFE CYCLE

1. Stars ultimately begin with a nebula. A nebula is a giant cloud of gas and dust. The hydrogen in the nebula gets pulled
together by gravity and it starts to spin. As the gas spins, it becomes a protostar.
1. LOW MASS STAR
2. HIGH MASS STAR
3. VERY HIGH MASS STAR
2. Protostars need to reach an extremely high temperature to reach a phase called nuclear fusion.
• 15,000,000 degrees Fahrenheit. Stars need to reach a temperature of 15,000,000 degrees Fahrenheit in order to reach the
nuclear fusion phase.
3. Nuclear fusion occurs in the cloud’s core. Nuclear fusion is a process where several small nuclei combine to make a larger
one
• The mass of the nucleus will actually be smaller than the sum of the smaller ones. Some of the mass is converted to energy.
4. RED - main sequence star continues to glow and hydrogen is converted into helium. Eventually, the hydrogen will run out
and the core will become unstable and contract. The outer shell of the star will expand and cool and glow a certain color.
5. When the outer layers of the star are expelled, a planetary nebula is formed! A planetary nebula has a ring shape and is
composed of the gas from the star.
6. Core will remain White Dwarf.
LOW MASS STAR
• The core of your star remains as a white dwarf and eventually cools to become a black dwarf.
• A white dwarf is a star that has exhausted most or all of its nuclear fuel and has collapsed to a very small size.
• A white dwarf has the radius equal to about .
• A black dwarf is a non-radiating ball of gas that results from the cooling of a white dwarf.
• A black dwarf has all of its energy radiated away.
HIGH MASS STAR
• A supernova explosion has a sharp increase in brightness and eventually fades. Supernovas can even outshine galaxies!
• The expanding cloud they produce forms a supernova remnant which is visible long after the initial explosion fades.
• A neutron star is the imploded core that is the remnant of a supernova explosion.
VERY HIGH MASS STAR
• A supernova explosion has a sharp increase in brightness and eventually fades. Supernovas can even outshine galaxies!
• The expanding cloud they produce forms a supernova remnant which is visible long after the initial explosion fades.
• A black hole is an object whose gravity is so strong light cannot even escape from it.
• The force of gravity overcomes nuclear forces and the core of the star is swallowed by its own gravity.
• Black holes attract any matter and energy that come near it.

EFFECT OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES ON THE PROPERTIES

OF SUBSTANCES
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION
• Associated with the observable properties pf various substances.
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
• When it comes to solubility; the solute and the solvent mix when they both exhibit the same intermolecular forces of
attraction. The melting and boiling points of substances with stronger IMFA are higher compared to those with weaker IMFA.
In the case of surface tension, molecules with stronger intermolecular forces of attraction will exert greater cohesive forces
and acquire less surface area (higher surface tension) than those with weaker IMF
SOLUBILITY
• refers to the ability of a material to dissolve in a specified amount of solvent at a particular temperature.solute and solvent have
the same intermolecular forces of attraction, they form solution.
MELTING POINT
temperature at which the substance changes from solid to liquid.
• Chocolate is an example of having a weak attraction of intermolecular force
• Substance with stronger intermolecular forces of attraction have higher melting points
BOILING POINT
• temperature at which the vapor pressure becomes equal to the pressure exerted on the surface of the liquid to gas.
SURFACE TENSION
• tendency of a liquid to attain the smallest possible surface area. Molecules with stronger intermolecular forces will apply stronger
cohesive forces and acquire less surface area.
VISCOSITY
• It is the measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Molecules with stronger intermolecular forces have higher resistance to flow
• determined by intermolecular forces preset in the liquid, shape, size and temperature.
CAPILLARY ACTION
• can be defined as the ascension of liquids through slim tube, cylinder or permeable substance due to adhesive and cohesive
forces interacting between the liquid and the surface.
VAPOR PRESSURE
• amount of pressure (force per unit area) applied by a gas above any liquid in a sealed container. Vapor pressure is a liquid
property based on the strength of the intermolecular force. A liquid with stronger intermolecular force will not evaporate quickly
and has a lower vapor pressure.

BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES
• All biological macro-molecule are organic, meaning they all contain hydrocarbon. Carbon atoms

ORGANIC MOLECULES
• made up of Hydrogen and Carbon ( HydroCarbon )

MACROMOLECULES
• a very very large molecules
1. Proteins
2. Lipids
3. Carbohydrates
4. Nucleic Acid

• Poly means Many

• Mono means One
• Polymers is composed of many Monomer
CARBOHYDRATES ( C, H, O )

2
 • Main source energy of the body.
• Simple sugars ; monosaccharides
• C6H12O6
• Glucose is a monomer, main product of photosynthesis
COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES
• Long term storage for energy
• Polysaccharides; made up of glucose polymers
Example of carbohydrates
1. Grains
2. Potatoes
Cellulose
• Makes up cell
• Glucose polymer
Glycogen
• Polymers made up of glucose monomers

LIPIDS ( C, H, and some O )

• Stored energy
• Insulate
• Cushion
• Waterproof
Example of lipids
1. Oil
2. Butter
3. Margarine
Triglycerides
• Glycerol group with three fatty acid

PROTEINS ( C, H, O, N, and some S )

• They are the major structural molecules in living things for growth and repair : muscles, ligaments, tendons, bones, hair, skin, nails…IN FACT ALL CELL
MEMBRANES have protein in them
• They make up antibodies in the immune system
• They make up enzymes for helping chemical reactions
• They makeup non-steriod hormones