Objective:

1. Give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier

elements during star formation and evolution;
2. Understand the basic concept of star formation;
3. Know that the chemical elements from Hydrogen to Iron can
be formed in the stars through stellar fusion;
4. Counteract misconceptions about the formation of heavy
elements;
5. Understand the importance and necessity to keep updated the
progress of scientific concepts.
1
The
• The Big Bang Theory is the most widely accepted scientific
theory about the origin of the universe. It is supported by
multiple lines of evidence.

Big
• The “Big Bang” was a phenomenally energetic explosion that
initiated the expansion of the universe.
• At the moment prior to the Big Bang explosion, all matter and

Bang energy were compressed at a single point (a singularity – a

point of infinite density).
• The universe has been expanding ever since, with galaxies
moving farther and farther apart.
• Using the rates of expansion measured in the universe and
astronomical distances, the age of the universe can be
calculated back to the time of the Big Bang. The age of the
universe is calculated at about 13.7 billion years old. By
contrast, our Sun and its surrounding planets (i.e. our Solar
System) is 4.65 billion years old.
 Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

• All Hydrogen and most Helium in the universe was produced during the
Big Bang Event, starting ~100 seconds after the explosion. A small
amount of Lithium was also produced.
• Big Bang nucleosynthesis ceased within a few minutes after the Big Bang
because the universe had expanded and cooled sufficiently by then such
that the temperatures and pressures were too low to support additional
nuclear fusion reactions.
Elements are Formed in Different Ways in
our Universe
PREPARED BY: EVA MAE YAÑEZ ADLAO
 WHERE DOES
HEAVIER ELEMENT
FORM?
THE SUN
IS A STAR
 Nucleosynthesis
• Nucleosynthesis is the process of element (nuclei)
formation.
• Three types: Big Bang nucleosynthesis
Stellar (star) nucleosynthesis
Supernova nucleosynthesis
• Today, only stellar and supernova nucleosynthesis are
occurring in our universe.
• Element formation in our universe relies on nuclear fusion
reactions.
 Nuclear Fusion
• In nuclear fusion, smaller nuclei
collide together to make larger
nuclei, and energy is released in the
form of electromagnetic radiation.
• Requires extremely high
temperatures and pressures beyond
those found on or within Earth.
However, these temperatures and
pressures are found inside stars and
did occur during the initial
formation of our universe (during
the Big Bang event).
Nuclear Fusion • Fusion involves only the nuclei of
atoms. At the temperatures at
which fusion can occur, matter
exists as a plasma. This is the state
of matter where the electrons have
been stripped off of the atoms.
Plasma is basically a super high
energy, electrically charged gas.

• When nuclei collide, some of the mass of the nuclei is converted to energy
by Einstein’s famous equation, E=mc2. Nuclear fusion releases a lot of
energy per gram of material; much more energy than is released by
burning a comparable amount of wood, coal, oil, or gasoline!
2
 Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• A star is a very hot ball of gas (plasma).
Stars create elements by combining
lighter nuclei into heavier nuclei via
nuclear fusion reactions in their cores
and releasing energy in the process.
They are natural nuclear reactors!
• Enormous temperatures(15,000,000 K),
pressures, and densities of matter are
needed to initiate the fusion
(thermonuclear) reactions which
squeeze nuclei together and release
energy.
Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• The basic nuclear reaction in the Sun
converts hydrogen to helium and
releases energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiation (see the
basic fusion reaction below). This is
why our Sun shines!
• Our Sun is only large enough to fuse
hydrogen into helium within its core.
• Stars much larger than our Sun can fuse
heavier elements from lighter elements. Stellar
• These giant stars have an “onion layer” Nucleosynthesis
structure.
• As you proceed deeper into the star,
temperatures and pressures increase,
and heavier and heavier nuclei are
fused together.
The heaviest element that can be made
in a star is iron. Elements heavier than
iron have fusion reactions with
temperature and pressure requirements
greater than those that can occur within
the core of a giant star.
Note: In the
adjacent diagrams,
the term
“burning” really
means nuclear
fusion!
 Nuclear Fusion Requirements (in stars)
Fusion Fusion By-product Minimum Core Minimum Core Minimum Stellar
Temperature Density Mass*

Hydrogen He 13 million K 100 gm/cc 0.08 solar masses

Helium C, O 100 million K 100,000 gm/cc 0.5 solar masses

Carbon O, Ne, Mg, Na 500 million K 200,000 gm/cc 4 solar masses

Neon O, Mg 1.2 billion K 4 million gm/cc about 8 solar masses

Oxygen Mg, Si, S, P 1.5 billion K 10 million gm/cc about 8 solar masses

Si, S, Ar, Ca, Ti, Cr, Fe,

Silicon around 3 billion K 30 million gm/cc about 8 solar masses
Ni

gm/cc = grams per cubic centimeter (units of density)

https://sites.uni.edu/morgans/astro/course/Notes/section2/fusion.html
3
• Elements heavier than Iron (Z = 26) Supernova
are made primarily when giant stars
explode in supernovae. Nucleosynthesis
• Even the largest stars do not have
core temperatures and pressures
high enough to fuse iron into heavier
elements.
• Therefore, when a star runs out of
nuclear fuel (lighter nuclei) and can
no longer undergo fusion reactions,
gravity causes the star to collapse.
The gravitational collapse triggers a
phenomenally large explosion called
a supernova.
 Supernova Nucleosynthesis

• The explosion of the star momentarily generates high

enough temperatures and pressures to cause nuclear
fusion reactions that make elements with atomic
numbers 27-92 (Cobalt to Uranium).
• Since only the largest stars can explode in supernovae
events, elements with atomic numbers 27-92 are rarer
than elements with atomic numbers 1-26
(see abundance diagram in the next slide)
 Supernova Nucleosynthesis

Relative Abundance of the Elements in our Universe

An exploded star
(supernova)
 A summary…
(You are made of stardust from exploded stars)
 Nuclear Fission

• We have learned that elements form in the universe by nuclear fusion

reactions which assemble larger nuclei by forcing smaller nuclei together
under tremendous temperatures and pressures.
• However, elements can also form when a large, unstable nucleus breaks
apart in an attempt to achieve a more stable, lower energy state.
• The splitting of a nucleus to form two or more smaller, more stable nuclei is
called nuclear fission. (fission = split)
• Fission may occur spontaneously (without energy being added) or it may be
prompted by firing a nuclear bullet (like a proton or neutron) at an unstable
nucleus, as seen in the example below.
 Nuclear Fission

• Like fusion, fission also releases energy stored in the nucleus of an atom.
However, not as much energy is released from fission as from fusion. Still, the
energy released per gram of material by fission is considerably more than the
energy released by burning a comparable amount of wood, oil, gasoline, etc.
Fission of uranium-235 atoms is used in nuclear power plants to produce energy.
• Fission also occurs naturally within the layers of the earth as radioactive elements
in rocks spontaneously decay to more stable elements, creating a natural source
of heat within the earth. You also contain a small proportion of radioactive
isotopes within your body. These isotopes decay naturally, releasing radiation.
Therefore, you are slightly radioactive too! So is the banana you ate for breakfast!
Nuclear Fission
 VOCABULARY
• Big Bang Theory: this is the currently accepted theory of the origin of the
universe which proposes that everything started from a singularity which in time
inflated—and continues to do so—until the world we know of today started
existing approximately 14 billion years ago.
• Stellar Nucleosynthesis: this is the birth of elements through nuclear fusion
that takes place within stars.
• Supernova: this is the explosion in the event of a death of a star.
• Neutron-Star Mergers: this is when stars merge to form a more massive star,
generating more energy than normal stars.
• Light Elements: these are elements from Hydrogen to Iron which form in less
massive stars.
• Heavy Elements: these are elements heavier than Iron which form from
massive stars, supernovae, or neutron-star mergers.
 Vocabulary

Synthetic Elements: refers to the chemical elements formed in a

laboratory through certain, man-controlled processes.
• Transuranium Elements: these are elements heavier than Uranium.
• Isotopes: these are the same atoms with different number of neutrons.
• Atomic Number: this is the number of protons in an atom, pertaining
to its identity.
• Atomic Weight: this is the number of protons and neutrons together of
an atom.
• Periodic Trends: the chemical properties exhibited by the elements,
reflected in the periodic table through groups or families.