PHYSICAL SCIENCE (SCIE 2) fusion reaction below).

This is why our Sun

shines!
LEOGINE LYLE GUADALQUIVER, LPT
• Our Sun is only large enough to fuse hydrogen
LESSON 1: FORMATION OF THE ELEMENTS
into helium within its core.
AND NUCLEAR REACTIONS
•
Nucleosynthesis
• Nucleosynthesis is the process of element
(nuclei) formation.
• Three types:
- Big Bang nucleosynthesis
- Stellar (star) nucleosynthesis Stars much larger than our Sun can fuse heavier
- Supernova nucleosynthesis elements from lighter elements.
• Today, only stellar and supernova • These giant stars have an “onion layer”
nucleosynthesis are occurring in our universe. structure.
• Element formation in our universe relies on • As you proceed deeper into the star,
nuclear fusion reactions. (fusion = come together) temperatures and pressures increase, and
heavier and heavier nuclei are fused together.
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
• The heaviest element that can be made in a star
• All Hydrogen and most Helium in the universe
is iron. Elements heavier than iron have fusion
was produced during the Big Bang Event, starting
reactions with temperature and pressure
~100 seconds after the explosion. A small
requirements greater than those that can occur
amount of Lithium was also produced.
within the core of a giant star.
• Big Bang nucleosynthesis ceased within a few
• Note: In the adjacent diagrams, the term
minutes after the Big Bang because the universe
“burning” really means nuclear fusion!
had expanded and cooled sufficiently by then
such that the temperatures and pressures were
too low to support additional nuclear fusion
reactions.

Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• A star is a very hot ball of gas (plasma). Stars
create elements by combining lighter nuclei into
heavier nuclei via nuclear fusion reactions in their
cores and releasing energy in the process. They
are natural nuclear reactors!
• Enormous temperatures (15,000,000 K),
pressures, and densities of matter are needed to
initiate the fusion (thermonuclear) reactions which
squeeze nuclei together and release energy.
• The basic nuclear reaction in the Sun converts
hydrogen to helium and releases energy in the Supernova Nucleosynthesis
form of electromagnetic radiation (see the basic
• Elements heavier than Iron (Z = 26) are made • Nuclear fusionreleases a lot of energy per gram
primarily when giant stars explode in supernovae. of material; much more energy than is released
by burning a comparable amount of wood, coal,
• Even the largest stars do not have core
oil, or gasoline!
temperatures and pressures high enough to fuse
iron into heavier elements.Therefore, when a star
runs out of nuclear fuel (lighter nuclei) and can no
longer undergo fusion reactions, gravity causes
the star to collapse. The gravitational collapse
triggers a phenomenally large explosion called a
supernova. The explosion of the star momentarily
generates high enough temperatures and
pressures to cause nuclear fusion reactions that
make elements with atomic numbers 27-92
(Cobalt to Uranium).
• Since only the largest stars can explode in
Nuclear Fission
supernovae events, elements with atomic
numbers 27-92 are rarer than elements with • We have learned that elements form in the
atomic numbers 1-26 (see abundance diagram to universe by nuclear fusion reactions which
right) assemble larger nuclei by forcing smaller nuclei
together under tremendous temperatures and
pressures.
• However, elements can also form when a large,
unstable nucleus breaks apart in an attempt to
achieve a more stable, lower energy state.
• The splitting of a nucleus to form two or more
smaller, more stable nuclei is called nuclear
fission.(fission = split)
• Fission may occur spontaneously (without
energy being added) or it may be prompted by
firing a nuclear bullet (like a proton or neutron) at
an unstable nucleus, as seen in the example
Nuclear Fusion
below.
• In nuclear fusion, smaller nuclei collide together
• Like fusion, fission also releases energy stored
to make larger nuclei, and energy is released in
in the nucleus of an atom. However, not as much
the form of electromagnetic radiation.
energy is released from fission as from fusion.
• Requires extremely high temperatures and Still, the energy released per gram of material by
pressures beyond those found on or within Earth. fission is considerably more than the energy
However, these temperatures and pressures are released by burning a comparable amount of
found inside stars and did occur during the initial wood, oil, gasoline, etc. Fission of uranium-235
formation of our universe(during the Big Bang atoms is used in nuclear power plants to produce
event). energy.
• Fusion involves only the nuclei of atoms. At the
temperatures at which fusion can occur, matter
exists as a plasma. This is the state of matter
where the electrons have been stripped off of the
atoms. Plasma is basically a super high energy,
electrically charged gas.
• When nuclei collide, some of the mass of the
nuclei is converted to energy by Einstein’s
famous equation, E=mc2
• Fission also occurs naturally within the layers of
the earth as radioactive elements in rocks

• Fission
- Making two or more smaller nuclei from a
spontaneously decay to more stable elements, larger nucleus
creating a natural source of heat within the earth. - Fission is the process of splitting an atom.
You also contain a small proportion of radioactive
isotopes within your body. These isotopes decay
naturally, releasing radiation. Therefore, you are
slightly radioactive too! So is the banana you ate
for breakfast!
Nuclear Reactions can be Represented by
Nuclear Equations
• Fusion
- Making a larger nucleus from two or more
smaller nuclei
- Nuclear fusion is the process by which
multiple small atomic nuclei join together
to form a heavier nucleus.
Radioactivity equivalent to a He nuclei. Energy is also
released in the process.
• Radioactivity is the release of energy,in the form
- As a result, the mass number of the
of energetic particles and waves, from the nuclei
remaining nucleus decreases by 4 and the
of unstable(radioactive) isotopes. Radioactive
atomic number decreases by 2. A new
atoms undergo fission-type reactions in order to
element is formed in the process!
try to become more stable nuclei with lower
energies.Radioactive atoms are called
radioisotopes.
• The nuclei of unstable, radioactive isotopes
have the wrong ratio of neutrons to protons (n/p).
Generally, it is too high. When n/p of an isotope
falls between 1 to 1.5, the nucleus is stable
(within the “Band of Stability” on a n0 vs. p+ plot).
Outside of that range, nuclei tend to be unstable
and break apart over time. This “breaking apart”
of unstable nuclei over time and the Beta Decay
accompanying release of nuclear particles and
- In beta decay of an unstable nucleus, a
energy is called radioactive decay.
neutron suddenly changes to a proton,
releasing an electron, a ghostly, low mass
particle called a neutrino (not pictured),
and energy!
- As a result, the atomic number of the
remaining nucleus increases by 1 but the
mass number does not change. A new
element is formed!
- Note: The released electron did not come
from outside the nucleus. It came from
inside the nucleus. It is called a beta ()
Particle.

When an
unstable
nucleus
decays,
there are
three ways
that it can do so. It may give out:-
• an alpha particle (we use the symbol )
• a beta particle (symbol )
Gamma Decay
• a gamma ray (symbol )
- In gamma decay, an unstable nucleus
Alpha Decay releases a high energy form of
electromagnetic radiation (light) called a
- In alpha decay, an unstable nucleus
gamma () particle or a gamma ray. This
releases two neutrons and two protons.
particle of light is also known as a photon.
This is called an alpha () particle. It is
- The energy is released as the protons and
neutrons in the unstable nucleus
reposition themselves in an attempt to find
a lower energy arrangement.
 - Since no protons or neutrons are
released, the mass number and atomic
number of the nucleus remain unchanged,
and no new element is formed. Gamma
decay usually accompanies alpha and
beta decay.
Identifying alpha and beta decay REACTIONS
Alpha Decay:
- Alpha decay is one process that unstable
atoms can use to become more stable.
During alpha decay, an atom's nucleus
sheds two protons and two neutrons in a
packet that scientists call an alpha
particle.
- Since an atom loses two protons during
alpha decay, it changes from one element
to another. For example, after undergoing
alpha decay, an atom of uranium (with 92
protons) becomes an atom of thorium
(with 90 protons).
The reaction above would be written as:
(with the He
representing the
alpha particle)
Beta Decay:
 - During beta decay, a neutron turns into a
proton and an electron. The electron is
emitted and is called a beta particle. This
reaction would be written as:

BALANCING NUCLEAR EQUATIONS

- In a balanced nuclear equation, the sum
of the mass numbers and the sum of the
atomic numbers for the nuclei of the
reactant

and the products must be equal.

LESSON 2: PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Physical Properties
Density
- Amount of mass in a given volume
- A substance is always the same at a given
pressure and temperature regardless of
the size of the sample of the substance.
- The density of one substance is usually
different from that of another substance.
- Density equals mass divided by volume.
- D=m/v