ST. GREGORY’S COLLEGE, LAGOS.

2022/2023 ACADEMIC SESSION

3RD TERM CALENDAR

AND

HOLIDAY ASSIGNMENT
TEST
 WEEK
Resumption
Thursday, 20th April, 2023
Sunday , 23rd April, 2023
Tuesday , 25th April, 2023
Friday, 28th April, 2023
Monday, 1st May, 2023
Tuesday,16th May, 2023
Thursday, 18th May, 2023
Friday, 19th May, 2023
Sunday, 21st May,2023
Wednesday, 24th May, 2023
Saturday, 27th May, 2023
Friday, 2nd June, 2023
Monday, 5th June, 2023 to Friday, 9th
June, 2023
Monday, 12th June, 2023
Tuesday, 13th June, 2023
Monday , 19th June, 2023 to Thursday,
22nd June, 2023
Friday, 23rd June, 2023
Sunday, 25th June, 2023
Wednesday,28th June, 2023 &
Thursday, 29th June, 2023
ACTIVITY
Pre –
Staff Meeting/Resumption for Teachers
1 Boarders’ Resumption
“ General Resumption Date
“ Submission of Test/Examination Questions
2 Workers’ Day
4 1st Continuous Assessment Tests Begin
“ Solemnity of the Ascension of the Lord
“ 1st Continuous Assessment Tests End
5 Visiting Day for Boarders
“ 1st Novel Reading Seminar and Tests
“ Children’s Day
6 Open Day/ PTA Meeting
7 Mid-Term Break
Democracy Day/Resumption from Mid-Term Break
8
(Boarders)
“ 2nd Half of Term Begins
9 2nd Continuous Assessment Tests
10 2nd Novel Reading Seminar and Tests
“ Visiting Day for Boarders
“ Eid-al-Adha (Public Holiday)
Monday, 3rd July, 2023 to Thursday,
11-12 3rd Term Examinations
13th July,2023
Wednesday, 19th July, 2023 13 Excursions
Friday, 21st July, 2023 “ Summer Vacation
Saturday, 22nd July,2023 “ Submission of End of Term Report
Sunday, 20th August,2023 SSS3 Resumption
Monday, 18th September, 2023 General Resumption Date for 2023/2024 Academic Session

English language
Formal Letter Format
 Sender's address.
 Date.
 Name / Designation of Addressee.
 Address of the Addressee.
 Salutation.
 Subject.
 Body – Introduction, Content, Conclusion.
 Complimentary Close.

Features of an informal letter

 A friendly opening and close.
 A date.
 Informal and chatty language.
 Written in first person.
 Paragraphs.
 Addresses of the sender and recipient (depending on the type of letter)
Comparison Chart
BASIS FOR
FORMAL LETTER INFORMAL LETTER
COMPARISON
Meaning A formal letter is a letter, written in A letter written in an friendly
formal language, in the stipulated manner, to someone you are familiar
format, for official purpose. with, is called informal letter.
Objective Professional Communication Personal Communication
Format Written in prescribed format only. No prescribed format.
Written in First person - Business letters, third First, second or third person.
person - others.
Written to Business, college/institute, employer, Friends, family, acquaintances etc.
organizations, etc.
Voice Passive Active
Sentences Long and complex Short and simple
Size Concise Large or concise
Contractions and Avoided
Abbreviations

Basic science

CHANGES IN NON-LIVING THINGS

You have learnt in our previous lesson that matter can be a living thing or non-living thing. You
have also learnt that matter exists in three states: solid, liquid, gaseous states. Matter undergoes
some changes when exposed to some conditions like heat, light or air. Matter can change from
solid to liquid state, liquid to gaseous state and from gaseous to liquid state again, depending on
the temperature. Matter undergoes different types of changes.

In this lesson, you will learn about changes in non-living things, and the characteristics of these
changes.

TYPES OF CHANGES IN NON-LIVING THINGS

Non-living things do not grow, they do not move or feel. However, non-living things can
undergo changes. They can be made to change from one state to another. They can be made to
form new substances. They can combine with other substances to form new substances. Changes
in which new substances are formed are referred to as chemical changes. The changes in which
no new substances are formed are called physical changes. The following activities will help you
to observe and identify these two types of changes in non-living things.

Basic technology
Definition: Airflow can be defined as the continuous and steady movement of air in a particular
direction or at random movement.
Generation of Air: Air can be generated in various ways. Some of these ways include:
i. Fan
ii. Mouth
iii. Air pump
iv. Bellow

Mechanical Properties Of Air

The mechanical properties of air are weight, atmospheric pressure and the relationship between
pressure, temperature and speed.

Weight:  That air weighs something can be experimented with an empty balloon. If filled with
air, the balloons original weight increases.
Again, since cold air has weight more than hot air, it is found useful in hot-air-balloon, in which
the heavier air, which is below, pushes up the hot-air balloon.

Atmospheric Pressure: This is the same thing as air pressure. This pressure is defined as the force
per unit area, written mathematically as P = F/A. e.g siphoning, etc.
This is found useful in vacuum cleaner, that sucks in dust particles on the rug and store in the
dust bag.
The instrument used in measuring air pressure is called barometer.
Sound: Air produces sound as it passes through a narrow path, as it is found in trumpets and
flutes.
Others: Other application of air-flow is in air crafts. The  high speed that discharges at the rear of
the engine and thus pushes the aircraft forward.
Again, since air pressure decreases with increase in height, aircrafts are able to travel at a higher
altitude.
Extremes of Air flow
There are two extremes of air flow, namely:
 Laminar Air Flow: This is a steady flow of air . It is also called streamline flow.
Turbulent Flow: This is the unsteady speed flow of air. Sometimes it is a forced
air flow.  E.g.    

        

Pneumatics Devices
Pneumatics is a device that makes use of compressed air to do useful work. Such devices make
use of cylinders to produce force or linear motion at changing speeds. Generally, both
pneumatics and hydraulic devices are used for the following purposes.
·        For pushing
·        For pulling and
·        For lifting
Pneumatic devices include the following:
Hand Pump: These are of different types, they are used to inflate tyres, balloons, balls etc. the
hand pump has a plunger which sucks in and pushes out air at the barrel cylinder.

Hand pump

Compressor Machine: This is used by vulcanizers, while the modified one is used as a spray
machine on several products. E.g.

Hydraulic Devices
Hydraulics are devices that make use of fluids orliquids to push, pull and lift materials in a
machine. They include the following:
Hydraulic Jack: This jack has two main parts – the handle and the lever which is connected by
two pistons which raises the lever that raises the load (car).
Suction And Double Acting Pumps: These are locally manually operated pumps used for lifting
liquids and gases from reservoirs. e.g.

Double Acting pump

Garden Sprinkler: The sprinkler is used in water gardens. It has jets which issuesout water at a
given speed about an axis.e.g.

Water sprinklers.

Water Wheel: This wheel can be used to create mechanical energy in grinding, milling and
electric power machines.

P.H.E
Circulatory system

What is the circulatory system?

Your heart and blood vessels make up the circulatory system. The main function of the
circulatory system is to provide oxygen, nutrients and hormones to muscles, tissues and organs
throughout your body. Another part of the circulatory system is to remove waste from cells and
organs so your body can dispose of it.
Your heart pumps blood to the body through a network of arteries and veins (blood vessels).
Your circulatory system can also be defined as your cardiovascular system. Cardio means heart,
and vascular refers to blood vessels.

What does the circulatory system do?

The circulatory system’s function is to move blood throughout the body. This blood circulation
keeps organs, muscles and tissues healthy and working to keep you alive.

The circulatory system also helps your body get rid of waste products. This waste includes:

 Carbon dioxide from respiration (breathing).

 Other chemical byproducts from your organs.
 Waste from things you eat and drink.

How does the circulatory system work?

Your circulatory system functions with the help of blood vessels that include arteries, veins and
capillaries. These blood vessels work with your heart and lungs to continuously circulate blood
through your body. Here’s how:

1. The heart’s bottom right pumping chamber (right ventricle) sends blood that’s low in
oxygen (oxygen-poor blood) to the lungs. Blood travels through the pulmonary trunk (the
main pulmonary artery).
2. Blood cells pick up oxygen in the lungs.
3. Pulmonary veins carry the oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart’s left atrium
(upper heart chamber).
4. The left atrium sends the oxygenated blood into the left ventricle (lower chamber). This
muscular part of the heart pumps blood out to the body through the arteries.
5. As it moves through your body and organs, blood collects and drops off nutrients,
hormones and waste products.
6. The veins carry deoxygenated blood and carbon dioxide back to the heart, which sends
the blood to the lungs.
7. Your lungs get rid of the carbon dioxide when you exhale.

ANATOMY

What are the circulatory system parts?

The parts of your circulatory system are your:

 Heart, a muscular organ that pumps blood throughout your body.

 Blood vessels, which include your arteries, veins and capillaries.
 Blood, made up of red and white blood cells, plasma and platelets.

What are the circulatory system circuits?

Your circulatory system has three circuits. Blood circulates through your heart and through these
circuits in a continuous pattern:

 The pulmonary circuit: This circuit carries blood without oxygen from the heart to the
lungs. The pulmonary veins return oxygenated blood to the heart.
 The systemic circuit: In this circuit, blood with oxygen, nutrients and hormones travels
from the heart to the rest of the body. In the veins, the blood picks up waste products as
the body uses up the oxygen, nutrients and hormones.
 The coronary circuit: Coronary refers to your heart’s arteries. This circuit provides the
heart muscle with oxygenated blood. The coronary circuit then returns oxygen-poor
blood to the heart’s right upper chamber (atrium) to send to the lungs for oxygen.

What are the types of blood vessels?

There are three main types of blood vessels:

 Arteries: Arteries are thin, muscular tubes that carry oxygenated blood away from the
heart and to every part of your body. The aorta is the body’s largest artery. It starts at the
heart and travels up the chest (ascending aorta) and then down into the stomach
(descending aorta). The coronary arteries branch off the aorta, which then branch into
smaller arteries (arterioles) as they get farther from your heart.
 Veins: These blood vessels return oxygen-depleted blood to the heart. Veins start small
(venules) and get larger as they approach your heart. Two central veins deliver blood to
your heart. The superior vena cava carries blood from the upper body (head and arms) to
the heart. The inferior vena cava brings blood up from the lower body (stomach, pelvis
and legs) to the heart. Veins in the legs have valves to keep blood from flowing
backward.
 Capillaries: These blood vessels connect very small arteries (arterioles) and veins
(venules). Capillaries have thin walls that allow oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and
waste products to pass into and out of cells.

What are the circulatory system organs?

Your heart is the only circulatory system organ. Blood goes from the heart to the lungs to get
oxygen. The lungs are part of the respiratory system. Your heart then pumps oxygenated blood
through arteries to the rest of the body.

CONDITIONS AND DISORDERS

What conditions affect the circulatory system?

Many conditions can affect the health of your circulatory system, including:

 Aneurysms: Aneurysms occur when an artery wall weakens and enlarges. The weak spot
can bulge as blood moves through the artery. The weak spot may tear, causing a life-
 threatening rupture. Aneurysms can affect any artery, but aortic aneurysms, abdominal
aortic aneurysms and brain aneurysms are the most common.
 High blood pressure: Your arteries work hard to circulate blood throughout the body.
When the pressure (force of blood against the blood vessel walls) gets too high, you
develop high blood pressure. When the arteries become less elastic (stretchy), less blood
and oxygen reaches organs like the heart. High blood pressure puts you at risk for
cardiovascular disease, heart attacks and strokes.
 Plaque deposits: High cholesterol and diabetes can lead to fat and other substances
collecting in the blood. These substances form deposits called plaques on artery walls.
This condition is atherosclerosis, or narrowed or hardened arteries. Atherosclerosis
increases the risk of blood clots and strokes, coronary artery disease, peripheral artery
disease (and other artery diseases), heart attacks and kidney disease.
 Venous disease: Venous diseases tend to affect veins in the lower body. Problems
like chronic venous insufficiency and varicose veins occur when blood can’t flow back to
the heart and pools in leg veins. Deep vein thrombosis (DVT), a blood clot in the legs,
can lead to a life-threatening pulmonary embolism.

CARE

How can I prevent circulatory system problems?

These steps can protect the health of your circulatory system:

 Aim for at least 150 minutes of physical activity every week.

 Eat a heart-healthy diet rich in vegetables and fiber and low in saturated fats and
processed foods. Consider a Mediterranean-style diets or plant-based diet, as they appear
to be the most heart healthy.
 Find healthy ways to ease stress.
 Maintain a healthy weight.
 Manage conditions like diabetes, high blood pressure and high cholesterol.
 Get help to quit smoking.

Business studies
Advertising media

Advertising media is an umbrella term referring to a mixture of all types of media, including the
internet, TV, radio, magazines, newspapers, and billboards. It can be used to get people to buy a
product or service by persuading them of its benefits.
Advertising media is the type of media used to promote a product, service, or concept via an
advertisement. The five major types of advertising media are:
1) Print Media - This is the oldest form of advertising. It is used primarily in newspapers and
magazines. Its use became widespread at the beginning of the 20th century due to extensive
literacy and the availability of paper for mass printing.
2) TV Advertising Media - TV advertisement is a very popular form of advertising which was
first introduced in the 1950s and subsequently expanded rapidly with help from fast-paced sound
bites and catchy music that ad created through soundtracks
3) Digital Advertising Media - The most recent form of advertising which has seen rapid changes
since its inception in the late 1990s, especially with help from social networks like Facebook,
Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat
Types of Advertising Media
Advertising mediums are organized around specific types of advertising such as print
advertising, radio advertisements, television advertisements, and digital advertising.
Different types of advertising mediums are more effective for reaching different target
demographics. It is important for a business to diversify their advertising strategy to reach the
maximum amount of people within their target audience in the most effective and efficient
manner.

Print

Magazine and newspaper advertising is one of the most important forms of traditional
advertising. Print advertising has been around since the early 18th century, and it's still a relevant
marketing tool today. It promotes brands, products, and services through print advertisements.
Print ads are also used as a form of marketing strategy to help generate leads for sales in the
future.
There are many different forms of print advertising. The purpose behind these varying forms can
be found in the types of advertisers, the readership, and their target audience.
Examples of print advertisements include:

 Magazine spreads
 Flyers
 Postcards
 Newspaper adverts
 Catalogs

Television

There are two major types of ads one will see on television. The most common among these are
commercials.
Commercial: A communication containing an announcement of something for sale; an ad that is
intended to sell goods or services directly to consumers through verbal or visual means. These
are usually scheduled during breaks in a tv program, such as a movie or an episodic show.
The other major type of advertisement one will see on television is product placement.
Product Placement: This refers to the inclusion of corporate or brand logos, products, services,
and trademarks in TV shows or movies for purposes such as brand awareness, promotion,
marketing, and entertainment. In contrast to advertisement that is not supported by a TV show or
by a commercial. The purpose of these advertisements are to sell products directly to the
audience watching them and are usually shown during commercial breaks in television
programming.
Television advertisements can also be seen in the forms of infomercials and telethons, though
these are less common to come across as they usually air late at night or during specific
fundraising seasons for public access channels such as PBS.

Outdoor Signage

Outdoor advertising can be seen in a wide spectrum of forms like blimps, billboards, air banners,
ground banners and more. It is incredibly popular in the United States. It is one of the most
effective ways to reach large amount of people within a short time span.

Home economics
TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO TEXTILE STUDY.

Textile fibers are very important to man because, they're used to produce many fabrics. People
are satisfied when the clothes and house article are made with fabric of their choice, because of
this there is need to have knowledge of what textile is all about, be able to identify their
properties, uses and its types.

THE MEANING OF TEXTILE

Textile is a flexible woven materials consisting of a network of a natural and artificial fibers
usually referred to as threads or yarns. The term textile, fabric and cloth are often use
interchangeably in the tailoring, but cloth is the finished piece of fabric e.g. table cloth, dress etc.
textile is any material made be interlacing fibers, and fabrics is an material made of weaving,
knitting, crocheting etc. that may be used in production of further goods.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF TEXTILE FIBRES

1. Linen                                              
2. Wool

3. Cotton

4. Nylon

5. Polyester

6. Silk etc.

BASIC TEXTILE TERMS

These are terms associated with textile, they are:

1. Fiber: it is like a hair, it is a basic unit of raw material used in making yarns and fabrics e.g.
cotton, wool etc.

2. Fabric: this is any cloth constructed with yarns or directly from fibers by weaving, knitting,
crocheting etc. A woven fabric is made up of two set of yarns or threads which are warp and
weft.

3. Yarn: this is the thread made by twisting fibers.

4. The warp: this is the yarn that runs lengthwise in woven fabrics. It is parallel to the selvedge.

5. The weft: this is the set of threads or yarns which cross the warp at right angle and also the
selvedge.

6: Bias: this is the diagonal direction across the two grain lines warp and weft.

7. The selvedge: this is the narrow edge of a woven fabric that runs parallel to the warp.

8. True bias: this makes an angle of 45° across the lengthwise and crosswise grains. It is the
greatest stretch.

9. Grains: this refers to the direction of yarns in a fabric.

10. Dyeing: this is the process of applying a relatively permanent color to fiber, yarn or fabric.

11. The wrong side (ws): this is side of the fiber that is worn inside.
12. The right side (RS): this is the side worn inside.

Agricultural science
4 Fundamental Factors to Consider When Choosing Packaging Materials
The life of a retail product can be surprisingly complex. There are all kinds of steps
and stages involved between a manufacturer sending it out and a customer getting it
home. Each one is an essential part of the purchasing process and represents a hundred
different commitments; from designers and marketing experts to logistics teams,
haulage operations, distribution centres, vendors, retail staff, customers, and more.
This is why it’s really important to make sure that the item of value at the heart of all
this – be it a hat for a wedding or a vacuum-packed sandwich – is protected
throughout. With the right packaging, this is easily achieved, but how do you know
which options are the best? There’s a lot of choice on offer and it can be tricky
sometimes to know what to look for.
Fortunately, the experts at Venus Packaging are here to help. We’ve put together this
guide to the essential features that your packaging materials need to have.
Secure and Durable

While all packaging should be reasonably strong, the amount of protection needed will
of course, depend on the fragility of your product. If you’re selling food items for
example, freshness is a top priority. Things like bread, vegetables, sliced meats, and
baked goods must be contained, so that they don’t oxidise and age faster than
necessary.  Vacuum sealers  are a good choice because they remove the air and hold the
product securely in place.
Affordable and Easy to Use

The more complex the packaging, the longer it will take you to prepare products for
sale. Customers aren’t too fond of overly fussy packets either, so keep things simple
with heat-sealed ‘pull open’ bags and clear, unobtrusive shrink wrap. If the packaging
isn’t integrated with your branding or brand design, make sure that it doesn’t interfere
with or disrupt it. This is particularly vital when it comes to things like   book covers ,
which need to be protected in a way that doesn’t obscure any important details.  
Always Widely Available

Packaging supplies are one of those things that you’ll run out of from time to time.
While sales figures will give you a good idea of what to buy and how much, there’s no
real way to predict if or when you’ll experience a spike. For this reason, we
recommend working with the same packaging supplier every time. Build up a trusted
relationship, so that availability is always guaranteed and you’re never struggling to
find a manufacturer that can meet your demands. If you’re on the hunt for a packaging
supplier, head over to  our contact page  and get in touch.
Eco-Friendly and Legally Compliant

You’ll also need to check that your packaging supplier is adhering to all of the
necessary state and national laws. The Australian government has set up the
Australian Packaging Covenant to encourage all businesses to reduce their carbon
footprint and sustainable packaging is a big part of this. At Venus Packaging, we only
use quality materials, so that more strength, more security, and more protection can be
enjoyed with less of an impact on the environment.

C.R.S
Peter’s First Speech

Acts 2:14–41

Overview

Speeches in a public space weren’t uncommon in first century Palestine. Furthermore, it may have

been expected that a speech would follow the current events of Jesus’ life, death, and resurrection.

What is interesting about this speech is that it is delivered to us in a Greek format, but Peter would

most likely not have delivered it in such a way. Luke is writing to a Greek audience and he puts

this speech in terms they’d understand and be able to follow. This speech’s domain is a Greco-
Roman rhetorical oratory with Jewish subject matters. In fact, scholars have suggested that Luke

“Sepuagintalized” this speech, meaning that Luke took phrases and words from the Septuagint

(the Greek translation of the Old Testament [which is usually in Hebrew]). First, verses 14–21

refute the accusations, verses 22–36 turns the attack back on the accusers, and it ends with Peter

offering the appropriate response in verses 41–42.

This speech was the first appeal to the Jews to repent and believe in Jesus. In fact, it is the first of

many appeals to the Jewish people to repent. We see this motif throughout the entire book of Acts

(3:19; 10:43; 11:18). Peter uses the phrase “those who are far off” and it is tempting to assume he

is referring to Gentiles. However, it is of crucial importance to understand that this speech was

directed toward the Jews. It seemed that Peter, as well as Luke, agreed with Paul that salvation

was first for the Jews and then for the Gentiles (Romans 1:16).

Yet the purpose of this event and this speech was to highlight a huge transition in history. This

“transition was extensive. Ethnically, there was a transition from dealing primarily with Jews to

dealing with both Jew and Gentile without distinction. There was also a transition in the people

with whom God was dealing, from Israel to the church. Likewise, there was a transition in the

principle on which God was dealing with men, from Law to grace. There was a transition from

the offer to Israel of an earthly Davidic kingdom to the offer to all men of salvation based on the

death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. There was a transition from the prospect of Messiah’s

coming to the historical fact that the promised One had come. There was a transition from the

promise that the Spirit would be given to the historical fact that the Spirit had come.

“Again, all these transitions were made positionally in the brief period of time from the death of

Christ to the Day of Pentecost. Yet experientially these truths were understood and entered into

only over a span of some four decades. The Book of Acts records the positional transition as well

as the experiential transition in the development of the theocratic kingdom program.” (Pentecost)
Background

Third hour of the day — People would typically get drunk at night during a banquet or social

events. The third hour of the day was 9 AM and Peter was remarking how absurd this accusation

would have been.

Blood, fire, and columns of smoke — This was the language and imagery of war.

Baptism — This was typically a practice reserved for Gentiles who decided to convert to Judaism.
Peter’s suggestion for this practice to used, for Jews to be baptized, would have been offensive

and would have caused them to be turned off by his suggested response. This baptism, however,

would have been different from other baptisms, as Peter called the potential converts to confess

and call on the name of Jesus.

Key Ideas

Standing — Peter stands for this speech, showing that it was meant to be an oration. This also

shows that he stood as the representative of the Apostles.

Types of Speeches — There appears to be types of speeches or elements to speeches within the

writing of Scripture. Theologians have suggested six types:

1. kerugma — the proclamation of the facts

2. didache — the teaching

3. paraklesis — the exhortation

4. homilia — the treatment of a subject or area of life in view of the Christian message
5. prophesia — a word from God, be it new revelation or old

6. apologia — a defense of the Gospel

“Often the speaker combined two or more of these kinds of addresses into one message as Peter

did in the sermon that follows. Here we find defense (vv. 14–21), proclamation (vv. 22–36), and

exhortation (vv. 37–41). This speech is an excellent example of forensic rhetoric, the rhetoric of

defense and attack.” (Barclay & Witherington)

Repentance — μετανοέω (metanoeó) is from the two Greek words metá meaning “changed after

being with” and noiéō meaning to “think” or “reconsider.” So, properly, it means to think or

reconsider a matter after having been affected by something or someone. Literally, it means to

think differently afterwards.

Generation — The Greek word translated “generation” (genea) sometimes has a wider scope than

simply all the people living within the same generational period. It has a metaphorical meaning

here, as elsewhere (e.g., Matt. 17:17; Mark 9:19; 13:30; Luke 9:41; 16:8). It means “a race of men

very like each other in endowments, pursuits, character, and, especially in a bad sense, a perverse

race.” Here the reference seems to be to unbelieving Jews of all time, but particularly those living

during Peter’s lifetime. “Generation” in this larger sense is virtually the same as “race.”

(Constable)

References

Joel 2:28–32 — The reference to this passage shows that Luke and Peter see the current context

as the ending age, and that the Old Testament promises are being fulfilled in the lives of those

who follow Jesus. There is much to say about the purpose of Peter quoting this passage in his
address to the listeners, but perhaps the most notable observation is simply the urgency for

everyone to call on the name of Jesus, as we are now beginning the end.

(Some commentators argue that that the entirety of Joel’s prophecy was fulfilled that day at

Pentecost. Other commentators argue that only some of what Joel prophesied came to be that day.

Still other commentators believe that Peter was not making a claim as to this prophecy being

fulfilled at all, but just drawing on a comparison or even using it as metaphor. To say one view is

accurate and the others aren’t demands an interpreter to do extensive eschatological study that

will not be addressed here.)

“Peter made a significant change in Joel’s prophecy as he quoted it from the Septuagint, and this

change supports the view that he was not claiming complete fulfillment. First, he changed “after

this” (Joel 2:28) to “in the last days” (Acts 2:17). In the context of Joel’s prophecy the time in

view is the day of the Lord: the Tribulation (Joel 2:30–31) and the Millennium (Joel 2:28–29).

Peter interpreted this time as the last days. Many modern interpreters believe that when Peter said

“the last days” he meant the days in which he lived. However, he was not in the Tribulation or the

Millennium. Thus he looked forward to the last days as being future. The “last days” is a phrase

that some New Testament writers used to describe the age in which we live (2 Tim. 3:1; Heb. 1:2;

James 5:3; 1 Pet. 1:5, 20; 2 Pet. 3:3; 1 John 2:18; Jude 18), but in view of what Joel wrote that

must not be its meaning here. In the Old Testament “the last days” refers to the days before the

age to come, namely, the age of Messiah’s earthly reign. That is what it means here.” (Constable)

Psalm 16:8–11 — This verse is said to be the clearest prediction of the Messiah’s resurrection.

“Peter quotes from Psalm 16, not to teach that Christ is on the Davidic throne, but rather to show

that David predicted the resurrection and enthronement of Christ after His death. The

enthronement on David’s throne is a yet-future event while the enthronement at His Father’s right

hand is an accomplished fact.” (Pentecost)

Psalm 110:1 — “Peter then added a second evidence that Jesus was the Christ. He had proved that

David had prophesied Messiah’s resurrection (v. 27). Now he said that David also prophesied the

Messiah’s ascension (Ps. 110:1). This was a passage from the Old Testament that Jesus had

earlier applied to Himself (Matt. 22:43–44; Mark 12:35–37; Luke 20:41–42). It may have been

Jesus’ use of this passage that enabled His disciples to grasp the significance of His resurrection.

It may also have served as the key to their understanding of these prophecies of the messiah in the

Old Testament.

“David evidently meant that the LORD (Yahweh, God the Father) said the following to David’s

Lord (Adonai, Master, evidently a reference to Messiah or possibly Solomon). David may have

composed this psalm on the occasion of Solomon’s coronation as Israel’s king. Clearly it is an

enthronement psalm. Yahweh, the true King of Israel, extended the privilege of serving as His

administrator to Messiah (or Solomon), His vice-regent. Yahweh included a promise that He

would subdue His vice- regent’s enemies. Peter took this passage as a prophecy about David’s

greatest son, Messiah. Yahweh said to David’s Lord, Messiah, sit beside me and rule for me, and I

will subdue your enemies. This is something God the Father said to God the Son. Peter

understood David’s reference to his Lord as extending to the Messiah, David’s ultimate

descendant.” (Constable)

Quotes

“The miraculous is not self-authenticating, nor does it inevitably and uniformly convince. There

must also be the preparation of the heart and the proclamation of the message if miracles are to

accomplish their full purpose. This was true even for the miracle of the Spirit’s coming at

Pentecost. . . . All this prepares the reader for Peter’s sermon, which is the initial proclamation of

the gospel message to a prepared people.” — Longenecker

“Throughout Acts, the presence of the Spirit is seen as the distinguishing mark of Christianity —

it is what makes a person a Christian.” — Witherington

“Luke’s specific emphasis (and contribution) to New Testament pneumatology (the study of the

Spirit) is that the Holy Spirit was poured out on the church not just to incorporate each believer

into the body of Christ or provide the greater new covenant intimacy with him, but also to

consecrate the church to the task of worldwide prophetic ministry as defined in Luke 4:16- 30.”

— Russel

“The context of repentance which brings eternal life, and that which Peter preached on the day of

Pentecost, is a change of mind about Jesus Christ. Whereas the people who heard him on that day

formerly thought of Him as mere man, they were asked to accept Him as Lord (Deity) and Christ

(promised Messiah). To do this would bring salvation.” — Ryrie

Possible Discussion Ideas

 Peter was able to quote the Old Testament several times and offer insight to the Jews, the
people he was sent to. As we consider those we are sent to, are we able to build bridges
between their context and the Gospel?

 “Save yourselves from this crooked generation.” Peter’s generation was crooked and so is
ours. We are called to Jesus to be saved from this generation and then to go with Jesus to
bring people out of this crooked generation.

The Holy Spirit Comes at Pentecost

2 When the day of Pentecost came, they were all together in one place. 2 Suddenly a sound like
the blowing of a violent wind came from heaven and filled the whole house where they were
sitting. 3 They saw what seemed to be tongues of fire that separated and came to rest on each of
 them. 4 All of them were filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak in other tongues[a] as the
Spirit enabled them.
5 
Now there were staying in Jerusalem God-fearing Jews from every nation under heaven. 6 When
they heard this sound, a crowd came together in bewilderment, because each one heard their own
language being spoken. 7 Utterly amazed, they asked: “Aren’t all these who are speaking
Galileans? 8 Then how is it that each of us hears them in our native language? 9 Parthians, Medes
and Elamites; residents of Mesopotamia, Judea and Cappadocia, Pontus and Asia,
  Phrygia and Pamphylia, Egypt and the parts of Libya near Cyrene; visitors from
[b] 10 

Rome 11 (both Jews and converts to Judaism); Cretans and Arabs—we hear them declaring the
wonders of God in our own tongues!” 12 Amazed and perplexed, they asked one another, “What
does this mean?”
13 
Some, however, made fun of them and said, “They have had too much wine.”

Social studies
Facts, Concepts, and Generalizations or Big Ideas
Explanations, examples, and instructional ideas
Facts:
Fact is something that actually exists or existed, object or event, and can be verified by
observation. Facts are single occurrences.
Examples:
 The American flag is red, white, and blue.
 My birthday is in January.
 A square is a plane figure with four straight equal sides and right angles.
 A triangle is a plane figure with three straight sides and three angles.
 Temperature is the measure of heat energy. 
Concepts
Concept - An idea about a particular phenomenon people abstract from specific experiences. The
idea includes all the properties that distinguish examples of the concept from all the non
examples of the concept.
Examples:
 Flowering plants have flowers that develop into fruits, roots, stems, and leaves.
 Heat energy is the random or disorderly motion of molecules.
The following are also concepts: area, volume, density, flowers, energy, light, magnifying glass,
animals, rock, soil, erosion, magnet, force,
Concepts summarize and categorize objects. The difficulty of learning a concept depends on the
number of properties or characteristics, the abstractness or concreteness, and the reasoning that
connects the properties or characteristics.
The abstractness of a concept is related to how the concept can be experienced.
 Sensory - often physical observation and manipulation of the actual object(s): playing with a
puppy, bacon sizzling, burnt toast, media, sphere, cube, solids, liquids, …
 Concrete visual representation with models or diagrams or mental images: solar system, cell,
heart, outline, plot, mixture, solution, temperature, density ...
 Abstraction where physical observation and manipulation are not possible. Examples: fiction,
nonfiction, theme, tone, style, dystopian, politics, government, democracy, volume, atom, star,
fission, fusion, evolution.
Concepts are best introduced through physical observation and manipulation (hands on
exploration). Followed by a grand conversation; that provides a concept name, other examples,
and non examples. Some concepts can be experienced at all three levels: temperature hot - cold
to touch, concrete as read on a thermometer, and the abstractness of average kinetic molecular
energy.
Concepts can be made more concrete by defining them operationally.
Generalizations or Big Ideas
Generalizations are statements of a relationship between two or more concepts.
Examples:
 All matter has volume and mass.
 There is a relationship between an object's volume and surface area.
 Magnets attraction is stronger the closer they are to each other.
 Solids dissolve faster if they are smaller and the solution is warmer.
 Cold water will freeze faster than hot.
 Hot water will freeze faster than cold.
 Trees have growth rings that show a direct relationship between the age of a tree and the
environmental factors that affected the growth of that tree for that particular year.
 Core samples from different trees can be organized based on observations of similar properties
derived from the shape of their rings to match the rings of trees to the calendar year of their
growth. 
 The size, shape, and structure of an annual tree growth ring is a result of certain environmental
conditions that positively and negatively affected the growth of the tree during the growing
season.
 The rate heat energy is transferred is related to the number of collisions, size of particles, mass of
particles, (or density of particles) and the force of the collisions (temperature).
 Evaporation will increase as the surface area, air movement, and temperature of the liquid
increases.
 Plants grow from seeds. Generalization because it has three concepts plants, growth, and seeds. It
can also predict future occurrences of the relationship - plants growing from seeds... It is also a
summary statement not a one time occurrence.
Considerations to facilitate construction of generalizations
 Notice generalizations require understanding of each concept and a relationship to have meaning.
 They are also summary statements of relationships between concepts, summary statements of
cause and effect, summary statements of predictions of future relationships, and a generalized
condition of fact, all dogs have canines.
 Therefore, An implication for teaching is that in order for learners to generalize, they must have
multiple examples from which to construct a generalization.
 Generalizations are powerful as they provide a way to consolidate information to make it more
usable and easier to remember. Laws, principals, and theories are all kinds of generalizations.
These generalizations require the connection of concepts by a relationship.
 Relationships can only be built with direct observational evidence and reasoning. Good teaching
practices will mediate both.
 Remember - Most of the time people's conceptualizations are usually more similar than the ways
they use to communicate them. This is expressed by the way that a listener's eyes light up when
another person finds a word to describe to them what they have conceptualized, but has not been
sufficiently able to communicate. Which is followed by simultanefous smiles of agreement and a
simultaneous YES. 
 Conceptualization before communication, with communication following a hard and difficult
second, but learners that take the time to develop deeper ways to communicate and represent
their understanding are more likely to have stronger and greater connects for their understanding
to other ideas - resulting in richer more useable information that will increase their opportunities
to make connections to real life and to solve problems. 

Civic education
An electoral system or voting system is a set of rules that determine how elections
and referendums are conducted and how their results are determined. Electoral systems are used
in politics to elect governments, while non-political elections may take place in business, non-
profit organisations and informal organisations. These rules govern all aspects of the voting
process: when elections occur, who is allowed to vote, who can stand as a candidate, how ballots
are marked and cast, how the ballots are counted, how votes translate into the election outcome,
limits on campaign spending, and other factors that can affect the result. Political electoral
systems are defined by constitutions and electoral laws, are typically conducted by election
commissions, and can use multiple types of elections for different offices.
Some electoral systems elect a single winner to a unique position, such as prime minister,
president or governor, while others elect multiple winners, such as members of parliament or
boards of directors. When electing a legislature, areas may be divided into constituencies with
one or more representatives. Voters may vote directly for individual candidates or for a list of
candidates put forward by a political party or alliance. There are many variations in electoral
systems, with the most common systems being first-past-the-post voting, block voting, the two-
round (runoff) system, proportional representation and ranked voting. Some electoral systems,
such as mixed systems, attempt to combine the benefits of non-proportional and proportional
systems.
The study of formally defined electoral methods is called social choice theory or voting theory,
and this study can take place within the field of political science, economics, or mathematics, and
specifically within the subfields of game theory and mechanism design. Impossibility proofs
such as Arrow's impossibility theorem demonstrate that when voters have three or more
alternatives, no preferential voting system can guarantee the race between two candidates
remains unaffected when an irrelevant candidate participates or drops out of the election.

Types of electoral systems[edit]

Main articles: List of electoral systems and List of electoral systems by country
Map showing the main types electoral systems used to elect candidates to the lower or sole
(unicameral) house of national legislatures, as of January 2022.

  Majoritarian representation (winner-take-all)

  Proportional representation

  Mixed-member majoritarian representation

  Mixed-member proportional representation

  Semi-proportional representation (non-mixed)

  No election (e.g. Monarchy)

Plurality systems[edit]

Countries using first-past-the-post for legislatures.

Plurality voting is a system in which the candidate(s) with the highest number of votes wins,
with no requirement to get a majority of votes. In cases where there is a single position to be
filled, it is known as first-past-the-post; this is the second most common electoral system for
national legislatures, with 58 countries using it for this purpose,[1] the vast majority of which are
current or former British or American colonies or territories. It is also the second most common
system used for presidential elections, being used in 19 countries.[1]
In cases where there are multiple positions to be filled, most commonly in cases of multi-
member constituencies, plurality voting is referred to as block voting, multiple non-transferable
vote or plurality-at-large.[1] This takes two main forms: in one form voters have as many votes as
there are seats and can vote for any candidate, regardless of party – this is used in eight countries.
[1]
 There are variations on this system such as limited voting, where voters are given fewer votes
than there are seats to be filled (Gibraltar is the only territory where this system is in use)
[1]
 and single non-transferable vote (SNTV), in which voters can vote for only one candidate in a
multi-member constituency, with the candidates receiving the most votes declared the winners;
this system is used in Kuwait, the Pitcairn Islands and Vanuatu.[1] In the other main form of block
voting, also known as party block voting, voters can only vote for the multiple candidates of a
single party, with the party receiving the most votes winning all contested positions. This is used
in five countries as part of mixed systems.[1]
The Dowdall system, a multi-member constituency variation on the Borda count, is used
in Nauru for parliamentary elections and sees voters rank the candidates depending on how many
seats there are in their constituency. First preference votes are counted as whole numbers; the
second preference votes divided by two, third preferences by three; this continues to the lowest
possible ranking.[2] The totals achieved by each candidate determine the winners.[3]
Majority systems[edit]

Countries by electoral system used to (directly) elect their Head of State (President)

  Two-round system

  First-past-the-post

  Instant-runoff voting
Majority voting is a system in which candidates must receive a majority of votes to be elected,
either in a runoff election or final round of voting (although in some cases only a plurality is
required in the last round of voting if no candidate can achieve a majority). There are two main
forms of majoritarian systems, one conducted in a single election using ranked voting and the
other using multiple elections, to successively narrow the field of candidates. Both are primarily
used for single-member constituencies.
Majoritarian voting can be achieved in a single election using instant-runoff voting (IRV),
whereby voters rank candidates in order of preference; this system is used for parliamentary
elections in Australia and Papua New Guinea. If no candidate receives a majority of the vote in
the first round, the second preferences of the lowest-ranked candidate are then added to the
totals. This is repeated until a candidate achieves over 50% of the number of valid votes. If not
all voters use all their preference votes, then the count may continue until two candidates remain,
at which point the winner is the one with the most votes. A modified form of IRV is
the contingent vote where voters do not rank all candidates, but have a limited number of
preference votes. If no candidate has a majority in the first round, all candidates are excluded
except the top two, with the highest remaining preference votes from the votes for the excluded
candidates then added to the totals to determine the winner. This system is used in Sri
Lankan presidential elections, with voters allowed to give three preferences.[4]
The other main form of majoritarian system is the two-round system, which is the most common
system used for presidential elections around the world, being used in 88 countries. It is also
used in 20 countries for electing the legislature.[1] If no candidate achieves a majority of votes in
the first round of voting, a second round is held to determine the winner. In most cases the
second round is limited to the top two candidates from the first round, although in some elections
more than two candidates may choose to contest the second round; in these cases the second
round is decided by plurality voting. Some countries use a modified form of the two-round
system, such as Ecuador where a candidate in the presidential election is declared the winner if
they receive 40% of the vote and are 10% ahead of their nearest rival,[5] or Argentina (45% plus
10% ahead), where the system is known as ballotage.
An exhaustive ballot is not limited to two rounds, but sees the last-placed candidate eliminated in
each round of voting. Due to the potentially large number of rounds, this system is not used in
any major popular elections, but is used to elect the Speakers of parliament in several countries
and members of the Swiss Federal Council. In some formats there may be multiple rounds held
without any candidates being eliminated until a candidate achieves a majority, a system used in
the United States Electoral College.
Proportional systems[edit]

Countries by proportional electoral system (lower house or unicameral legislature):

  Party-list PR

  Single transferable vote

  Mixed member PR
Proportional representation is the most widely used electoral system for national legislatures,
with the parliaments of over eighty countries elected by various forms of the system.
Party-list proportional representation is the single most common electoral system and is used by
80 countries, and involves voters voting for a list of candidates proposed by a party. In closed
list systems voters do not have any influence over the candidates put forward by the party, but
in open list systems voters are able to both vote for the party list and influence the order in which
candidates will be assigned seats. In some countries, notably Israel and the Netherlands, elections
are carried out using 'pure' proportional representation, with the votes tallied on a national level
before assigning seats to parties. However, in most cases several multi-member constituencies
are used rather than a single nationwide constituency, giving an element of geographical
representation; but this can result in the distribution of seats not reflecting the national vote
totals. As a result, some countries have leveling seats to award to parties whose seat totals are
lower than their proportion of the national vote.
In addition to the electoral threshold (the minimum percentage of the vote that a party must
obtain to win seats), there are several different ways to allocate seats in proportional systems.
There are two main types of systems: highest average and largest remainder. Highest average
systems involve dividing the votes received by each party by a series of divisors, producing
figures that determine seat allocation; for example the D'Hondt method (of which there are
variants including Hagenbach-Bischoff) and the Webster/Sainte-Laguë method. Under largest
remainder systems, parties' vote shares are divided by the quota (obtained by dividing the total
number of votes by the number of seats available). This usually leaves some seats unallocated,
which are awarded to parties based on the largest fractions of seats that they have remaining.
Examples of largest remainder systems include the Hare quota, Droop quota, the Imperiali
quota and the Hagenbach-Bischoff quota.
Single transferable vote (STV) is another form of proportional representation; in STV,
voters rank candidates in a multi-member constituency rather than voting for a party list; it is
used in Malta and the Republic of Ireland. To be elected, candidates must pass a quota
(the Droop quota being the most common). Candidates that pass the quota on the first count are
elected. Votes are then reallocated from the least successful candidates, as well as surplus votes
from successful candidates, until all seats have been filled by candidates who have passed the
quota

Visual arts
When you think of graphic design, do you think of artistic advertisements? Eye-grabbing
graphics on websites? Stunningly arranged spreads in magazines? While these examples
certainly fit under the graphic design definition, the term encompasses a lot: posters,
infographics, book covers, product labels, logos, business cards, signs, website layouts, mobile
apps, software interfaces—the list goes on.

So what is graphic design, exactly? Listing these graphic design examples is a good start, but it
doesn’t paint the full picture. While covering the details and intricacies of the entire graphic
design field might not be possible in one article, this high-level overview will help you better
understand this creative career field.

If you’re at all interested in becoming a professional graphic designer, keep reading to learn
the basics of the field.

First, what is graphic design?

According to the  American Institute of Graphic Arts (AIGA), graphic design is defined as “the
art and practice of planning and projecting ideas and experiences with visual and textual
content.” In other terms, graphic design communicates certain ideas or messages in a visual way.
These visuals can be as simple as a business logo, or as complex as page layouts on a website.
“Graphic design takes graphical and textual elements and implements them into multiple types of
media,” says designer  Alexandros Clufetos, when asked to elaborate on the graphic design
definition. “It helps the producer connect with the consumer. It conveys the message of the
project, event, campaign or product.”

Graphic design can be used by companies to promote and sell products through advertising, by
websites to convey complicated information in a digestible way through infographics, or by
businesses to develop an identity through branding, among other things.

“Every day, we take many of the subtly artistic things around us for granted. But hidden in every
magazine corner, exit sign or textbook lies a set of design ideas that influence our perceptions,”
says Jacob Smith, founder of illustration studio  ProductViz.

It’s also important to remember that although many graphic design projects have commercial
purposes like advertisements and logos, it is also used in other contexts and graphic design work
is often created purely as a means for artistic expression.

Graphic design basics

To better understand the meaning of graphic design, it is important to be aware of the elements
and principles that make up design. Elements are used in conjunction or opposition with each
other to create visually striking and impactful designs.

These graphic design elements include:

 Color
 Form
 Line
 Shape
 Size
 Space
 Texture

Graphic designers also adhere to the principles of design, which are essentially a set of
guidelines that help a design achieve effective composition. These basic principles aid in creating
balance and stability for the piece of work.

These graphic design principles include:

 Balance
 Contrast
 Emphasis
 Movement
 Proportion
 Rhythm
You’ve heard the old saying that “rules are meant to be broken,” which can certainly ring true in
this case. But a good graphic designer must first understand these principles before making the
conscious decision to break them.

Types of graphic design

As mentioned earlier, there is no single graphic design meaning. Graphic design is composed of
many fields and specializations, ranging from print and web design to animation and motion
graphics. Graphic design offers opportunities and options for individuals of almost any interest.

If you’d asked someone 30 years ago to define graphic design, their answer would have likely
been focused on print-related examples like magazines, movie posters and advertisements. Now
we’re living in the digital age, which has given birth to several new types of graphic design.

Some of the most notable modern-day graphic design examples stem from advancements in
technology. Here’s a glimpse of some of these types of graphic design:

 Website design involves creating engaging and intuitive web pages for users. This
includes overall layout, color scheme and navigation.
 User experience (UX) design is focused on ensuring a website or application is easy and
satisfying to use. These designers emphasize value, usability, adoptability and
desirability.
 Motion graphics design—or animation—brings visual elements to life through special
effects, TV shows, video games and movies.
Common graphic design jobs

With technological advancements introducing new types of graphic design, there has also been
an emergence of new graphic design jobs. This evolution has changed the entire landscape of
careers in this field.

Demand for “traditional” graphic designers who work primarily for print publishers has fallen
substantially, but that doesn’t tell the whole story. Employment of graphic designers in computer
systems design services is projected to grow by 24 percent through 2028, according to
the  Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).1 Much of this demand is spurred by business’ and
organizations’ increased need for digital graphics and imagery as they aim to increase their
digital presence.

So with that said, what are some common graphic design job titles? We analyzed more than
30,000 job postings calling for a graphic design degree over the past year.2 The data helped us
determine the most common job titles:

 Graphic designer
 User experience (UX) designer
 Web designer
 Art director
 Creative director
As you can see, once armed with the proper knowledge and training, there are several graphic
design job options out there. You have the ability to cater your career to your personal skills and
interests.

Popular graphic design tools

Now that you know what type of jobs and specializations are out there, it’s helpful to familiarize
yourself with the graphic design tools that help get the job done. One of the most basic, and least
expensive, tools designers use is a sketchbook. Graphic designers will often sketch out ideas or
rough drafts on paper before turning to a computer to complete the process.

That being said, computers and design software are essentials in today’s digital climate, even if
you are designing for print. The type of computer you need is based on preference, but when it
comes to software, Adobe products such as Photoshop, Illustrator and InDesign are mainstays in
the graphic design world. If you are just beginning and don’t want to commit to the high price
tag Adobe products often carry, similar free open-source software such as  GIMP can help you
begin to master the basics.

Lastly, ideas and inspiration are what a graphic designer needs most. “You need to have a solid
concept serving as the foundation of your design and communication,” explains Chad
Birenbaum, co-founder of  Duckpin Design. “This concept and idea needs to work on paper first
and then the computer should be used as a tool to bring the concept to life.”

Graphic designers gain inspiration from the world around them, so if you are worried you aren’t
creative enough, go outside, bounce ideas off your peers or seek ideas from the internet. There
plenty of inspiring graphic design blogs that can help get your creative juices flowing.

Computer studies
Graphics Packages
Quick revise
A graphics package is an application that can be used to create and manipulate images on a
computer.
There are two main types of graphics package:

 painting packages
 drawing packages

Painting packages

 A painting package produces images by changing the colour of pixels on the screen.
 These are coded as a pattern of bits to create a bitmapped graphics file.
  Bitmapped graphics are used for images such as scanned photographs or pictures taken
with a digital camera.

Advantages

 The main advantage offered by this type of graphic is that individual pixels can be
changed which makes very detailed editing possible.

Disadvantages of painting packages

 Individual parts of an image cannot be resized;

 only the whole picture can be increased or decreased in size.
 Information has to be stored about every pixel in an image which produces files that use
large amounts of backing storage space.

Examples of graphics packages that produce bitmapped images include:- MS Paint, PC

Paintbrush, Adobe Photoshop and JASC’s Paint Shop Pro.
Drawing packages

 A drawing package produces images that are made up from coloured lines and shapes
such as circles, squares and rectangles.
 When an image is saved it is stored in a vector graphics file as a series of instructions,
which can be used to recreate it.

Main advantages of vector graphics are:

 They use less storage space than bitmap graphics;

 Each part of an image is treated as a separate object, which means that individual parts
can be easily modified.

Disadvantages of drawing packages

 They don’t look as realistic as bitmap graphics.

Examples of drawing graphics packages include CorelDraw, Micrographix Designer and

computer aided design (CAD) packages such as AutoCAD.
CAD in action - 'Walking with Dinosaurs'
This video looks at the use of CAD modelling for the television series 'Walking with Dinosaurs'.
A visual effects supervisor describes the combination of 3D models with filmed backgrounds to
produce a realistic effect for the BBC television series 'Walking with Dinosaurs'.

 
Common features of graphics packages
  Drawing straight lines and ‘freehand’ lines;
 Drawing regular pre-defined shapes like squares, rectangles and circles using a special
‘tool’;
 Entering text and changing the style and size of font;
 Changing the size of an object, or scaling;
 Rotating objects in either clockwise or anticlockwise by specifying the direction and
angle of rotation;
 Stretching objects either horizontally or vertically. ‘Flipping’ an object either horizontally
or vertically.
 A paint palette from which different colours and patterns can be chosen.


 A fill option for colouring in a shape or area on the screen with a colour or pattern from
the paint palette.
 Most graphics packages have a built-in library of clipart pictures.
 Zoom or magnify is a feature that allows an area of the screen to be seen close up for
detailed work.
 Special brushes such as an airbrush can be used to achieve different paint effects on the
screen.
 In most graphics these features are chosen from a toolbar or tool palette where they are
displayed as icons.
 Exporting is a special way of saving a file produced using a graphics package so that it
can be used in another application package.
 When an exported file is needed in another application it is opened in a special way
called importing.

Computer-aided design (CAD)

Computer-aided design, or CAD, is the use of a computer to display designs, accept any changes
to them and calculate and display the results.
CAD has many different applications, which include:-

 Designing new cars;

  Bridge and building design and testing;
 Printed circuit board (PCB) design;
 Designing new aircraft;
 Designing fitted kitchens.

Making changes to a design requires a large number of complex calculations. These need to be
performed as quickly as possible so that their effect can be viewed straight away.
A powerful processor is required for this. A CAD system also needs a high-resolution monitor so
that clear close-up detail can be seen on the screen.
Input to CAD systems is normally given using a mouse and keyboard but other input devices
such as graphic tablets and scanners are also used.
Output from a CAD system is produced using a high quality printer such as a laser printer or a
plotter.
The advantages of CAD systems are:-

 Changes to a design can be made quickly and their effects seen straight away;
 Designs can be viewed from any angle without being re-drawn;
 Designs can be tested without the need to build expensive models or prototypes;
 Drawings can be stored on disk and re-used at any time;
 Designs can be instantly sent anywhere in the world using electronic communications;
 Designs can be used directly in computer aided manufacturing processes.
History
The Ghana Empire, also known as Wagadou (Arabic: ‫ )غانا‬or Awkar, was a West African empire
based in the modern-day southeast of Mauritania and western Mali that existed from
c. 300 until c. 1100. The Empire was founded by the Soninke people, and was based in the city
of Koumbi Saleh.
Complex societies, some based on trans-Saharan trade in salt and gold had existed in the region
for centuries at the time of the empire's formation.[1] The introduction of the camel to the western
Sahara in the 3rd century AD served as a major catalyst for the transformative social changes
that resulted in the empire's formation. By the time of the Muslim conquest of North Africa in
the 7th century, the camel had changed the ancient, more irregular trade routes into a trade
network running from Morocco to the Niger River. The Ghana Empire grew rich from this
increased trans-Saharan trade in gold and slaves and salt, allowing for larger urban centers to
develop. The traffic furthermore encouraged territorial expansion to gain control over the
different trade routes.
When Ghana's ruling dynasty began remains uncertain among historians. The first identifiable
mention of the imperial dynasty in written records was made by Muḥ ammad ibn Mū sā al-
Khwā rizmī in 830.[2] Further information about the empire was provided by the accounts
of Cordoban scholar Al-Bakri when he wrote about the region in the 11th century.
After centuries of prosperity, the empire began its decline in the second millennium, and would
finally become a vassal state of the rising Mali Empire at some point in the 13th century. Despite
its collapse, the empire's influence can be felt in the establishment of numerous urban centers
throughout its former territory. In 1957, the British colony of the Gold Coast, under the
leadership of Kwame Nkrumah named itself Ghana upon independence in honor and
remembrance of the historic empire, although their geographic boundaries never overlapped.