THE SCIENTIFIC ENDEAVOUR

SCIENCE IS EVIDENCE BASED

We use our senses to make observations and they are called qualitative data. Qualitative
data consists of five senses which are sigh, hearing, touch, smell and taste. Quantitative
data is any data that can be measured using numerics or specific instruments for accuracy
with estimation of weight or volumes.

There are three types of variables. Independent variable, Dependant variables and
constant variables.
Independent variable Is any variable that Is changed in the experiment.
Dependant variable Is any variable that Is measured or controlled in the experiment.
Constant variable Is the variable that Isn’t changed in any way.

A scientific question Is usually accompanied by a proposed explanation for an

observation which Is a HYPOTHESIS.
Purpose of a hypothesis Is to explain the phenomenon or propose solutions to a problem.
Observations should be made from repeated experiments even If they do not support the
Hypothesis, so It helps eliminate some possible explanations and form new ones.
MEASURING WITH SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS
Mass — S1 units: kg
Other units: g
Time — S1 units: s
Other units: min, h
Temperature — S1 unit: K
Other units: oC, F
Volume — S1 unit: m3
Other units: dm3, cm3
Length — S1 unit: m
Other units: cm, mm

ACCURACY PRECISION AND ERRORS

When a reading Is very close to the true value of the quantity, It Is said to be
accurate.Accuracy Is affected by zero and parallel error.
 Zero error Is when the measured quantity should be a zero, but the Instrument gives a
non-zero reading.
Parallel error is when the measurement marking on an Instrument Is viewed from the
wrong angle and not eye level.
Very Important Instruments:
Electronic balance
Vernier caliper
Metre ruler
Measuring tape
Measuring cylinder
Beaker
Digital stopwatch
Thermometer
Digital caliper
ACCURACY AND PRECISION VOLUME
When water or solution Is placed in a glass container, it forms a survey surface called a
meniscus, Meniscus can be concave or convex.

If multiple readings are very close to each other, the measurements are said to be very
precise. If the readings are very close to one another, the measurements are precise, but
not accurate. A reading Is very accurate If the reading Is close to the reading It should be.
Some errors are consistent but not unpredictable.

BUNSEN BURNER

Parts of the Bunsen burner

Collar— to control the amount of air entering the burner but opening or closing the air
holes.
Barrel — To release the flame to a suitable height for burning.
Air hole— The entrance for air to the Bunsen burner
Gas jet — To enable the gas to rush out from the as supply to draw in air.
Gas jet — to control the flow of gas to the Bunsen burner.

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 TYPE OF FLAME IN THE BUSEN BURNER

A non-luminous flame and a luminous flame.

A non-luminous flame Is blue in colour. It occurs when the air hole Is open, allowing air
into the burner. Outer blue flame and Inner dark blue cone. Flame burns steadily and is
hotter than the luminous flame. The hottest part of the flame Is the tip of the blue zone.
Not soot Is deposited on the burner when heating.

Luminous flame

Occurs when the air hole Is closed, and very little air Is allowed into the burner. Outer
orange flame and Inner dark blue cone. Flame Is unsteady and is less hot than a non-
luminous flame. Soot Is deposited when heating.

STRIKE BACK OCCURRING IN A BUNSEN BURNER.

It occurs when there Is too much air, specifically oxygen entering the air hole. Instead of
burning at the top of the barrel, the gas burns at the jet. When a strike back occurs, turn
off the Bunsen burner Immediately by turning off the gas supply and let It cool down
before heating.
Science has Its limitations. Technology cannot stop natural disasters. It can only help us
predict natural disasters.

DIVERSITY OF MATTER BY ITS PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

What Is matter??
Matter Is anything that has mass and volume.
Mass Is the amount of matter in an object/substance and the volume Is the amount of
space something occupies.
The life cycle of a product Is when It first starts with production of extraction of raw
materials. Followed by transportation as it needs to be transported to places of use. Third
Is usage where different uses in different Industries. The end of the life cycle Is by reuse,
recycling or disposing of products.
5 Main classes of materials
- Ceramic
Made of clay, poor conductor of energy, hard and can be moulded into shapes, does not
corrode, has a high melting point and is fragile.
- Glass

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 Transparent, poor conductor of electricity and heat can be moulded into shapes, high
melting point and is fragile.
- Metal
Shiny, good conductor of electricity and heat can be moulded into shapes and can be
bent without breaking.
- Plastics
Light weight, does not corrode, can be moulded into shapes, has a low melting point and
is a poor conductor of electricity and heat.
- Fibres
Can be spun into threads and woven into fabrics, Able to absorb dyes, and poor
conductor of heat and electricity.
Some factors that should be considered when choosing materials for making a product Is
the purposes of the object/properties, users of the object, sustainability of the object and
any valid example.

The different physical properties of materials allow us to use the material for various
purposes. The rich diversity of the natural world Is needed for our continual survival.

WHAT ARE THE 7 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL

- Electrical conductivity
- Thermal conductivity
- Hardness
- Melting and boiling point
- Density
- Strength
- Flexibility

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
Is the measure of how easily electrical current can flow through. Poor conductor has a
low conductivity, and a good conductor of electricity has a high conductivity.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Is the measure of how easily heat flows through It. Poor conductor of heat has a low
thermal conductivity and the good conductor of heat had a high thermal conductivity.
(Silver Is one of the materials that can conduct heat very well.)

MELTING AND BOILING POINT

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 Temperature at which material changes from solid to liquid occurs when the melting
point Is reached. The boiling point Is when the temperature at whic material changes
from liquid to gaseous state.

STRENGTH
Is the ability to support heavy load without breaking or changing Its shape permanently.

HARDNESS
Is Its resistance to wear and tear, and scratches.

FLEXIBILITY
Is It’s ability to bend without breaking and will return to their Initial shape and size after
bending.

DENSITY
Is the amount of matter an object has in proportion to Its volume.

MODEL OF MATTER- PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

ARE PARTICLES IN CONSTANT MOTION??

The dust you see in the beam, of light Is actually the results of air particles moving and
bumping into dust.
Air particles are too small to be seen by the naked eye so we can only see dust moving.
The explanation for this moving dust Is the result of the kinetic particle theory.

WHAT IS THE KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY

All matter Is made up of tiny particles and the particles are in constant and random
motion.

HOW CAN WE EXPLAIN THE PROPERTIES USING THE NATURE OF

MATTER??

STATES OF MATTER
Matter refers to a substance that has mass and occupies space. Matter exists in 3 states,
solid, liquid and gas.

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 Solid has a fixed shape, fixed volume but cannot be compressed.
Volume does not have a fixed shape, has a fixed volume and cannot be compressed.
Gas does not have a fixed shape, does not have a fixed volume but can be compressed.

SOLID

Model of representation os closely packed the arrangement of the particle Is closely

packed in an orderly manner. The distance between the particles is close to one another
with very little space between them. The forces of attraction are very strong, and they
vibrate about fixed positions. The kinetic energy of the particles is very low.

Why does a solid have a fixed shape??

The particles are held together by a very strong force of attraction, and they vibrate about
their fixed positions. They cannot move freely too. Solid has a fixed volume because it
cannot be compressed because Its particles are very close to one another.

LIQUID

The arrangement of the particles is closely packed in disorderly random manner but
slightly further apart than solid. The forces of attractions are strong but weaker than in
solid. The movement of the particles are sliding over one another and has more kinetic
energy than a solid.
The liquid does to have a fixed shape because the particles are arranged in a disorderly
manner and has a weak force of attraction. It Is not held in fixed positions and can move
freely throughout the liquid. The liquid has a fixed volume because the particles are
packed quite closely together.

GAS

The arrangement of the particles is very far apart and the distance between the particles
are far apart from one another with much space between them. The forces of attraction

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 are very weak, but the movement of particle Is randomly at high speed in all directions.
The gas has a lot of kinetic energy.
WHY DOES A GAS DOES NOT HAVE A FIXED SHAPE AND VOLUME.

The particles of a gas are spread apart and has the weakest force of attraction. Gas has a
lot of kinetic energy and are not held in fixed positions and can move rapidly in any
different directions.
Particles In gas are far apart from one another and there Is space for particles to be
compressed.

CHANGES IN STATES OF MATTER

Process
The process Is called melting when the natter changes from a solid to a liquid at melting
point.
The process Is called freezing If a liquid changes to a solid in the freezing point.
The process Is called boiling when the matter changes from a liquid to a gas at boiling
point.
The process Is called evaporation when the matter changes from a liquid to a gas at any
temperature.
The process Is called condensation when the matter changes from a gas to a solid.
The process Is called sublimation when he matters changes from a Solid to a gas.
Changes in states are reversible.

MELTING
Melting Is the process by which a substance changes from a solid to a liquid. The
temperature at when a solid melt Is the melting point. When a solid Is heated, the
particles gain kinetic energy and vibrate faster, causing the particles to overcome
attractive force between them and break away from their fixed positions. The particles
now slide over one another and the solid has melted to a liquid.
MELTING curs at fixed temperatures and energy from eating Is used to overcome forces
of attraction between the particles and the mixture of solid and liquid exists. Particles do
not gain kinetic energy.

Freezing Is when a liquid changes to a solid. The temperature when the liquid freezes Is
called a freezing point. When a liquid Is cooled, the particles lose kinetic energy ad move
more slowly. The particles then stat to settle in fixed positions and settle into fixed
positions. It Is then where the liquid has frozen into solid.

BOILING

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 Boiling Is the change from a liquid to a gas at boiling temperature. The temperate at
which a liquid boil Is the boiling point. The particles in liquid gain kinetic energy and
Increase until It reaches Its boiling point.

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BOILING AND EVAPORATION

o The temperature where evaporation takes place Is any temperature below boiling
point while the temperature where boiling takes place Is only at boiling point.
o The place where evaporation takes Is only at the surface of the liquid. Boiling only
takes place throughout the liquid.

CONDENSATION
Condensation Is the change from a gas to a liquid. When the temperature drops, the
gas particles lose kinetic energy and move close together which Increases the
attractive forces, and the gas becomes a liquid.

SUBLIMATION
Sublimation Is the change from a solid to a gas. The force of attraction between in
liquid state is very strong to remain in this state.

DIFFUSION
The processes by which particles move freely to fill up any available spaces Is called
diffusion. Diffusion Is evidence of the kinetic particle energy. Diffusion Is the net
movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration (take note that it can only go from a high to low concentration.)
Diffusion occurs because both air and bromine are made of tiny particles moving at
random motions. The particles diffuse (spread out) Into the spaces between the air
particles and vice versa. When the gas looks the same, it means that both gases are
evenly spread out. We call that a homogeneous mixture of air and bromine.

Diffusion also takes place in liquids. E.G A small crystal of potassium manganate Is
Introduced Into a beaker of water. Diffusion slowly takes place until the solution
becomes uniformly purple. When the temperature Increases, the rate of diffusion also
Increases.

EXPLORING DIVERSITY OF MATTER BY ITS CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

Elements
All living and no living thing matter in the universe Is made up of elements. It Is the
basic block of matter. An element Is classified based on. Their properties are
classified Into Two types. Metal and Non-metal. Some examples of matter are

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 sodium, magnesium and calcium. Some examples of non-metals are hydrogen, carbon
and chlorine.
The non-metals are located on the right-hand side of the periodic elements table. The
metals are located on the left-hand side of the periodic table.

There are many differences between metals and non-metals which Include:
Appearance
Physical state
Melting and boiling points
Heat and electrical conductivity
Ductility And malleability
Ductile means that it can be pulled into shape without breaking. E.g can be drawn into
wires.
Malleable means that it can be beaten into different hopes without breaking.

Metals are shiny, mostly solid except mercury, high melting and boiling points, good
heat and electrical conductivity and is ductile and malleable.

Non-metals are dull, are mostly gases or liquid or solids, low melting and boiling
points, poor heat and electrical conductivity and Is brittle If solid.

A period Is a horizontal row of elements.

A group Is a vertical row of elements.

A compound Is a substance that consists of two or more elements chemically

combined together.
Compounds have different properties from the elements that formed It. Compounds
can be broken down into simpler substances by chemical methods or by electricity.
They are formed by chemical reactions and energy in the form of heat and light will
be absorbed or given off. There Is a change in energy.

PROPERTIES OF MIXTURES
When a mixture Is formed, no chemical reaction occurs. There Is usually little or no
energy change.
A mixture has the chemical properties of Its constituent substances.
A mixture can be separates easily Into Its constituting by physical methods such as
filtration and chromatography.

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 The constituents in mixtures are not mixed in any fixed proportion by mass.

SOLUTIONS
A solution Is a mixture of a solute and solvent. A solute Is a substance that dissolves
and a solvent Is the substance where the solute dissolves In.

A solute Is a homogenous. Homogenous that It Is the same colour throughout and It Is

evenly mixed. A solute does not settle to the bottom or float to the top when the
solution Is left to stand.

SOLUTIONS
Light passes through the solution when light Is shone through It. The particles are too
small and evenly spread out to reflect/block any light passing through the solution.
Hence, solutions are clear.
Even filtration cannot separate the solutes from the solvent as It Is too evenly spread
out and Is small enough to pass through the filter paper.

There are three different types of solution

Dilute solution
- Contains small amount of solute dissolved In large amount of solvent
Concentrated solution
- Contains large amount of solute dissolved In small amounts of solvent.

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 Saturated solution
- Contains maximum amount of dissolved solute In given amount of solvent at a given
temperature.

Saturates solution Is when sugar dissolved In water but If you continue to add too
much sugar In which the solvent cannot dissolve and the extra sinks to the bottom and
the sugar solution Is now saturated.
The rate of dissolving refers to how quickly a solute dissolves In a solvent.
An example of saturated solution Is salt water. Salt water Is made when salt Is mixed
with water.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF DISSOLVING OF A SOLUTE.

The surface area of a solute.
The smaller the surface area of the solute, the faster the rate of dissolving
The temperature of the solvent.
The higher the temperature of the solvent, the faster the rate of dissolving.

SOLUBILITY
Solubility refers to how well a solute dissolved In a fixed volume of a particle solvent.
When a solute dissolves completely, It Is soluble
When a solute does not dissolve In a solvent, It Is Insoluble.
WHAT ARE SOME FACTORS THAT AFFECT SOLUBILITY
1) Nature of the solute
Different solutes have different degrees of solubility In a solvent. E.g Same volume of
water but a greater amount of sugar dissolves compared to salt. Hence, the solubility
Is greater compares to the solubility of salt.
2) Nature of the solvent.
Some substances can be more soluble In one solvent than In another. E.g solid Iodine
Is Insoluble In water but soluble In hexane.
3) Temperature of solvent
Solubility of solids in liquid solvents Increase with the Increasing temperature.
Solubility of gases in liquid solvents decreases with Increasing temperature.

SUSPENSIONS
Suspension Is a mixture containing Insoluble solid particles suspended in a liquid.

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 The opposite of homogenous Is heterogenous. It Is to uniform throughout and Is
colour, density and appearance are very different In every part. Insoluble particles
either settle to the bottom or float to the top when suspension Is left stand.

Light cannot pass though the suspension when light Is shone through It as the
Insoluble particles are large enough to block any light coming through the suspension.

Filtration can be used to separate Insoluble particles from the suspension as the
particles are too large to pass though the filter paper.

MODEL OF MATTER ( ATOMS AND MOLECULES ) CHAPTER EIGHT

WHAT IS AN ATOM??
Atoms are the smallest unit of an element that has all the properties of that element.
Elements are made out of atoms.

An element neon Is used as a gas In advertising signs. It consists of neon atoms. A

gold ring Is made of the element gold. The gold consists of gold atoms.

Atoms of an element are all Identical. For example, one silver atom would be
Identical to any other silver atom. The atoms of an element are different from that of
another element.

STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

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 Atoms are made up of three types of particles
- Protons
- Neutrons
- Electrons
The relative mass and relative charge of the three particles are

Protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of an atom. The nucleus has a positive
charge. Almost all the mass of an atom Is contained In Its nucleus. Electrons move
around the nucleus In the electron shells.

An atom has no overall charge. (The atom Is electrically neutral)

The number of protons = number of electrons.
Number of neutrons in an atom may differ and can be calculated using mass number-
atomic number.
Protons and electrons are the exact same. In the periodic table, to find the number of
neutrons of one element, you must take the bottom number minus the top number.

Protons are positive and electrons are negative.

Protons minus electrons = charges
Atoms have no charge because protons and electron are the same.

How to define the term proton number?

Proton number of an atom Is the number of protons in the atom.
How to define the term nucleon mass number?

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 The nucleon mass number of an atom Is the total number of protons and neutrons in
the atom.

An element Is a substance consisting of one type of atom only. An element can’t be

broken down chemically into simpler substances.
Atoms of different elements are different in size.
ISOTOPES
Isotopes are atoms that have the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons.
IONS
All atoms are electrically neutral and they have an equal number of protons and
electrons. When an atom loses or gains electrons, the number of protons Is not equal
to the number of electrons anymore. Therefore, the number of atoms will not be
electrically neutral. when an atom Is not electrically neutral, It Is called an Ion. There
are two types of Ions. If an atom loses electrons, it becomes a positive Ion. If an atom
gains electrons, It will become a negative Ion. Metals lose electrons to form positive
Ions. Non-metals gain electrons to form negative Ions. The formation of Ions re a
negative sign Indication the gain of electrons and a positive Indicating the loss of
electrons.
MOLECULES
Molecules are two or more atoms chemically joined together. A molecule which
contains two atoms of the same or different type chemically joined together Is called a
diatomic molecule. The molecule of an element Is a substance containing to or more
of the same type of atom chemically joined together. The molecule of a compound Is
a substance containing two or more of different types of toms chemically joined
together.
CHEMICAL FORMULA
A chemical formula of a substance Indicated two Important Information about the
substance. The type of element and the total number of each type of atom.

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 PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

We breathe In air all the time, Elements are basic building blocks of living and non living

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