INTEGRAL CALCULUS

A. BASIC INTEGRATION FORMULAS

n 1

  n u
1.) du  u + C 4.) u du  + C ; n  –1
n 1

   
du du
2.) u  v  dx  u dx  v dx 5.)  ln u + C ;
u
must be a proper fraction. If not, use long
u
division first

3.)
 
a u dx  a u dx ; a = constant

B. INTEGRATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

1.)
 sin u du  – cos u + C 7.)
 2
sec u du  tan u + C

2.)
 cos u du  sin u + C 8.)
 2
csc u du  – cot u + C

3.)
 tan u du  – ln cos u + C 9.)
 sec u tan u du  sec u + C

4.)
 cot u du  ln sin u + C 10.)
 csc u cot u du  – csc u + C

5.)
 sec u du  ln sec u  tan u + C

6.)
 csc u du  ln csc u  cot u + C

C. INTEGRATION OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

 
u
u u u a
1.) e du  e + C 2.) a du  + C
ln a

D. INTEGRATION OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

1.)
 sinh u du  cosh u + C 5.)
 2
sech u du  tanh u + C

2.)
 cosh u du  sinh u + C 6.)
 2
csch u du  – coth u + C

3.)
 tanh u du  ln cosh u + C 7.)
 sech u tanh u du  – sech u + C

4.)
 coth u du  ln sinh u + C 8.)
 csch u coth u du  – csch u + C

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E. INTEGRATION BY PARTS

 u dv  u v  v du
Success in using this important technique depends on being able to separate a given integral into parts u
and dv.

RULE: Choose u and dv so that

(a) dv can be integrated, and (b)  v du is no more difficult to calculate than the original
integral.

 NOTE: The acronym LIPET may help to determine which function to designate as u when using Integration by Parts.
Choose u in this order: (1) Logarithmic function, (2) Inverse trigonometric function, (3) Polynomial function,
(4) Exponential function, and (5) Trigonometric function. Some may advise to swap the last two and always
choose Exponential last.

Using Tabular Method for Repeated Integration by Parts 1

This method is extremely useful when repeated integration by parts is necessary. To integrate  u (t ) v(t ) dt , we
construct a table as follows:

Step 1. Differentiate u(t) repeatedly until you obtain 0, and list the results in the first column.
Step 2. Integrate v(t) repeatedly and list the results in the second column.
Step 3. Draw an arrow from each entry in the first column to the entry that is one row down the second column.
Step 4. Label the arrows with alternating + and – signs, starting with a +.
Step 5. For each arrow, form the product of the expressions at its tip and tail and then multiply that product by +1
or –1 in accordance with the sign on the arrow. Add the results to obtain the value of the integral.

t
2
This process is illustrated in Table 1 below for the integral cos t dt where u(t) = t2 and v(t) = cos t

REPEATED REPEATED
DIFFERENTIATION INTEGRATION
t2  cos t
2t sin t
2   cos t
0  sin t

t
2
TABLE 1 : Tabular Integration by Parts of cos t dt 2

Here the column at the left contains the successive derivatives of u(t). The column at the right contains the
successive anti-derivatives of v(t). The diagonal arrows join the pairs of factors whose products for the successive
terms of the desired integral; above each arrow is the sign of that term. By tabular method,

  t 2 cos t dt   t 2   sin t    2t   cos t    2   sin t   C

 t 2 sin t  2t cos t  2sin t  C ans.

1
“Tabular Integration by Parts”, College Mathematics Journal, vol. 21, 1990, pp 307-311 by David Horowitz.
2
“Integral Calculus” by Joe Vincent B. Deluao

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F. TRANSFORMATION BY TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS

1. INTEGRATING PRODUCTS OF SINES AND COSINES (this rule is also used for powers of sine or cosine)

 sin x cos n x dx
m
PROCEDURE USE IDENTITIES

 split off a factor of cos x to serve as du

n = odd  transform remaining factors to sines using cos2 x  1 – sin 2 x
the identity
 u = sin x

 split off a factor of sin x to serve as du

m = odd  transform remaining factors to cosines sin 2 x  1 – cos 2 x
using the identity
 u = cos x

 use the identities repeatedly, if sin 2 x  1

2 1 – cos 2 x 
necessary, to reduce the powers of
m, n = both even sin x and cos x to odd powers of cos x 
2 1
2 1+ cos 2 x 
cosine or sine or
1
sin x cos x = 2 sin 2x

2. INTEGRATING POWERS OF TANGENT OR COTANGENT

 tan  cot
m m
x dx or x dx PROCEDURE USE IDENTITIES

 split off a factor of tan 2 x or cot 2 x

REPEATEDLY if necessary UNTIL the
resulting integrand is integrable
 transform this tan 2 x or cot 2 x using the tan 2 x  sec2 x –1
the identities or
m = positive integer
 this transformation is a stepwise cot x  csc2 x –1
2

process, the purpose of which is to

produce a sec2 x or csc2 x to go with
dx to serve as du.
 u = tanx or some other

3. INTEGRATING POWERS OF SECANT OR COSECANT

 sec  csc
m m
x dx or x dx PROCEDURE USE IDENTITIES

 split off a factor of sec2 x or csc2 x to

serve as du sec2 x  1  tan 2 x
m = even  transform remaining factors to tangents or
using the identities csc2 x  1  cot 2 x
 u = tanx

 use the identities to reduce integrand to tan 2 x  sec2 x –1

powers of sec x or csc x alone
or
m = odd  then use INTEGRATION BY PARTS or
use REDUCTION FORMULAS for powers cot x  csc2 x –1
2

of sec x or csc x

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4. INTEGRATING PRODUCTS OF TANGENT AND SECANT

 tan x sec n x dx
m
PROCEDURE USE IDENTITIES

 split off a factor of sec2 x to serve as du

n = even or both even  transform remaining factors to tangents sec2 x  1  tan 2 x
using the identity
 u = tan x

 split off a factor of sec x tan x to serve as

du tan 2 x  sec2 x –1
m = odd or both odd  transform remaining factors to secants
using the identity
 u = sec x

 use the identities to reduce integrand to tan 2 x  sec2 x –1

powers of sec x alone
m = even and n = odd  then use INTEGRATION BY PARTS or
use REDUCTION FORMULAS for powers
of sec x

5. INTEGRATING PRODUCTS OF COTANGENT AND COSECANT

 cot x cscn x dx
m
PROCEDURE USE IDENTITIES

 split off a factor of csc2 x to serve as du

n = even or both even  transform remaining factors to cotangents csc2 x  1  cot 2 x
using the identity
 u = cot x

 split off a factor of csc x cot x to serve as

du cot 2 x  csc2 x –1
m = odd or both odd  transform remaining factors to cosecants
using the identity
 u = csc x

 use the identities to reduce integrand to cot 2 x  csc2 x –1

powers of csc x alone
m = even and n = odd  then use INTEGRATION BY PARTS or
use REDUCTION FORMULAS for powers
of csc x

NOTE : When none of the rules above applies, try CONVERTING TO SINES OR COSINES

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G. PRODUCT OF SINE AND COSINE WITH DIFFERENT ANGLES

1.)
 sin u cos v dx  12
 sin u v  + sin u –v  dx 3.)
 cos u cos v dx  12
 cos u v  + cos u – v  dx

2.)
 sin u sin v dx  12
 cosu –v  – cosu +v  dx

H. TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTIONS

When the integrand involves a – x , try x = a sin 

2 2

When the integrand involves a + x , try x = a tan 

2 2

When the integrand involves x – a , try x = a sec 

2 2

H. ADDITIONAL STANDARD FORMULAS

 
du 1 u du u
I.  Arctan + C VI.  Arcsin a + C
2 2 a a 2 2
u +a a –u

 
2
du 1 u –a u a u
a –u +
2 2
II.  ln + C VII. a 2 – u 2 du  Arcsin a + C
2
u –a
2 2a u +a 2 2

 
2
du 1 a +u u 2 2 a 2 2
III.  ln + C VIII. u 2 + a 2 du  u +a + ln u  u + a + C
2
a –u
2 2a a –u 2 2

 
2
du u a
u –a –
2 2 2 2 2 2
IV.  ln u  u + a + C IX. u 2 – a 2 du  ln u  u – a + C
u +a
2 2 2 2


du 2 2
V.  ln u  u – a + C Where: a = constant and u = variable (function of x)
2 2
u –a

 NOTE: Formulas I and VI are Inverse Trigonometric Functions and should be memorized. The rest can be derived
using Partial Fractions (formulas II and III) and Trigonometric Substitution (formulas IV, V, VII, VIII and
IX).

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I INTEGRALS INVOLVING QUADRATIC EXPRESSIONS (ax2 + bx + c form)

I. Forms :
 f (x ) dx ,
 dx
f (x )
and
 dx
f (x )
. Where : f (x) = quadratic expression in x. (x2, x and constant terms)

Use COMPLETING THE SQUARE to transform into SUM or DIFFERENCE OF TWO SQUARES .
 12 (middle term numerical coeff.)
2
 Third Term = and COEFF. OF 1ST TERM = 1
or if not a perfect square Divide ALL terms by leading
coefficient first before completing
OTHERWISE: the square
2
 middle term numerical coeff.  ST
 Third Term =   and COEFF OF 1 TERM = perfect square and greater than 1
 2 1st term numerical coeff. 

NOTE: 1ST TERM = LEADING TERM

 
g (x ) g (x )
II. Forms : dx and dx . Where : g(x) = linear expression in x (x and constant terms)
f (x ) f (x )
f (x) = quadratic expression in x. (x2, x and constant terms)

1.) Use COMPLETING THE SQUARE.

2.) Express the numerator of integrand in terms of derivative of denominator
using LONG DIVISION.

NOTE: 1. DON’T use COMPLETING THE SQUARE to a quadratic expression if the x-term is MISSING.

2. If you add a number to an expression, subtract that number in the same expression, or vice versa.

3. If you divide a number to an expression, multiply that number in the same expression.

a  7
2 2
4. a2  2
, for example: 7 =

J. ALGEBRAIC SUBSTITUTIONS

I. When integrand contains fractional powers of x ONLY. Use substitution z= n x or zn  x

II. When integrand contains fractional powers of (a + bx) ONLY.

Use substitution z = n
a + bx or z n  a + bx where : n = LCD of fractional exponents of x

RULE: Determine what quantity seems to be causing the trouble

(keeping you from performing the integration by simple devices) and
then INTRODUCE A NEW VARIABLE for that quantity.

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TRANSFORMATION EXAMPLES (COMPLETING THE SQUARE):

EX 1: x² – 3x + 2 = x
2
– 3x   2. Add  1 2 3   3 2   9 4
2 2
; x 2
– 3x + 9
4   2 – 9
4

= x 2
– 3x + 9
4  – 1
4 =  x – 32
2
– 1
4 =  x – 32
2
–  12 
2

EX 2: 2x² – 2x + 1. Since the leading coefficient is not a perfect square no., divide all terms by 2 and multiply a
factor of 2 outside the expression to balance.
 2   2 
2x² – 2x + 1 = 2  2 x – 2x +1  2  2 x – 2x + 1   2  x 2 – x + 1   2  x 2 – x   1 
 2   2 2 2  2   2 
  
Add  1 2 1   1 2   1 4 ; 2  x 2 – x + 1   1 – 1 
2 2
Complete the square to x² – x :
 4 2 4

   2
  2 2

2x² – 2x + 1 = 2  x 2 – x + 1   1   2  x – 1   1  = 2  x – 1    1  
 4  4  2  4  2 2 

EX 3: 4x² – 12x + 5. Since the leading coefficient is a perfect square number, complete the square using the
formula
2
 middle term numerical coeff. 
Third Term =  
 2 1st term numerical coeff. 
2 2
   
2
4x² – 12x + 5 =  4x 2 –12x  + 5. Add  12    6    6    3  9
2

2 4   4  
 2 


 
4x² – 12x + 5 = 4 x 2 – 3x + 9  5 – 9 =  4 x2 – 3x + 9  – 4 =  2 x – 3
2
–4   2 x – 3
2
– 2 
2

EX 4: 6x – x². Since the leading coefficient is negative, group the 2 terms by parenthesis preceded by a negative
sign to make the leading coefficient positive : – (x² – 6x) .
Add  1 2  6   3  9 inside the parenthesis : –  x 2 – 6x + 9  .
2 2
Since – 9 is added add 9 outside the

parenthesis to balance: 
9 – x 2 – 6x + 9 
9 –  x – 3   3 –  x – 3
2 2 2
Hence, 6x – x² =

K. INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FRACTIONS

P( x) where: P(x)
Given: RATIONAL FRACTION 2 polynomials w/ real coefficients
Q( x) Q(x)

P( x)
a.) Degree of P(x) < degree of Q(x), then is PROPER rational fraction
Q( x)
IF:
P( x)
b) Degree of P(x)  degree of Q(x), then is IMPROPER rational fraction. To change improper to
Q( x)
proper fraction, use LONG DIVISION

and use the formula:

dividend  quotient  remainder
divisor divisor

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NOTE: A PROPER fraction can be broken up into sum of partial fractions

ex 1:
x2  9 x  2  2  3 – 4 sum of PARTIAL
 x – 1 x  1 x  2  x –1 x 1 x + 2 FRACTIONS

ex 2:
x3 is an improper fraction. To change it into a proper fraction, use LONG DIVISION.
x –4
2

x QUOTIENT

x –4 x
2 3 DIVIDEND

x3 – 4 x
DIVISOR
4x REMAINDER

x3  x  4x
can be resolved into partial
x2 – 4  x  2  x – 2  fractions

Given RATIONAL FRACTION P(x) / Q(x) :

CASE I: DISTINCT LINEAR FACTORS
For each linear factor (ax +b) occurring ONCE IN Q(x), there will be a partial fraction

A where : A = constant (  0 )
ax  b
CASE II: REPEATED LINEAR FACTORS

For each linear factor  a + b  occurring in Q(x), n  2, there will be “n” partial fractions
n

A1 A2 An
+ + + where: A’s = constants
ax  b  ax  b 2  ax  b 
n

CASE III: DISTINCT QUADRATIC FACTORS

For each quadratic factor ax² + bx + c, b2 – 4ac < 0 , occurring ONCE in Q(x), there will be a partial fraction

A(2ax  b) + B A and B = constants (not both zero)

where:
ax 2  bx  c 2ax +b = derivative of ax² + bx + c w/ respect to x

PARTIAL FRACTIONS EXAMPLES


2
2x  7x  9

EX 1: dx
x – 1  x  2
2

2
2x  7x  9 A  B  C
= [ this is CASE I ]
 x – 1 x  1 x  2 x –1 x +1 x + 2

1st METHOD (applicable to Case I only)

 2 x2  7 x  9  18
A=    ; A=3
  x  1 x  2   x 1 2(3) hence,

 2 x2  7 x  9  4 2
2x  7x  9
B=    ; B=–2 3 – 2  1
  x – 1 x  2   x  –1
=
(–2)(1)  x – 1 x  1 x  2 x –1 x +1 x + 2
 2 x2  7 x  9  3
C=    ; C=1
  x – 1 x  1  x  –2 (–3)(–1)

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 
2 x – 6 x  11x – 2
3 2
EX 2: dx

x x –1 3

2 x – 6 x  11x – 2
3 2
A B C D
    [ this is CASE I and CASE II ]
  x x –1  x –1  x –13
3 2
x x –1

2nd METHOD ( applicable to all cases and combined to 3 rd METHOD )

Clear off fractions [ multiply both sides by LCD = x(x – 1)3 ]

2x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 2 = A(x – 1)3 + Bx(x – 1)2 + Cx(x – 1) + Dx 

In equation , IF x = 0 : –2 =–A , A=2
rd
NOTE : B and C can be solved by using 3 METHOD
IF x = 1: 5=D, D=5

3rd METHOD ( applicable to all cases and in combination with 2 nd METHOD )

Equate coefficients of equal powers of x (from 3rd power to zero power):
2x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 2 = A(x3 – 3x² + 3x – 1) + B(x3 – 2x² + x) + C(x² – x) + Dx 
In equation :
Coefficients of x3 : 2 = A + B ; but A = 2, hence : 2 = (2) + B or B = 0
Coefficients of x² : – 6 = – 3A – 2B + C but A = 2 and B = 0, hence :
– 6 = – 3(2) – 2(0) + C or C = 0

NOTE: The coefficients of x and constants were not equated here because of the aid of the 2 nd METHOD.

2 x – 6 x  11x – 2
3 2
2 5
Hence,   . The 2nd and 3rd terms are zeros since B = C = 0
  x  x –1
3 3
x x –1

SUMMARY OF INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FRACTIONS

We can immediately integrate fractions of the forms

A A(2ax  b) A
, ,
 ax  b   ax  bx  c  ax  bx  c
n 2 n 2

The first two lead to powers, if n > 1, to logarithms, if n = 1 ; the third leads to an arctangent.

We can also integrate

A , n >1 , by a trigonometric substitution
 ax  bx  c 
2 n

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STRATEGY FOR INTEGRATION : Integration is more challenging than differentiation. In finding the derivative of
a function it is obvious which differentiation formula should be applied. But it may not be obvious which
technique we should use to integrate a given function. Basic integration formulas should be memorized. It is
useful to know them all. If you do not immediately see how to attack a given integral, follow the four-step
strategy below.

1. Simplify the integrand if possible. Sometimes the use of algebraic transformation or trigonometric identities
will simplify the integrand and make the method of integration obvious. Here are some examples:

 x 1  
x dx    
x  x dx
tan  d  sin  cos 2  d  sin  cos d
 sec2
  cos 
 12  sin 2 d

  sin x  cos x  dx    sin x  2sin x cos x  cos x  dx

2
2 2

  1  2sin x cos  dx

2. Look for an obvious substitution. Try to find some function u = g(x) in the integrand whose differential du =
g ( x ) dx also occurs, apart from a constant factor. For instance, in the integral
x
 x2 –1 dx
we notice that if u  x 2 –1 , then du  2 x dx . Therefore we use the logarithmic formula instead of the method
of partial fractions.

3. Classify the integrand according to its form. If steps 1 and 2 have not led to the solution, then we take a
look at the form of the integrand f(x).
(a) Trigonometric functions. If f(x) is a product of powers of sin x and cos x, or tan x and sec x, or
cot x and csc x, then we use transformation by trigonometric formulas.
(b) Rational fractions. If f(x) is a rational fraction, we use the procedure involving partial fractions.
(c) Integration by parts. If f(x) is a product of functions included in the acronym LIPET, then we try
integration by parts choosing u and dv according to the rules.
(d) Radicals. Particular kinds of substitutions are recommended when certain radicals appear.
(i) If  x 2  a 2 occurs, we use a trigonometric substitution.
(ii) If n
ax  b occurs, we use an algebraic substitution u  n ax  b . More generally, this
sometimes work for n g ( x) .
4. Try again. If the first three steps have not produced the answer, remember that there are basically only two
methods of integration: substitution and integrand transformation.
(a) Try substitution. Even if there is no obvious substitution (step 2), some inspiration or ingenuity
(or even desperation) may suggest an appropriate substitution.
(b) Transform the integrand. Algebraic transformation (perhaps rationalizing the denominator or
using trigonometric identities) may be useful in transforming the integral into an easier form.
These transformations may be more substantial than in step 1 and may involve some ingenuity.
Here is an example:
dx 1 1  cos x dx  1  cos x dx
 1 – cos x   1 – cos x 1  cos x  1 – cos 2 x
  1  cos x dx   csc2 x  cos x  dx
2
sin x   
sin 2 x 
5 Use several methods. Sometimes two or three methods are required to evaluate an integral. The evaluation
could involve several successive substitutions of different types or it might combine integration by parts with
one or more substitutions.

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