Big Bang Hypothesis
Big Bang Hypothesis states that all of the current and past
matter in the Universe came into existence at the same
time, roughly 13.8 billion years ago. At this time, all matter
was compacted into a very small ball with infinite density
and intense heat called a Singularity. Suddenly, the
Singularity began expanding, and the universe as we know
it began.
Fundamental Forces:
Matter is affected by forces or interactions (the terms are
interchangeable).
There are four fundamental forces in the Universe:
1.Gravitation (between particles with mass)
2.Electromagnetic (between particles with
charge/magnetism)
3.Strong nuclear force (between quarks)
4.Weak nuclear force (operates between neutrinos and
electrons
Timeline Summary
- The Big Bang (10-43 seconds)
The universe begins with a cataclysm that generates space
and time, as well as all the matter and energy the universe
will ever hold.
- The Universe Takes Shape (10-6 seconds)
After inflation, one millionth of a second after the Big
Bang, the universe continues to expand but not nearly so
quickly. As it expands, it becomes less dense and cools.
- Formation of Basic Elements (3 seconds)
Protons and neutrons come together to form the nuclei of
simple elements: hydrogen, helium and lithium. Note:
Hydrogen takes almost 75% of the available volume in the
immediate universe, 23% for Helium and the rest are
other elements not heavier than Boron.
- The Radiation Era (10,000 years)
The first major era in the history of the universe is one in
which most of the energy is in the form of radiation -
different wavelengths of light, X rays, radio waves and
ultraviolet rays.
- Beginning the Era of Matter Domination (300,000
years)
At this moment, the energy in matter and the energy in
radiation are equal. neutral atoms are formed as
electrons link up with hydrogen and helium nuclei.
- Birth of Stars and Galaxies (300 million years)
Gravity amplifies slight irregularities in the density of the
primordial gas. Pockets of gas become more and more
dense. Stars ignite within these pockets, and groups of
stars become the earliest galaxies.
Nucleosynthesis
In a neutral atom:
- Number of p+ and e- are the same. This is equal
to the atomic number.
The mass of an atom is mostly found in the nucleus which
consists of protons and neutrons. Thus:
- Mass Number = no. of protons + no. of neutrons
- (No. of neutrons = mass number – no. of protons)
Note: Mass Number is different from atomic mass/weight
Isotope – variations of the same element due to a
different number of neutrons
- Has the same atomic number but different mass
numbers
- Named after its mass number
Ex. Cl-35 vs. Cl-36
Both have 17 protons, but C-35 has 18 neutrons while C-
36 has 19 neutrons.
Due to further expansion of the Universe, there was not
enough energy anymore to fuse atomic nuclei into
elements heavier than Be after the Big Bang. Other
processes are involved in the formation of heavier
elements. The Universe is composed approximately of
74% H, 24% He, and 2% other elements.
Where does boron and most of lithium and beryllium
come from?
Through interstellar nuclear fission powered by the
collision of cosmic rays with other interstellar nuclei. This
process is called cosmic ray spallation.
Cosmic rays are mostly highly energetic protons moving at
very high speeds. These collide with interstellar carbon
and oxygen nuclei to form lithium, beryllium and boron.
Other heavier elements can also form from this process.
STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
• In the core of stars, H and He fuse to produce
tremendous amounts of light, heat and
radioactive energy. This process is called nuclear
fusion.
• This creates new elements in a process referred to
as stellar nucleosynthesis.
Lifecycle of a Star

Triple Alpha Process

- When H is depleted, the star starts fusing He

and its core turns into He.
- The temperature of the core reaches 100
HYDROSTATIC
million K; the star turns into a red giant.
EQUILIBRIUM
- The sun will turn into a red giant in about 5
billion years.

“Tug of war
Alpha ladder
between gravity
and pressure” - How heavier elements all the way to Fe
formed
- Occurs when stars turn into red supergiants
(the core becomes heavier)
- Starts with a C-12 atom, each following step
an alpha particle (He-4) is added.

Proton-proton
chain

First fusion CNO CYCLE/CARBON FUSION

reaction in the Occurs in main sequence stars with a temperature of
core of stars with more than 15 million K
a temperature of
less than 15 C-12 is used as a catalyst for the formation of He-4
million K (main
sequence stars)
SUPERNOVA NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: (death of a star)
May take a proton
about a billion • Due to formation of heavier elements, gravity
years to increases tremendously
successfully
• The star could no longer produce enough energy
undergo this process
to push gravity out
3 steps
• The star collapses on itself: supernova explosion
1. beta-plus decay
2. Deuterium burning • This creates the naturally occuring elements
3. Formation of He-4 and H-1 heavier than Fe
• Creates about 26.7 MeV of energy
SUPERNOVA NUCLEOSYNTHESIS PROCESSES
- r-process – rapid capture of neutrons in
supernovae
- s-process – slow capture of neutrons in red giant
stars
OTHER PROCESSES THAT FORMED HEAVIER ELEMENTS
- Supernova nucleosynthesis
- Radioactive decay
- Electron and neutron capture
- Nuclear fission
- Cosmic ray spallation
Man-made elements
• Elements with an atomic number of 1 to 92 are
naturally occuring.
• All elements after uranium are man-made:
transuranium elements (starting from atomic
number 93)
• How were they produced:
- Nuclear fission in nuclear power stations
- Bombardment of heavier elements with high energy
particles in particle accelerators
These processes also formed the odd numbered
elements
- Supernova nucleosynthesis
- Radioactive decay
- Electron and neutron capture
- Nuclear fission
- Cosmic ray spallation
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
OF THE ATOM
Greek philosophers began considering the nature of what
things were made of. They were preoccupied with how
the universe seemed to be both changing and constant.
ATOMISM
• the idea that things are made up of much smaller
things that cannot be changed nor divided,
referred to as the “atom”
• Main proponents are: Leucippus and Democritus
(Ancient Greek philosophers)
“Atoms make up most of the things in the universe; where
there are no atoms, there is a void.”
“Atoms are incredibly small and cannot be divided, hence
atomos (uncuttable).”
“Atoms themselves are solid, homogeneous and cannot
change.”
“Atoms moving about and colliding in the void cause the
changes we see in our universe.”
“The shapes, sizes and weights of individual atoms
influence the characteristics of the thing they make up”
• sharp atoms – tears our tongues and make bitter
or sour tastes
• clay atoms – joined by flexible joints which harden
when the clay is baked
ARGUMENTS AGAINST ATOMISM
Theories of Ancient Greek Philosophers
• Aristotle – the four elements could be
balanced in substances in an infinite number
of ways, and that when combined gave
proportions of “essential qualities”: hot, dry,
cold and wet. Transformations between the
four elements caused changes in the universe
• Anaxagoras – there was an infinite number of
elementary natural substances in the form of
infinitesimally small particles that combined
to comprise the different things in the
universe
• Empedocles – everything is made up of four
eternal and unchanging kinds of matter: fire,
air (all gases), water (all liquids and metals)
and earth (all solids)
• Plato – expanded Empedocles’ theory: each
of the four kinds of matter is composed of
geometrical solids (the “Platonic solids”)
further divisible into triangles. When
rearranged, these triangles could cause the
apparent transformations between the four
basic kinds of matter
ALCHEMY
From the Arabic/Greek alkīmiyā (the art of
transmuting)
A medieval chemical science and speculative
philosophy that aims to:
• achieve the transmutation of the base metals
into gold
• discover a universal cure for diseases
• discover a means of indefinitely prolonging
life
Mostly based on mysticism or cultural beliefs but also
had significant contributions to modern chemistry
Alchemists tried to play with the balance of the four
elements (fire, water, air, earth) and three principles
(salt, sulfur and mercury) to transform or transmute
substances.
Among their aims was to:
• transform “impure” or “base” metals (lead or
iron) into the “purer” metals (silver or gold)
• discover a magical “Philosopher’s Stone”
• and produce the “Elixir of Life”
 John Dalton

• first to describe atoms in a modern, scientific

sense
• formulated the Chemical Atomic Theory which
merged the concepts of the atom and element.
These are some aspects of his theory:
o All matter is composed of extremely small
particles called atoms.
o Atoms cannot be subdivided, created nor
destroyed.
o The atoms of an element are identical in
their masses.
o Atoms of different elements have
different masses.
o Atoms combine in small, whole number
ratios.
o In chemical reactions, atoms are
combined, separated or rearranged.
• While alchemists had the wrong understanding of ATOMIC MODEL DEVELOPMENT
matter, much of what they did set the stage for
much of modern chemistry. BILLIARD BALL MODEL (JOHN DALTON)
• For this reason, alchemy is considered a
The atom was a
protoscience, a precursor that allowed the field of
ball-like
chemistry to be what it is today
structure (the
Development of the Atomic Theory concepts of
atomic nucleus
Robert Boyle and electrons
• recognized elements as: were unknown
o the simplest substances that constitute at the time)
mixtures
o those that cannot be decomposed into
other substances via chemical reactions PLUM-PUDDING MODEL (JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON)
• had an empirical mindset: emphasized the need Claimed that
to observe and test the presence of corpuscles in electricity was in
alchemical experiments particles that
• Corpuscles were “certain primitive and simple, or were part of the
perfectly unmingled bodies” that were indivisible atom (which he
and whole named electrons)
Antoine Lavoisier An atom is a
• was able to refute Aristotle’s thinking of a sphere with a
universe composed of three or four elements uniformly
• had proof of Boyle’s concept of a simple distributed positive charge and enough embedded
substance (the chemical element): electrons to neutralize the positive charge
• showed that air is not an element because it could Discovery of electrons
be separated into several components (discovered
the element oxygen) The plum-pudding
• showed that water is not an element, because it model was
was made of two components (oxygen and conceptualized after
hydrogen) Thomson’s
• came up with an initial list of 33 elements experiments with
• created a systematic way of naming elements and cathode ray tubes.
the compounds they created
• wrote the first Chemistry textbook
• because of these contributions and more, he
became known as the Father of Chemistry
Planetary Model (Ernest Rutherford) Electron Cloud Model (Quantum-mechanical Model)

described the - Resulted from the development of a new branch

atom as having a of physics: quantum mechanics
tiny, dense, - based on mathematical equations by several
positively scientists, including Werner Heisenberg and
charged nucleus, Ernest Schrödinger
in which nearly - Main ideas:
all the mass is o Electrons have characteristics of both
concentrated particles and waves
o Electrons are found in electron clouds:
regions with high probability of finding an
electron
o There is no real empty space: just areas
with high or low probability of finding an
electron

James
Chadwick –
discovered the
neutron

Worked on
radiation
MOLECULES
emitted by
beryllium that • a group of two or more atoms that are chemically
took the form bonded together
of particles • can be of the same element or different elements
heavy enough
Two types based on composition:
to displace protons from nucleus but with a neutral
charge in order not to be repelled by protons and 1. Organic Molecules
electrons
- contain carbon atoms bonded with other atoms (e.g.
Bohr Model (Niels Bohr) hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus)
Examples: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids
The system proposed by Rutherford was unstable:
2. Inorganic Molecules
- under classical physics, the spinning electrons
would tend to be attracted to the positive nucleus - do not contain carbon-hydrogen bonds
and lose energy until they collapse into the center Examples: water, carbon dioxide, salts, minerals
Bohr proposed that the electrons existed only at fixed Types based on no. of atoms:
distances from the nucleus at set “energy levels,” or
quanta 1. Monoatomic molecule
- one atom molecules (Inert Gases: Xe, He, Ar, Ne)
- electrons travel in
defined circular orbits 2. Diatomic molecule
around the nucleus - two atom molecules or molecules that appear in nature
- The orbits are - there are 7 elements known to be diatomic nature (H2,
labeled by an integer, O2, N2, F2, Cl2, I2, and Br2)
the quantum number n 3. Polyatomic molecule
- Electrons can - molecules consisting 3 or more atoms (CO2, H2O, NH4)
jump from one orbit to
another by emitting or Atoms are connected chemically by bonds, these are also
absorbing energy different from each types of molecules and also
the types of atoms involved.
 LEWIS DOT STRUCTURE

- it is used to show how the electrons are arranged

around individual atoms in a molecule.
- Electrons are shown as "dots" or for bonding
electrons as a line between the two atoms.

RULES FOR LDS

- Determine the total number of valence (outer

shell) electrons among all the atoms.
- For cations, subtract one electron for each
positive charge. For anions, add one electron for
each negative charge.

- Draw a skeleton structure of the molecule or ion,

arranging the atoms around a central atom and
connecting each atom to the central atom with a
single (one electron pair) bond. Note that H and F
can only form one bond, and are always on the
periphery rather than the central atom.

- Distribute the remaining electrons as lone pairs

VALENCE ELECTRON
- are electrons that located in the outermost electron shell
of an atom.
- for those under the representative elements, the
elements on the long columns found in the
periodic table or Group A elements
on the terminal atoms (except hydrogen) to
complete their valence shells with an octet of
electrons.
In OF2, six electrons are placed on each F.
In HCN, six electrons placed on N

- Place all remaining electrons on the central atom.

In OF2, 4 electrons are placed on O.
In HCN: no electrons remain (the total valence of
10e-is reached) so nothing changes.

- Rearrange the electrons of the outer atoms to

make multiple bonds with the central atom in
order to obtain octets wherever possible.
THE OCTET RULE In OF2, each atom has an octet as drawn, so
nothing changes.
- dictates that atoms are most stable when their valence
In HCN, form two more C–N bonds
shells are filled with eight
 - Finally, check to
see if the total
number of valence
electrons are
present in the
Lewis structure.
FORMAL CHARGES
- the charge that would reside on the atom if
all of the bonding electrons were shared
equally
POLARITY
- refers to the way in which electrical charge is
distributed within a molecule
- If one atom in the molecule attracts electrons
more strongly than the others, it will develop a
partial negative charge (δ-), while the other
atom(s) will develop a partial positive charge (δ+)
- Atoms in a molecule may share their electrons
(covalent bond), leading to either an equal or an
unequal distribution of electrical charge
- Polarity affects the behavior of molecules such as:
o solubility in water
o ability to interact with other molecules
POLAR MOLECULES
- have an uneven distribution of charge
- one side of the molecule is negative while one
side of the molecule is slightly positive
NON POLAR MOLECULES
- no net separation of charge
- the electrons are evenly distributed
HOW TO DETERMINE POLARITY?
1. ELECTRONEGATIVITY
- a measure of an atom's ability to attract
electrons towards itself
- the atom with the higher electronegativity
attracts the shared electrons more strongly
HOW TO MEASURE ELECTRONEGATIVITY
If the difference in electronegativity (ΔEN) is:
ΔEN > 1.7 : it is an ionic bond
ΔEN < 1.7 but > 0.4 : it is a polar covalent bond
ΔEN ≤ 0.4 : it is a non-polar covalent bond
2. DIPOLE MOMENT
- In a polar covalent bond, it measures the
separation of charges
- represented by a vector (like an arrow),
which is drawn starting from the atom
with partial positive charge (less
electronegative) to the atom with partial
negative charge (more electronegative)
QUICK RULES TO DETERMINE POLARITY
Rule 1: Molecules with only one type of element are
always non-polar (monoatomic and diatomic molecules)
Example:
• Monoatomic = noble gases (helium, neon, argon
gas)
• Diatomic = H2, N2, O2
• Since it is the same element, ΔEN = 0
Rule 2: If all bonds in the molecule are non-polar, then the
molecule is non-polar
Example:
PH3
EN of phosphorus = 2.19
EN of hydrogen = 2.1
ΔEN = 2.19 – 2.1 = 0.09 (non-polar)
Rule 3: Hydrocarbons (which are molecules that contain
ONLY carbon and hydrogen) are always non-polar
EN of carbon = 2.5 ΔEN = 2.5 – 2.1
EN of hydrogen = 2.1 ΔEN = 0.4 (non-polar)
Example:
CH4 (methane), C2H6 (ethane), C3H8 (propane)
Note: all bonds in these molecules are non-polar
Rule 4: Molecules with a symmetrical shape are non-
polar. Even if the individual bonds are polar, their
structure makes the dipole moments cancel out.
Rule 5: Molecules with an asymmetrical shape are polar
(given that they have bonds that are polar). Their
structure does not make the dipole moments cancel out.
VSEPR Theory
- The approximate shape of a molecule can be
predicted using the Valence-Shell Electron-Pair
Repulsion (VSEPR) model, which depicts electrons
in bonds and lone pairs as “electron groups” that
repel one another and stay as far apart as
possible:
 - Each of the following constitutes an electron
group:
o a single, double or triple bond (multiple
bonds count as one electron group)
o a lone pair
o an unpaired electron
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
The term “INTERmolecular forces” is used to describe the
forces of attraction BETWEEN atoms, molecules, and ions
when they are placed close to each other
TYPES & EXAMPLES
- DIPOLE-DIPOLE INTERACTION
o Dipole-dipole interactions are attractive
forces among polar molecules.
o Polar molecules have permanent dipoles
o The partially positive portion of one
molecule is attracted to the partially
negative portion of another molecule.
- ION-DIPOLE INTERACTION
o They arise between ions and polar
molecules
o Ions are charged particles.
o commonly found in solutions, especially
ionic compounds dissolved in polar
liquids.
- HYDROGEN BONDING
o dipole-dipole interaction when the dipole
is a hydrogen bond to O, N, or F,
o Stronger than dipole-dipole interaction
- LONDON DISPERSION FORCES
o exist for all substances, whether
composed of polar or nonpolar molecules
o formed due to temporary dipoles
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES RANKED
Ion-Dipole>H-bonding>Dipole-dipole>London Dispersions
PROPERTIES
The intermolecular forces govern the physical state of a
substance. If the intermolecular forces are very strong,
that matter will exist as solid. If they are relatively weak,
then that compound exists as a liquid. If they are weakest,
then the compound exists as a gas. IMF is also responsible
for other physical properties of substances, such as boiling
point, melting point, and solubility.
LIQUID & SOLID
When intermolecular forces are strong the atoms,
molecules or ions are strongly attracted to each other, and
draw closer together. These are more likely to be found in
condensed states such as liquid or solid.
GAS
When intermolecular forces are weak, the atoms,
molecules or ions do not have a strong attraction for each
other and move far apart.
Surface Tension – is a property of the surface of the water
caused by the cohesive forces (intermolecular forces)
between molecules which allows liquid to create a thin
film on its surface
Boiling Point – is the temperature at which the vapour
pressure of a liquid is equal to the external pressure
(Chang, 2015).
Melting Point – is the temperature at which a substance
begins to change from solid to liquid.
Viscosity – is the property of substance resistance to flow.
In general, stronger IMF means high viscosity
Vapor pressure – is a measure of the tendency of a
material to change into the gaseous or vapor state, and it
increases with temperature.
Surface Tension ˄ IMF ˄
Boiling Point ˄ IMF ˄
Melting Point ˄ IMF ˄
Freezing Point ˅ IMF ˅
Viscosity ˄ IMF ˄
Vapor Pressure ˅ IMF ˄
BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES
“Macromolecules are very large molecules that are
formed by the polymerization of smaller molecules called
monomers.”
Macromolecules are also termed as polymers. They are
formed by the polymerization of molecules such as
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The monomer units of
macromolecules are polar in nature, with their heads and
tails with different physical and chemical properties.
Four Types of Macromolecules
1. CARBOHYDRATE
• Carbohydrates are polymers of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen. They can be classified as
monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides.
 • Carbohydrates are found in starch, fruits,
vegetables, milk and sugars
Glucose is the form of carbohydrates found in circulating
blood (blood sugar) and is the primary carbohydrate used
by the body for energy production. Fructose, or “fruit
sugar,” is found in ripened fruits and honey and is also
formed by digestion of disaccharide sucrose. Galactose is
found along with disaccharide lactose in mammalian milk
and is released during digestion.
Disaccharides are made up of two monosaccharides
bonded together by a glycosidic (covalent) bond. The
following are some of the common disaccharides:
1. Sucrose-glucose + fructose (e.g., table sugar)
2. Lactose-glucose + galactose (milk sugar)
3. Maltose-α-D-Glucose + β-D-Glucose (malt sugar)
4. Cellobiose-β-D-Glucose + β-D-Glucose (cellulose)
Glycogen is a form of starch found in animal tissue and is
hence called animal starch.
Cellulose is the most abundant carbohydrate in nature. It
provides structural integrity to plant cell walls. The basic
unit is β 1,4 linkage, straight chain, nonbranching (Figure
3.3). Cellulose is highly stable. No animal enzyme can
break it; only microbial cellulase can degrade it.
2. NUCLEIC ACID
• The nucleic acids
include DNA and RNA
that are the polymers of
nucleotides. Nucleotides
comprise a pentose
group, a phosphate
group, and a nitrogenous
base group. All the
hereditary information is
stored in the DNA.
3. PROTEIN
- Proteins are the polymers of amino acids.
- There would be no lipids or carbohydrates
without proteins because the enzymes used for
their synthesis are proteins themselves.
4. LIPIDS
• Lipids are a hydrophobic set of macromolecules
• These involve triglycerides, carotenoids,
phospholipids, and steroids. They help in the
formation of the cell membrane, formation of
hormones and in the and as stored fuel.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
- By definition is the process that rearranges
chemical bonds to create new substances. The
bonds in the molecules are broken and reformed
which creates noticeable phenomenon like color
changes, temperature changes, bubbling, or a
mixture turns cloudy.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS are CHEMICAL CHANGES
- Chemical changes turn one or more substances
into different substances that usually have
different properties.
Ex. Wood to Ash
- Should not be confused with Physical Changes,
wherein the state of matter is the only thing that
changes but it stays the same substance
Ex. Water to Ice
How do we show these reactions in writing?
We write these reactions in “Chemical Equations”.
A “Chemical Equation” is an abbreviated way to show the
exact number of atoms and compounds in a chemical
reaction.
In writing chemical equations, we start with reactants
then write an arrow going to the products.
- Reactants are the substances that are combined
and changed in the chemical reaction.
- Products are the new substances which result
from a chemical reaction
In writing we must consider some laws on properly doing
it, these includes the number we put and the letters you
see in an equation.
The law followed in this reaction is the Law on
Conservation of Mass.
The total mass of reactants = The total mass of products
• The large
number is the
Coefficient, it tells us
how many molecules
are there in the
reaction.
• The smaller number is the Subscript, it tells us
how many atom of each element is present in one
molecule
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
In terms of energy there are two types of reaction:
- Exothermic reactions where forming new bonds releases
more energy than it takes to break the old bonds.
Exothermic releases energy.
• In a combustion reaction oxygen reacts with
another substance to produce carbon dioxide and
water.
• General equation: CxHy (hydrocarbon) + O2 → CO2
+ H2O

- Endothermic reactions where forming new bonds in the

products releases less energy than it took to break the Reactivity Series
original bonds in the reactants. Endothermic absorbs
energy.

In terms how the chemicals behave:

1. Synthesis
• A reaction when two or more reactants combine
to make one type of product.
• This occurs as a result of two or more simpler
elements or molecules combining to form a more
complex molecule.

2. Decomposition
• When one type of reactant breaks down to form
two or more products
• Always remember, there is always one reactant to
this kind of reaction
Balancing Chemical Equations
In chemistry, we follow certain rules to write chemical
3. Single Replacement equations.
• In single replacement reactions one element - The goal is to make sure that there is equal mass
reacts with one compound to form products. The between the reactants and the products to follow the
single element is said to replace an element in the ‘Law on Conservation of Mass’
compound when products form, hence the name
General rules to follow:
single replacement.
• Metal elements will always replace other metals 1. The reactants are written on the left-hand side of the
in ionic compounds or hydrogen in an acid. equation, and the products are written on the right-hand
Nonmetal elements will always replace another side of the equation.
nonmetal in an ionic compound.

4. Double Replacement
2. Count the number of atoms of each element on both
• Two ionic compound reactants will react by
having the cations exchange places, forming two sides of the equation.
new ionic compounds.
• Precipitation and neutralization reactions are
two of the most common double replacement
reactions.

• Precipitation reactions are when two

aqueous solutions combine to form one
3. Add coefficients in front of the chemical formulas to
product that is insoluble solid
balance the number of atoms of each element on both
• Neutralization reactions are when the
sides of the equation.
two reactants are an acid and a base and
4. Start by balancing the elements that appear in only one
would produce a salt and water.
reactant or product.
5. Balance the number of hydrogen atoms next, then
balance the number of oxygen atoms.
5. Combustion

6. Check your work to make sure that the number of
atoms of each element is the same on both sides of the
equation.
7. Remember that coefficients must be whole numbers,
and you cannot change the subscripts of the chemical
formulas.
8. If you need to add a coefficient to a polyatomic ion,
make sure to add it to the entire formula.
9. Check your work again to make sure the equation is
balanced and accurately represents the chemical reaction.
Chemical Reaction Rates and Collision
Theory
Collision theory provides us with the ability to predict
what conditions are necessary for a successful reaction to
take place. These conditions include:
1. Particles must collide with each other
2. Particles must collide with sufficient energy to
break old bonds
3. Particles must have proper orientation
Chemical reactions involves breaking bonds in the
reactants, re-arranging the atoms into new groupings, and
the formation of new bonds in the products.
As stated, collisions need enough energy to break the
bonds. The amount of energy the reactant particles must
have to do this is called the activation energy.
To visualize postulates 2 and 3:
In the first reaction, the oxygen side of CO molecule
collides with the oxygen molecule resulting to no reaction.
In the second reaction, the carbon side of CO molecule
collides with the oxygen molecule resulting to CO2 and an
O atom.
Reaction Rates
Reactions are used by chemists to generate substances
that are of use to them. This lead to chemists wishing they
can control the rates of the reaction, for example:
• Slow down reactions that are too fast
• Speed up reactions that are too slow
Some reactions are too fast they explode, some are too
slow to be of use.
Factors Affecting Reaction Rates
• The rates at which reactants are consumed and
products are formed during reactions vary greatly.
• Not only must a collision occur between reactant
particles, but the collision must have sufficient
energy to break all the reactant bonds that need
to be broken in order to form the products. Some
reactions need less collision energy than others.
This energy is commonly known as activation
energy.
• There are five known factors that may affect
reaction rates:
- chemical nature of reacting substances
- the state of subdivision of the reactants
- the temperature of the reactants
- the concentration of the reactants
- the presence of the catalysts
Chemical Nature of Reacting Substances
- The rate of a reaction depends on the nature of
the participating substances. Reactions that
appear similar may have different rates under the
same conditions, depending on the identity of the
reactants.
- For example, when small pieces of the metals iron
and sodium are exposed to air, the sodium reacts
completely with air overnight, whereas the iron is
barely affected.
The Concentration of the Reactants
- The rates of many reactions depend on the
concentrations of the reactants. Rates usually
increase when the concentration of one or more
of the reactants increases.
- For example, Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)
deteriorates as a result of its reaction with the
pollutant sulfur dioxide. In a polluted atmosphere
where the concentration of sulfur dioxide is high,
calcium carbonate deteriorates more rapidly than
in less polluted air.
The State of Subdivision of the Reactants
- Except for substances in the gaseous state or in
solution, reactions occur at the boundary, or
interface, between two phases. Hence, the rate of
a reaction between two phases depends to a
great extent on the surface contact between
them.
- A finely divided solid has more surface area
available for reaction than does one large piece of
the same substance. Thus a liquid will react more
 rapidly with a finely divided solid than with a large After balancing chemical equations, we can then extract
piece of the same solid. variables from the balanced equation. In stoichiometry,
mole is an important unit. It is also the coefficient written
in front of the compounds.

- Mole is a quantitative measure equivalent to

Avogadro’s number of particles.

1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 number of particles

(a) Iron powder reacts rapidly with dilute hydrochloric

acid and produces bubbles of hydrogen gas because
the powder has a large total surface area: 2Fe(s) +
After pinpointing the number of moles, we can write them
6HCl(aq) ⟶ 2FeCl3(aq) + 3H2(g).
down as mole ratios.
(b) An iron nail reacts more slowly.
Mole Ratios are the relationship between the number of
The Temperature of the Reactants moles in a reaction.

- When the temperature is increased, the average In the example, we can write down these ratios:
velocity of the particles is increased.
- The average kinetic energy of these particles is 2𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾𝐼 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾𝐼 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾2 𝑆𝑂4 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐼2
also increased. The result is that the particles will 𝑜𝑟 2𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂 𝑜𝑟 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 𝑆𝑂 or 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑢𝐼 or 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑢𝐼
4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾𝐼 4 2 4
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 𝑆𝑂
collide more frequently, because the particles or 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙2𝐼 4
2
move around faster and will encounter more
reactant particles. You need to remember that in stoichiometry we need to
- The major effect of increasing the temperature is have a balance chemical equation to make sure the
that more of the particles that collide will have numbers we are getting are correct.
the amount of energy needed to have an effective
Imbalance equation = incorrect stoichiometric numbers
collision. In other words, more particles will have
the necessary activation energy. We can also use this to calculate mass ratios, we can use
the mass of the reactant/s to predict the mass of another
The Presence of the Catalysts
reactant/s or the products
- The final factor that affects the rate of the
Molar Mass
reaction is the effect of the catalyst. A catalyst is a
substance that speeds up the rate of the reaction Molar Mass is the mass in grams of a substance per one
without itself being consumed by the reaction. mole of the compound. For example:
- The modification of the rate of a chemical
reaction, usually an acceleration, by addition of a
substance not consumed during the reaction is
the process called Catalysis. To get the molar mass you need get their atomic weights:

Chlorine has an atomic weight of 35.453 g.

Since it is diatomic in nature, 35.453 g x 2 = 70.9 g per 1

- In the reaction of potassium chlorate breaking mole of Cl2 or 70.9 g/mol of Cl2.
down to potassium chloride and oxygen, a catalyst
is available to make this reaction occur much You also need to know how to convert mass units, grams,
faster than it would occur by itself under room to mole units. To do it, here are the steps:
conditions. The catalyst is manganese dioxide, and
its presence causes the reaction shown above to
run many times faster than it occurs without the
catalyst.

STOICHIOMETRY We can convert the masses of Al and Cl2 to moles using

molar mass:
- Is the calculation of the quantities of reactants or
products in a chemical reaction using the relationships
found in the balanced chemical equation.

For example, 15.0 g of Chlorine gas is bubbled over liquid
sulfur to produce Disulfur Chloride. How much Sulfur, in
grams, is needed according to the balanced equation?
(Note: you also need to know the molar mass of the
element/compound involve in the reaction)
Given: 15.0 g of Cl2
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑙 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑆 32.1 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑆
15.0 g of Cl2 = 70.9 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑙2 = 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑙 = 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑆
2 2
= 13.58 g of S
Reagents in an Equation
There are different reagents in an equation:
- Excess Reagent is a reactant that is not used up
fully in a reaction
- Limiting Reagent is the reactant that will be
completely used up in the reaction
How do we determine who’s who?
There are three methods that we can use to determine
what is the limiting reagent and excess reagent.
1. Actual Ratio of Reactants vs. Stoichiometric Ratio
of Balanced Equation
2. Guess-and-Check Way
3. Mole of Reaction Concept
Actual Ratio vs. Stoichiometric Ratio
The first method is to calculate the actual molar ratio of
the reactants, and then compare the actual ratio to the
stoichiometric ratio from the balanced reaction.
The actual ratio tells us that we have 1.74 mol of Al for every 1
mol of Cl2. In comparison, the stoichiometric ratio from our
balanced reaction tells us that we need at least 0.67 moles of Al
for every mole of Cl2. Since our actual ratio is greater than our
stoichiometric ratio, we have more Al than we need to react
with each mole of Cl2. Therefore, Cl2 is our limiting reagent and
Al is in excess.
Guess-and-Check Way
You can figure out the limiting reactant is by picking one
of the reactants—it doesn’t matter which one—and
pretending that it is the limiting reagent. We can then
calculate the moles of the other reagent needed based on
the moles of our pretend limiting reagent.
Example: Pretending that Al is the limiting reagent
Based on this calculation, we would need 1.56x10-1 mol
of Cl2 if Al is actually the limiting reagent. Since we have
5.99 x10-2 mol Cl2 (from the mole conversion from slide
7) which is less than 1.56x10-1 mol of Cl2 our calculation
tells us that we would run out of Cl2 before we fully
reacted all of the Al. Therefore Al is not the limiting
reagent but rather the excess reagent.
Mole of Reaction Concept
The third method uses the concept of a mole of reaction,
which is abbreviated as mol-rxn. One mole of reaction is
defined as occurring when the number of moles given by
the coefficients in your balanced equation react. To
conceptualize the definition:
We can use the above relationship to set up ratios to
convert the moles of each reactant to moles of reaction:
The more moles of reaction you have, the more times the
reaction can occur. Therefore, the reactant with fewer
moles of reaction is the limiting reagent since the reaction
can be carried out fewer times with that reactant.
After a reaction, given a set amount of substance how
much will we get?
When we know the limiting reagent of an equation, we
will then be able to answer the question, “What is the
theoretical yield of AlCl3 that the reaction can produce
when we start with 4.25 g of Cl2, our limiting reagent?”
the problem raised as example on the left side.
We can use the moles of limiting reagent plus the
stoichiometric ratios from our balanced reaction to
calculate the theoretical yield. Based on the balanced
chemical equation, for every 3 moles of Cl2 we should be
able to make 2 moles of AlCl3. Therefore:

Theoretical yield is commonly presented in grams, to
convert:
The theoretical yield is the maximum amount of product
you would expect from a reaction based on the amount of
limiting reagent.
But the reality is always different. The theoretical yield is
not always attained.
Chemists don’t always obtain the maximum yield for many
reasons. Loss of product often occurs during purification
or isolation steps when running reactions in the lab.
Despite how nice and tidy a balanced reaction appears,
reactants can also react in unexpected and undesirable
ways such as doing an entirely different reaction, we call
these as side reactions.
Since we can anticipate that we won’t get the theoretical
yield, how will we know how much did we really get?
In real life reactions, what we get is the actual yield.
Wherein considering factors, the actual yield would
always be lesser than the theoretical yield. We can report
the difference using percent yield, which tells us what
percentage of the theoretical yield did we get.
For example, the decomposition of magnesium carbonate
(MgCO3) forms 15 grams of magnesium oxide (MgO) in an
experiment. The theoretical yield is known to be 19
grams. What is the percent yield of magnesium oxide
(MgO)?
The solution is actually very simple, given that we already
have the actual and theoretical yield we just simply
substitute them to the formula.
𝟏𝟓 𝒈
percent yield = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟗 𝒈
percent yield = 79%
ENERGY SOURCES
There are many forms of energy that exist. These
energy sources can be classified into renewable and
nonrenewable.
- Renewable energy sources are replenished
naturally over a short time.
- a nonrenewable energy source will run out of
supply once consumed because they are only
present in limited amounts.
Examples of Energy Sources:
A. Fossil Fuels
- the general term used to refer to combustible products
of buried organic matter which underwent partial
decomposition under extreme temperature and pressure.
- These include coal, oil, and natural gas. The components
of fossil fuels are heated and vaporized to steam which
drives the turbines and generates electricity.
B. Biogas
- The source of this is animal manure. When bacteria
decompose manure anaerobically or without oxygen into
a gas mixture composed of about 60 to 70 percent
methane biogas is obtained.
- This is important in generating heat, hot water, or
electricity. The leftover digested manure can be used as
fertilizer, bedding, mulch, and potting soil. Biogas enables
farmers to produce their own electricity and reduce water
contamination, odor pollution, and global warming
emissions caused by animal waste.
C. Geothermal
- the energy harnessed from beneath the earth. There is a
high temperature inside the earth’s crust caused by the
slow delay of radioactive particles. Groundwater will be
heated up by the hot rock which will later produce steam.
The steam moves turbines. The rotating turbines run the
generators.
- It is clean, sustainable, and environment-friendly. The
problem with this is it can only be produced at selected
sites worldwide. The largest group of geothermal power
plants in the world is located at The Geysers, a geothermal
field in California, United States.
- In the Philippines, some geothermal power plants
include Makiling-Banahaw (MakBan) Geothermal Power
Plant in Laguna, Leyte Geothermal Power Plant in Leyte,
and Tiwi Geothermal Power plant in Tiwi, Albay.
D. Hydrothermal
- refers to the heat obtained from hot water from
hydrothermal vents or seawater in contact with hot rock
beds. Hot water from hydrothermal vents is collected into
a heat exchanger. The heat from the water is transferred
to another fluid which evaporates and drives the turbines
to generate electricity.
E. Batteries
- devices that store and convert chemical energy into
electrical energy. The energy produced results from a
chemical reaction; however, they do not have carbon
dioxide emissions.
- When it is connected to an external circuit, electrolytes
move within the battery, and the chemical reactions are
completed at the two terminals of the battery. The
movement of electrons generates the current and sends
electricity to the external circuit.
- Batteries are not considered as major energy supply
because of performance and safety issues, regulatory
barriers, the resistance of utilities, and cost.
F. Solar Cells
- These devices are made up of elemental silicon.
Photovoltaic cells or solar cells convert sunlight into
electricity. Light energy is collected over panels. The
collected energy can be stored in batteries or can be
directly converted to electrical energy.
- Solar batteries power spaceships and are used to
provide electricity for weather instruments in remote
areas. Large solar panel fields are often used in the
desert to charge small substations, and many homes
use solar systems to provide for hot water, cooling and
supplement their electricity.
- The problem with solar cells is only certain part of the
world get enough direct power of the sun to generate
usable power from this source because of its
geographical location. Aside from that solar energy
storage is expensive, weather dependent, and uses a lot
of space. Solar energy reduces electricity bills and a
renewable source of energy.
G. Biomass
This uses organic material like crops, plants, trees, yard
clippings, wood chips, and animal wastes and is commonly
used throughout the world. The materials are burnt to
generate heat. The heat produced can be directly used to
do daily chores like cooking food and boiling water. By
burning the biomass in a boiler, the generated heat is
used to produce steam which drives the turbines to
produce electricity. One of its issues is that it produces a
large amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This
causes air pollution.
Ingredients of Cleaning Products
Cleaning products contain substances that remove dirt,
stain, and bad smell. There are a number of cleaning
products, and some of them are used to clean surfaces
such as bathroom tiles, floors, sinks, and drains. Others
are used to clean clothing, blankets, and curtains.
Moreover, they contain substances that are classified
either as active or inactive ingredients. Active ingredients
are substances that directly help in achieving the
performance objective of a certain product while inactive
ingredients include fragrance and solvents.
Examples:
1. Detergents
- Detergent contains surfactant, which are substances
with cleaning properties. The most common surfactants
are sodium alkyl, benzyl sulfonates, and carboxylates.
These specific active ingredients have long water-
insoluble hydrocarbon tail and water-soluble polar heads.
When a group of surfactant molecules is placed in water,
the form micelles. When detergent is mixed with water,
the micelles are dispersed throughout the water. In a
scenario, when grease is present on a fabric, the micelle
disperses and entraps the grease. When detergent is
rinsed out, the grease comes with it.
2. Bleach
- This is a household cleaning product used to remove
dyes and whiten clothing. The color that stains white
fabrics typically arise from organic dyes and pigments. For
example, when ballpen ink spills on your white uniform,
the ink pigment binds with the fabric. Chlorine-based
bleaches, like sodium hypochlorite and calcium
hypochlorite, are used the break the chemical bonds of
the pigment. Then, the pigment is changed to a different
substance that does not absorb visible light, thereby
making the fabric appears white again.
3. Drain cleaner
- A drain cleaner is a chemical product that unblocks
sewer pipes or clogged wastewater drains. Caustic drain
cleaners contain substances such as lye (sodium
hydroxide) and caustic potash. They are bases, so they
give electrons to the clogging substance. Meanwhile, the
hydroxide ions create the reaction that clears the clog. On
the other hand, acid drain cleaners contain high
concentrations of sulfuric acid or hydrochloric acid. These
are substances that increase the number of hydrogen ions
in a solution and attract electrons from the clog.
4. Disinfectant
- Disinfectant is used to lessen microbes on surfaces but
not clean them. It is usually used to disinfects door
handles, tables, toilets and bathroom surfaces because it
can kill disease-causing microorganisms called pathogens
such as salmonella and staphylococci bacteria. Most
disinfectants, such as alcohol and chlorine, work by
denaturing proteins of microorganisms. When this
happens, the metabolism of microorganisms is disrupted,
causing death.
Remember that all products have an active ingredient that
enables it to work. Some may even have two or more
active ingredients. Here are some important pointers in
determining the active ingredient:
1. It can be seen in the labels of consumer products.
2. It can be classified as acidic, basic, or neutral.
3. The determination of its acidity or basicity will dictate
how the product will work.
It is very important to know the active ingredient in
certain products because
It will tell you what function they can serve. In addition,
knowing this kind of ingredient can at least make
consumers aware and cautious of the toxicity of the
product.
Created by:
Mr. Carl Aaron O. Manigos
Teacher I