Tourism Recreation Research

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A framework for understanding media exposure

and post-COVID-19 travel intentions

Siamak Seyfi, Raymond Rastegar, S. Mostafa Rasoolimanesh & C. Michael

Hall

To cite this article: Siamak Seyfi, Raymond Rastegar, S. Mostafa Rasoolimanesh & C. Michael
Hall (2021): A framework for understanding media exposure and post-COVID-19 travel intentions,
Tourism Recreation Research, DOI: 10.1080/02508281.2021.1949545

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TOURISM RECREATION RESEARCH
https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2021.1949545

RESEARCH NOTE

A framework for understanding media exposure and post-COVID-19 travel

intentions
a b c d
Siamak Seyfi , Raymond Rastegar , S. Mostafa Rasoolimanesh and C. Michael Hall
a
Geography Research Unit, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland; bBusiness School, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia; cCentre for
Research and Innovation in Tourism (CRiT), Taylor’s University, Subang Jaya, Malaysia; dDepartment of Management, Marketing and
Entrepreneurship, University of Canterbury, Canterbury, New Zealand

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Risk perceptions associated with the COVID-19 pandemic are significant factors shaping Received 23 March 2021
contemporary tourists’ travel behaviour. While the relationship between perceived risk and Accepted 14 June 2021
tourists’ decision-making and behaviour in relation to COVID-19 is already a significant area of
KEYWORDS
tourism research, the role of exposure to media outlets in affecting travel intentions has only COVID-19 pandemic; media
seen very limited attention. This is despite the clear importance of media in influencing risk exposure; travel intention;
perceptions and travel behaviour in general. This study proposes a framework linking crisis crisis; destination image
management, healthcare system, solidarity and destination marketing shaped by media
exposure to post-pandemic travel intentions. This research lays a foundation for future research
on media exposure and tourists’ travel behaviour in times of crisis.

Introduction
Since the first reported novel coronavirus disease
(COVID-19) patient in late December 2019 in Wuhan,
China, the disease has rapidly spread throughout the
world, with more than 165 million cases and 3.43
million deaths reported as of May 2021 (World Health
Organization, 2021). The magnitude of this global epi-
demic in terms of its social, economic and health
impacts has made it the most extensively reported and
covered in history (Gössling et al., 2021; Rastegar et al.,
2021a; Seyfi et al., 2020), with the media focusing on
health, welfare, economic and political issues and
national and international policy responses (Motta
et al., 2020; Pearman et al., 2021).
Travel risk perception of travellers during a crisis is
affected by media coverage and public perceptions of
the disease’s severity. Prior studies suggest that media
exposure tends to be stronger when it generates fear
and promotes perceived knowledge (Zhang et al.,
2015). The increasing severity of the COVID-19 pan-
demic, together with its huge media coverage, has
been discussed as a contributing factor in increasing
people’s risk perception (Rastegar et al., 2021b). For
instance, Wen et al. (2021) and Zheng et al. (2020)
show how misleading and biased media coverage of
COVID-19 could lead to Sinophobia and alleged preju-
dice against Chinese citizens.
The tourism literature has evidenced that mass media
and social media play a significant role in shaping desti-
nation image and can trigger the desire to travel to a
destination (Wang et al., 2015). Koo et al. (2016) noted
that media exposure could significantly affect destina-
tion image. The latter being particularly important
given the extensive media coverage of the country’s
various responses and coping strategies during the
COVID-19 pandemic (Gössling et al., 2021). Coverage of
a country’s COVID-19 response and its number of cases
and deaths often generate international interest, which
strongly influences perceptions of the pandemic and
its impacts (Lee & Kim, 2020). For example, Wike et al.
(2020) show that the international image of the USA
plummeted due to their ineffective handling of the
COVID-19 pandemic, while New Zealand and Germany’s
successes have shaped a positive media image as a
result of their approaches (Rasoolimanesh et al., 2021).
Of particular concern to the future of the global
tourism industry are the residual effects of the pandemic
on future decision-making processes of tourists and their
post-pandemic behaviour in visiting a destination
(Matiza, 2020; Rastegar et al., 2021b). While the nexus
between perceived risk and tourist psychology in the
COVID-19 era is a growing tourism research focus, the
predictors of post-pandemic travel intentions that
ensue from media exposure are yet to be substantially

CONTACT S. Mostafa Rasoolimanesh mostafa.rasoolimanesh@taylors.edu.my Centre for Research and Innovation in Tourism (CRiT), Taylor’s University,
Subang Jaya, Malaysia
© 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 S. SEYFI ET AL.
investigated. This research note, therefore, offers a con-
ceptual framework for understanding media exposure
and associated behavioural intentions in times of crisis.
Research propositions were proposed based on litera-
ture and specific tourism industry responses, thus
laying a foundation for future empirical research on
the relationships between media exposure and travel
behavioural intentions in times of crisis.
Research propositions
National responses in coping with the COVID-19 pan-
demic have triggered media coverage and public
concern and comparison across the globe (Rasoolima-
nesh et al., 2021; Rastegar et al., 2021a). While the
early experiences of some countries with largescale
community transmission soon dominated the news,
often portraying a very different image of those
countries from that usually conveyed in the media,
other destinations with effective crisis management
strategies have sought to portray an image as a safe des-
tination during the pandemic (Garfin et al., 2020).
During the COVID-19 pandemic, destination image
shaped by national responses to the pandemic and its
associated cases and deaths was shown to strongly
influence individuals’ future travel intentions (Hassan &
Soliman, 2021). The findings in the literature revealed the
significant impact of factors such as destination reputation,
trust, safety and social responsibility on future post-pan-
demic travel intentions (Hassan & Soliman, 2021). Heavy
exposure to media coverage of the crisis can play a signifi-
cant role in shaping such destination image (Ritchie &
Jiang, 2019). Similarly, media broadcasting of the number
of COVID-19 related infections and deaths has generated
an ‘unprecedented level of anxiety, fear, and panic’
among individuals (Zheng et al., 2021).
Information and knowledge shared by sensationa-
lised media coverage can create a mental picture of a
place in the minds of travellers (cognitive image).
During a crisis, individuals will, therefore, make destina-
tion choices based on their knowledge and overall risk
perceptions of destinations. However, in post-pandemic
crisis recovery (Raki et al., 2021), it is even more impor-
tant as tourists’ perception and destination image can
play a critical role in tourist destination choice.
Despite recent debate on the impact of crises on
future travel intentions, the role of media exposure to
shape destination image during the COVID-19 pandemic
and trigger post-pandemic travel intention has been
overlooked. Many studies on COVID-19 have attempted
to identify the leading factors in travellers’ decisions and
intentions post-pandemic, which are summarised in
Table 1.
Table 1. A summary of major predictors of post-pandemic travel
intentions.
Author and year Major triggers of post-pandemic travel intentions
Zheng et al. (2021) Travel fears; anxiety
Zhan et al. (2020) Perceived risk; health risk; financial risk; social risk
Godovykh et al. Cognitive risk; affective risk; individual risk
(2021)
Matiza and Kruger Perceived risk; psychographic factors
(2021)
Hassan and Soliman Destination social responsibility; destination
(2021) reputation; trust; fear
Abraham et al. Internal locus; external locus; animosity; perceived
(2020) risk; travel experiences
Liu et al. (2021) Political ideology; religious ideology; social class;
COVID-19 symptoms
Chua et al. (2020) Perceived uncertainty; mental wellbeing; perceived
risk
Quintal et al. (2021) Anxiety; trust; perceived risk
Bhati et al. (2020) Health; protective behaviour; destination health risk
image
Li et al. (2020) Health risk; psychological risk; social risk;
performance risk; image risk; time risk;
psychological distance
Kala (2021) Religious motivation; spiritual beliefs; place
attachment
Xie et al. (2021) Expose to risk message frame; empathy; perceived
waiting time
Ivanova et al. (2020) Hygiene, disinfection and reliable health system
Source: compiled by authors.
Although such studies provide an assessment of the
triggers of post-pandemic travel intention, media
exposure shaped predictors of post-pandemic travel
intention are yet to be investigated. Thus, drawing
upon the discussions in the extant literature on COVID-
19 and future travel behavioural intentions, this research
note proposes a conceptual framework for understand-
ing the effects of components of cognitive destination
image shaped by media on behavioural intentions in
times of crisis. The perceptions of prospective tourists
about a destination and knowledge acquired from
media about crisis management, healthcare system, soli-
darity and destination marketing in a destination have
been considered as the components of the cognitive
destination image. This work argues for the significance
of these four factors in shaping cognitive destination
image and influencing future travel intentions post-pan-
demic era.
Crisis management
The negative impacts of crises on tourism (e.g. reduction
of arrivals and perceived destination image) have been
well documented in the literature (Hall, 2010). Tourists’
perceptions of risk towards a destination play a critical
role in their behaviour and intention to travel. Media
portrayal of a country’s handling of the COVID-19 pan-
demic (e.g. timely and early diagnosis and treatment of
the virus, forceful and rapid response to the pandemic)
can affect individual perceptions of a destination (Jia &

Lu, 2021; Motta et al., 2020). For instance, a survey
related to the COVID-19 outbreak indicated that the
US image plummets internationally because of its hand-
ling of the coronavirus (Wike et al., 2020). Furthermore,
public perceptions of managing the COVID-19 health
crisis are of significance given their contribution to
national image and reputation (Hassan & Soliman,
2021; Jia & Lu, 2021). Successful crisis management
can therefore offer the opportunity for renewal and
image restoration. For instance, adopting effective
COVID-19 intervention measures in countries such as
New Zealand, South Korea and Finland is believed to
portray a positive image of these countries in the
media (Wike et al., 2020).
P1: Crisis management can affect future traveller post-
pandemic travel intention.
Healthcare system
Trust in destination services play a significant role in des-
tination attractiveness and affect travel intentions (Abu-
bakar & Ilkan, 2016). The perceived reliability and quality
assurance of the healthcare system (e.g. timely and fast
tracking of those exposed to COVID-19, high-capacity for
testing) can potentially boost destination attractiveness
and positively influence willingness to travel to a desti-
nation (Abubakar & Ilkan, 2016). The COVID-19 pan-
demic, therefore, raises significant questions
concerning the efficacy of national healthcare systems
in shaping a country’s image. For instance, a Health
Foundation (2020) survey of the general public in
Great Britain highlighted significant shifts in the
public’s perceptions of the government’s handling of
COVID-19 and the country’s healthcare capacity. Simi-
larly, effective healthcare systems in countries such as
Australia and New Zealand were identified as an impor-
tant factor in reducing the pandemic’s impacts and have
helped portray an image as safe destinations because of
their COVID-19 response (Devlin & Connaughton, 2020).
P2: Healthcare system can affect future traveller post-
pandemic travel intention.
Solidarity
During crises, solidarity can be constructed via the devel-
opment of common social identities among those
sharing the same experience (Cortland et al., 2017). Simi-
larly, solidarity can influence tourists’ perceptions and
their reactions to tourism in the destination (Joo et al.,
2019). In the case of COVID-19, solidarity has played a
vital role in encouraging people to support health and
social interventions (Arab-Zozani & Hassanipour, 2020),
TOURISM RECREATION RESEARCH 3
including assisting those in need or at risk, sharing
resources and supporting frontline workers. Similarly,
the UNWTO (2020) urged nations to stay in solidarity
with each other by stressing the importance of inter-
national dialogue and cooperation. It is also argued that
examining tourists’ feelings or their relationship with resi-
dents plays a critical role in studying tourists’ destination
image (Stylidis et al., 2020). Understanding such relation-
ships offers ‘better insights into tourists’ destination
image and future behavioural intentions’ (Stylidis et al.,
2020, p. 2). Emotional solidarity can therefore be con-
sidered as a significant predictor of individuals’ percep-
tions and behaviour and travellers will travel to a
destination if they trust in the solidarity in that country.
P3: Solidarity can affect future traveller post-pandemic
travel intention.
Destination marketing
During crises, destinations are urged to maintain the
attractiveness and value of their products and services
in readiness for post-crisis tourism recovery programmes.
Destination Marketing Organisations (DMOs) have to
reconfigure their promotion in light of the social and
economic realities resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic
(Vargas, 2020), with the nature of destination marketing
changing over the stages of a crisis (Hall & Prayag,
2021). COVID-19 has led many DMOs and tourism and
hospitality businesses to revise their promotion and mar-
keting activities in order to encourage future visitation.
For instance, in response to pandemic-related impulsive
purchasing behaviour, online sales promotion has
become an essential marketing tool for tourism and hos-
pitality businesses (Hall et al., 2021). Several destinations
have introduced ‘the tourist voucher ‘as a new product
to stimulate local customer consumption (Rutynskyi &
Kushniruk, 2020), while crowd-marketing campaigns on
social networks, discounting, flexible booking dates, and
no change fees policies becoming widely used business
strategies for triggering tourists’ travel intention to visit
destinations. Importantly, all of these strategies are com-
municated either directly (promotion) and indirectly
(media coverage of strategies) to consumers by the
media (Lim & To, 2021).
P4: Destination marketing can affect future traveller
post-pandemic travel intention.
Figure 1 shows the proposed model of this study.
Conclusion
It has long been recognised that the media plays a central
direct (by immediate consumption) and indirect (by word
4 S. SEYFI ET AL.
Figure 1. A media-shaped framework of post-COVID-19 travel intentions.
of mouth) role in influencing and mediating potential
tourists’ perceptions of a destination over time and fol-
lowing a crisis (Hall, 2002). Potential tourists’ risk percep-
tions and attitudes towards a destination are, therefore,
profoundly shaped by exposure to different media (Jia
& Lu, 2021; Motta et al., 2020). Such media consumption
experiences are important as individuals tend to avoid
any destinations with foreseen risks in their travel (Afshar-
doost & Eshaghi, 2020). These issues are particularly sig-
nificant in the case of the COVID-19 crisis, as even when
travel is allowed, it is expected that individuals will
avoid visiting perceived high-risk destinations until the
nature of media exposure changes (Garfin et al., 2020).
The role of the media has already been clearly identified
as playing a major role in influencing understanding of
health risk and subsequent behaviour (Garfin et al.,
2020; Motta et al., 2020), as well as the framing and under-
standing of other countries (Jia & Lu, 2021). Tourism con-
sumption is clearly not immune from such influences
(Lim, 2021a). Therefore, it is essential that research focus-
ing on post-COVID-19 travel intention include the role of
the media in any attempt in determining future travel
behaviour (Lim, 2021b).
This research note highlights the potential influence
of media information on the COVID-19 pandemic at
different destinations on individuals’ post-crisis travel
intention and their conative behaviour. This study
extends the extant discussion of major predictors of
post-pandemic travel intentions by focusing on media
exposure and associated travel intention. This is particu-
larly important as the media-influenced perceptions play
a significant direct and indirect role in driving the inten-
tion to travel to the destination. This research note pro-
vides a theoretical framework for understanding media
exposure and associated behavioural intentions in
times of crisis. In this context, this research note high-
lights the importance of crisis management, healthcare
system, solidarity, and destination marketing as signifi-
cant predictors of future travel behaviour.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes on contributors
Siamak Seyfi is an Assistant Professor at the Geography
Research Unit of the University of Oulu, Finland. Using an inter-
disciplinary and multidisciplinary approach, his research inter-
ests focus on tourism mobilities, political consumerism,
sustainability, resilience, as well as qualitative sociological/eth-
nographic research methods in tourism.
Raymond Rastegar holds a PhD in tourism management and is
a lecturer and researcher in Tourism at the UQ Business School,
University of Queensland. His research focuses on sustainable
tourism development in developing countries with specific
interest in local community livelihood, participation, empower-
ment, and environmental conservation. Recent research pro-
jects have investigated the impacts of tourism at local level
and delivered new insights into the tourism phenomenon to
advocate a more just and sustainable tourism future.
S. Mostafa Rasoolimanesh is an Associate Professor and Direc-
tor of Centre for Research and Innovation in Tourism (CRiT),
and Head of Research for the Faculty of Social Sciences and

Leisure Management in Taylor’s University, Malaysia. His
research interest areas contain sustainable tourism, heritage
tourism, community participation, residents’ perceptions, and
urban sustainability. He has published widely in high impact
tourism and hospitality journals.
C. Michael Hall is a Professor in the Department of Manage-
ment, Marketing and Entrepreneurship at the University of
Canterbury, New Zealand; Docent, Department of Geography,
University of Oulu, Finland; and Visiting Professor, School of
Business and Economics, Linnaeus University, Kalmar. He pub-
lishes widely on tourism, sustainability, global environmental
change and regional development.
ORCID
Siamak Seyfi http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2427-7958
Raymond Rastegar https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5794-2096
S. Mostafa Rasoolimanesh http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7138-
0280
C. Michael Hall http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7734-4587
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