Form 1 Physics Notes

daviesbarongo1@gmail.
com
FORM ONEPHYSI
CS
HANDBOOK
MrBar
ongo0701184913
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
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ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 1
daviesbarongo1@gmail.com
Tabl
eofCont
ent
s
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Page2
BRI
EFPERSONALPROFI
LE Page2
GUI
DELI
NESI
NMYLI
FE Page2
Chapt
er1 I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOPHYSI
CS Page3
Chapt
er2 MEASUREMENT1 Page5
Chapt
er3 FORCE Page16
Chapt
er4 PRESSURE Page22
Chapt
er5 PARTI
CULATENATUREOFMATTER Page32
Chapt
er6 THERMALEXPANSI
ON Page36
Chapt
er7 HEATTRANSFER Page44
Chapt
er8 ELECTROSTATI
CSI Page51
Chapt
er9 CELLSANDSI
MPLECI
RCUI
TS Page55
Chapt
er10 RECTI
LINEARPROPAGATI
ONOFLI
GHT Page62
ANDREFLECTI
ONATPLANESURFACES
Updat
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Chapt
erOne I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOPHYSI
CS
Physi
csasaSci
ence Relat
ionshi
p bet
ween Phy
sics, Ot
her Subj
ect
s and
Technology
 Phy
sicsi
sabr
anchofsci
ence
1. Physi
csAndGeogr
aphy
 Sci
encei
sdi
vi
dedi
nto3mai
nbr
anches:
-
 Accurat
e use of weat her instr
uments l i
ke
a) Phy
sics ther
mometer,wi nd v
ane,r
ain gauges et
c.requi
re
physi
csknowledge.
b) Chemi
str
y
 Conceptsl i
ke heatt r
ansf
erby conv ecti
on whi
ch
c) Bi
ology
explai
nt he format
ion ofconvecti
onalrai
nfal
land
Def
ini
ti
onofPhysi
cs pressur
ev ar
iati
oncanbebestexplai
nedinphysi
cs.
 Physicsisdef
inedasthestudyofmat t
erandi
ts 2. Phy
’ si
csandMathemati
cs
rel
ati
ontoener
gy .
 Manyconcept si
nphysi
csli
kelaws,ef
fect
s,pr
inci
ples
 I
tinvolv
esexpl
aini
ngphenomenasuchas: et
c.areexpr
essedmathemat
ical
ly
.
I
. Thef
all
i
ngofbodi
est
owar
dst
hegr
ound,  Mat
hemati
calski
l
lsaret
her
efor
ever
yinst
rument
ali
n
t
hel
eani
ngofphysics
I
I. Ri
singupofl
i
qui
dst
hroughadr
inki
ngst
raw,
3. Physi
csandChemi
str
y
I
II
. Seasonal
occur
renceoft
ides,
 Physics has hel
ped i
n expl
aining t
he nat
ure of
I
V. Aplasti
cpenrubbedagai
nstdr
yfurorhai
rpi
cks part
icleswit
hinat
omsandther
ef oreat
omi
cstruct
ure
smallpi
ecesofpaper
, ofsubstances.
V. Acr
ackl
ingsoundi
shear
dwhenany
loncl
othi
s  Atomicstr
uct
ureofdi ff
erent/vari
oussubstances
r
emovedetc. deter
minet
hei
rreact
ivi
ty(chemi
cal
react
ions)
.
St
udyofPhysi
cs 4. Physi
csandHi
stor
y
Thest
udyofphysi
csent
ail
s:  Hi
stori
ansuse car
bon dat
ing to est
abl
ish agesof
f
ossil
sandther
efor
epastpatt
ernsofearl
i
erli
fe.
i
. Measurements ofquanti
ties and col
lect
ion of
data.  Thisconceptofcar
bondatingi
sexpl
ainedbet
teri
n
at
omicphysi
cs.
i
i
. Drawing and test
ing of hypotheses through
exper
imentsandobservat
ion. 5. Physi
csandHomeScience
i
i
i. Est
abl
i
shmentofl
awsandpr
inci
ples  Physi
cs knowledge is used in desi
gning and
manufact
ure of ki
tchen equi
pment e.
g. elect
ri
c
Br
anchesofPhy
sics cooker
s,micr
owaveovens,
enMechani
sngji
kosetc.
1. Mechani
cs 6. Physi
csandTechnol
ogy
 I
tdealswit
hthest
udyofmot
ionundert
hei
nfl
uence  Machinesusedint
hefi
eldofmedi
cinesuchasx-r
ays,
off
orce. body scanner
s and l
aser
s ar
e allappli
cat
ions of
physi
cs.
2. El
ect
ri
cit
yandmagnet
ism
Updat
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 I
tdealswit
hr el
ati
onshi
pbet weenelect
ri
cfiel
dand  Manufact
ure and use ofsat
ell
i
tes and micr
owave
magneti
cfi
eldandt hei
rappli
cati
onsintheworki
ng di
shes used ini nfor
mati
on technology t
or el
ay
ofmotor
,micr
ophones,elect
ro-
magnetsetc. i
nfor
mat i
onisbasedonphysi
csknowledge
3. Ther
modynami
cs  Phy si
csknowledgeisal
sousedindefensei
ndust
ryin
the manuf
acture and use of most modern and
 Itdeal
swiththetr
ansformat
ionofheattoandfr
om complexmachines.
other f
orms of energy and the accompany
ing
changesinpr
essure,
volumeetc. 7. Physi
csandBiology
4. Geomet
ri
copt
ics  Knowledgeoflensesstudiedi
nphysi
cshasledtot
he
manufactur
eofmi croscopesusedi
nthestudyoft
he
 I
tdeals wit
ht he behav
iorofl
i
ghtas i
tpasses cel
landdiseases.
t
hroughvar
iousmedia.
 Pr
opert
iesofli
ghtli
keref
lect
ion,r
efr
act
ionet
c.ar
e
st
udi
edinthi
sbranchofphysi
cs. Car
eerOppor
tuni
ti
esi
nPhy
sics
5. Waves  Acareerr efer

st oaj oborapr ofessionthatonehas
beentrainedforandi ntendstodof oralongperi
odof
 Itdeal
swithpropagat
ionofenergyt hr
oughspace ti
me e. g.t eaching career,medi ci
ne,engineeri
ng,
andeffect
ssuchasr efl
ect
ion,dif
fract
ionofli
ght el
ectr
ical t
echnici
anet c.
andsoundwaves.
 Acourser eferstolessonsinpart
icularsubj
ect
6. At
omi
cphysi
cs
 Anoccupat
ionr
efer
stoaj
oborapr
ofessi
on.
 Iti
sdealswit
hthestudyoft hebehav
iorofpar
ti
cl
es
consti
tut
ingthenucl
eus( centr
e)oftheatom and
thei
raccompanyi
ngenergychanges.
Updat
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Examples of courses offered at univer

sit
ylevel Fi
rstAi
dMeasures
(degr
ees)t
hatrequi
rephysicsknowledge
Acci
dent Possibl
e Cause Fi
rstAi
dMeasur
es
(a)Bachel
orofeducati
on(science) oftheAcci
dent
(
b)Bachel
orofSci
ence(
civ
ilengi
neer
ing) Cut
s  Poor  Seek assi st
ance
handling of tostopbl
eeding
(
c)Bachel
orofmedi
cine glass
apparatus  I
mmedi at
e
(
d)Bachel
orofar
chi
tect
ure dressi
ng of the
and cut ti
ng
tools i
.e. w ound
(
e)Bachel
oroft
echnol
ogy(
product
ionengi
neer
ing)
scalpelsand
razors
Examples ofcourses off

ered atcol
lege l
evelt
hat bur
ns  Naked  Incaseofabur n
requi
rephysi
csknowledge f
lames causedbyanaci d
orabase,qui ckly
(
a)Di
plomai
nci
vi
lengi
neer
ing  Splashes of run col d wat er
concentr
ate ov erthe af
fected
(
b)Di
plomai
ncomput
ersci
ence
d acidsand par tas y
ou seek
(
c)Di
plomai
nwat
ert
echnol
ogy bases for fur
ther
treatment
(
d)Di
plomai
nlabor
ator
ytechnol
ogy
Poi
soni
n  I
nhali
ng  Seeki
ng
g poi
sonous i
mmedi ate
f
umes assi
stance
TheLabor
ator
y
 Accidental
 A labor
ator
yi s a speci
alr oom desi
gned and
swallowing
equi
ppedconduct
ingexper
imentsandpr
acti
cal
.
of
poisonous
chemi cal
s
Maj
orsyst
emsoft
heLabor
ator
y
Eye  Bit
s of  Incaseofirr
it
ating
i
. Gaspi
pingsy
stem damage sol
ids chemicals wash
yourey es wit
ha
i
i
. El
ect
ri
cal
ener
gysuppl
ysy
stem  Dangerous l
otofcleanwat er.
chemical
s
i
i
i. Wat
ersy
stem
Elect
ri
ca  Touching  Putof fthe main
Basi
cLabor
ator
yRul
es lshock exposed swit
chf i
rstbef
ore
(
naked) tr
eati
ngtheshock
 Forsafet
ypurposes,t
hefol
lowi
nglabor
ator
yrul
es
wi
res
must be fol
lowed and obser
ved whil
ei nthe
l
aborat
ory:  Using faul
ty
el
ectri
cal
1. Locat
ions of elect
ri
cal swit
ches, f
ir
efi
ghti
ng
appli
ances
equi
pment,f
ir
stai
dkit
,gassuppl
yandwatersuppl
y
syst
emsmustbenoted. Revi
sionExer
cise
2. Wi
ndows and door
s shoul
d be keptopen whi
l
e
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wor
kingi
nthel
abor
ator
y. 1) Name 3 br anches of sci
ence subj
ect i
n
secondar
yschool
s
3. Anyinst
ruct
ionsgi
venmustbefoll
owedcar
eful
l
y.
NEVERattemptany
thi
ngwhi
l
eindoubt. 2) Expl
aint
hest
epsi
nvol
vedi
nsci
ent
if
icappr
oach.
4. Ther
eshouldnoeat
ing,dr
inki
ngorchewi
ngi
nthe 3) Name and br
ief
ly expl
aint
he br
anches of
l
aborat
ory
. physi
cs
5. Ensurethatallel
ect
ricalswi
tches,gasandwat
er 4) Gi
ve i
nst
ances wher
e physi
cs i
nter
dependent
tapsaretur
nedoffwhennotinuse. wi
thagr
icul
tur
e.
6. Whenhandl
i
ngel
ect
ri
calappar
atus,handsmustbe 5) Gr
oupt
hef
oll
owi
ngf
orm 1physi
cst
opi
csi
nto
dr
y. t
hevar
iousbr
anchesofphysi
cs.
7. Never pl
ug i
nfor
eign mat
eri
alsi
nto el
ect
ri
cal Topi
c Branch of
socket
s. physics
8. Shir
tsandbl
ousesmustbet
uckedi
nandl
onghai
r 1 Measur
ementI
ti
edup.
2 For
ce
9. Keepfloor
sandwor ki
ngsur
facesdr
y.Anyspi
l
lage
3 Pr
essur
e
shoul
dbewi pedof
fimmedi
atel
y.
4 Par
ti
cul
atenat
ureofmat
ter
10.Allappar
atus mustbe cleaned and r
etur
ned t
o
corr
ectl
ocati
onofst
orageafteruse. 5 Recti
li
near propagat
ion of
l
ightandreflect
ionatplane
11.Laborator
yequipmentshoul
dnotbet
akenoutof surf
aces
l
aboratoryunl
essaut
hori
zed.
6 Ther
malexpansi
on
12.Anywast
eafteranexper
imentmustbedi
sposedof
i
mmediat
ely
. 7 Heatt
ransf
er
13.Hands must be washed bef

ore l
eav
ing t
he 8 El
ect
rost
ati
cs
l
aborat
ory 9 Si
mple cel
ls and el
ect
ri
c
ci
rcui
ts
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Chapt
erTwo MEASUREMENTI
I
ntr
oduct
ion 3. Compl
etet
het
abl
ebel
ow
 Measur
ementref
erstot
hepr
ocessoff
indi
ngt
hesi
ze Basi
cquant
it
y SI Symbolofuni
t Deri
ved
ofaphy
sical
quant
it
y. quanti
ty
uni
t
 Scient
ist
sal loverthewor l
dhav eonei nt
ernat
ional
Lengt
h
system ofunitsi.
e.systemeint
ernat
ional
edeuni tes
(SIuni
ts)forphysi
calquanti
ti
es. Mass
El
ect
ri
ccur
rent
Reasonsf
orEst
abl
ishi
ngSIUni
ts Thermodynami
c
temper
ature
1. Tohavei
nter
nat
ionaluni
for
mit
yamongsci
ent
ist
s.
Lumi
nousi
ntensi
ty
2. Toavoi
dconf
usi
onamongsci
ent
ist
s.
Amount of
subst
ance
Ty
pesofPhy
sical
Quant
it
ies 4. Whyi
sitnecessar
ytoest
abl
ishSIuni
ts?
i
. Basi
c Physi
calQuant
it
ies (
Fundament
alPhysi
cal
Quanti
ti
es)
LENGTH
 Thesearequantit
iesthatcannotbeobt
ainedf
rom
 I
ti sthe measur
e ofdist
ance bet
ween t
wo poi
nts.
otherphy
sical
quanti
ti
es.
Examplesofl
engt
hare:
 Thereare seven basi
cquant
iti
esaccordi
ng t
othe
i
nter
nati
onalsy st
em ofuni
ts(SIuni
ts)
.Theyareas  br
eadt
h
showninthetablebel
ow:
 di
amet
er
Basi
c physi
cal SIuni
t Symbol of
 hei
ght
quant
it
y theSIuni
t
 Dept
het
c.
Lengt
h Met
er m
Mul
ti
plesandSub-
mul
ti
plesoft
hemet
re
Mass Ki
l
ogr
am kg
1ki
l
omet
er(
1km) =1000m
Ti
me Second s
1hect er(
omet 1Hm)=100m
El
ect
ri
ccur
rent
s Amper
e A
1decamet
er(
1Dm) =10m
Ther
mody nami
c Kel
vi
n K
temper
ature 1m =10deci
met
re(
dm)
Lumi
nousi
ntensi
ty Candel
a Cd 1m =100cent
imet
er(
cm)
Amountofsubst
ance mol
e mol 1m =1000mi
l
li
met
er(
mm)
Updat
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1m =1000000mi
cromet
er(
µm)
i
i. Der
ivedPhysi
calQuant
it
ies
 These ar
e quanti
ti
es obt ned by mul
ai ti
pli
cati
on or
di
visi
onofotherphysi
calquant
it
iese.g.area,v
olume,
wor
k,densi
ty,
moment
um et
c.
Exer
cise2.
2
Conver
tthef
oll
owi
ngi
ntoSIuni
ts
a) 1000km (
answer
:1000000m)
b) 0.
00025mm (
answer
:0.
00000025m)
c) 0.
01Hm (
answer
:1m)
d) 25mm (
answer
:0.
025m)
e) 25µm (
answer
:0.
000025m)
Exer
cise2.
1
Measur
ementofLengt
h
1. I
denti
fythemistake(
s)i
nthef
oll
owi
ngSIuni
tsandhence
wri
tethem cor
rect
ly. Ther
ear
etwomet
hodst
hatcanbeusedi
nmeasur
ement
ofl
engt
h:
(
a)Amper
es(
a)
1. Measur
ementbyest
imat
ion.
(
b)Candel
a(cand)
2. Accurat
e measur
ementusi
ng a sui
tabl
e measur
ing
(
c) Met
res(
M)
i
nstrument
.
(
d)Kal
vi
n
Exampl
esofi
nst
rument
susedi
nmeasur
ingl
engt
h
(
e) Seconds
I
. Met
err
uleandhal
f-
met
err
ule.
(
f) Ki
logr
ams
I
I. Tape measur
e used t
o measur
erel
ati
vel
ylong
(
g)Pascal
s l
engt
hse.
g.l
engt
hofasoccerf
iel
d.
(
h)newt
ons I
II
. Ver
niercal
i
per
s–usedt
omeasur
eshor
tlengt
hse.
g.
2. There ar
et wo types ofphysicalquant
iti
es:basi
c and thi
cknessofat
ext
bookordi
amet
erofasmeasur
ing
deri
vedquanti
ti
es,stat
ethedi
fferencebet
weenthetwo. cyl
inder
.
I
V. Mi
cromet
erscr
ew gauge – used t
o measur
ever
y
Updat
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shor
tlengt
hse.
g.di
amet
erofawi
re.
Updat
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Fact
orsConsideredWhenChoosi
nganI
nst
rumentf
or
Measur
ingLengths
1. Si
zeoft
heobj
ectt
obemeasur
ed.
2. Lev
elofaccur
acyr
equi
red.
TheMet
err
ule
 Met
er r
ules and a hal
f– met
er r
ules ar
e gr
aduat
ed
(
cal
i
brat
ed)incent
imet
erandmil
li
met
er
 Thesmallestdivi
siononameterrulescal
eis1mm R1 =77.9cm,R2=82.
8cm,R3=25.
5cm,R4=30.
0cm,R5=3.
4
(0.
1cm or0.001m) .Thi
si heaccur
st acyoft er cm,R6=7.
hemet 0cm
rul
e.
Not
e:
Exer
cise
I
. Accur
acyofameasur inginst
rumentist
hesmallest Expresst
heabover
eadi
ngsi
n:
val
ue thatcan be accur
atel
y obtai
ned usi
ng the
i
nstr
ument. I
. Mm
I
I. The measur ement t aken usi ng a measur i
ng II
. M
i
nstrumentmustbe ex pressed tot he numberof
decimalplacesoft heaccur acyofthatinst
rument.
Forexample,anymeasur ementt akenusingameter Pr
ecauti
onWhenUsi ngaMet erRule
rul
e should be expressed i n whole numberifin
mill
imeter
,to1deci malpl acei fincentimet
ersand  Careshoul dbet akentoav oi
ddamagetot heendsof
to3decimalpl acesi
finmet ers. meterrul
es.Thisisbecausemostofthem donothave
ashortal
lowanceattheendst ocat
erf
ort
ear .
Pr
ocedur
eFol
lowedWhenUsi
ngaMet
erRul
e
1. Pl
acethemeterr
ulei
ncontactwi
tht
heobj
ectwhose
l
engt
histobemeasured. TapeMeasur
e
2. Pl
acet
heendoft
heobj
ectagai
nstt
hezer k Ty
ocm mar pesofTapeMeasure
oft
hescal
e.
i
. Tai l
or’
stapemeasur
e
3. Posi
ti
ony
ourey
eper
pendi
cul
arl
yabov
ethescal
e.
i
i
. Car
pent
er’
stapemeasur
e
i
i
i. Sur
vey
or’
stapemeasur
eet
c.
Note:Thechoi
ceoft apemeasur henat
edependsont ure
andlengt
hofdi
stancetobemeasured.
Pr
ecaut
ionWhenUsi
ngTapeMeasur
e
 Ensur
eiti
staut(
ver
yst
rai
ght
)dur
inguse.
Updat
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Sour
cesofEr
rorWhenUsi
ngaMet
erRul
e Measur
ingCur
vedLengt
hs
 Whenusi
ngamet
err
ule,
aner
rormayar
isewhen:  Tomeasurecurvedl engt
hssuchasr ail
sandr oadson
maps,athreadi
spl acedalongtherequi
redlength.The
I
. t
her
ulei
snoti
ncont
actwi
tht
heobj
ect
, l
engthist hen found by placing the t
hread on a
mil
li
meterscal
e.
I
I. theendoftheobjecti
snotal
i
gnedt
othezer
omar
k
ofthemeterrul
escale,  Forcur
vedsur
facesl
i
keacy
li
nder
,at
hreadi
scl
osel
y
wr
appedar
oundt
hesur
faceanumberoft
imes.
I
II
. theposi
ti
onoft
heeyei
snotper
pendi
cul
art
othe
scal
e.
Exper
iment2.
1
 NB:Theer
rort
hatoccurswhent
heposi
ti
onoftheeye Ai
m/Obj ect
ive
i
snotperpendi
cul
art othescal
eiscaled par
l all
ax
er
ror. To measurethe ci
rcumf
erence ofa measur
ing cy
li
nder
usi
ngat
hread
Appar
atus
i
. 10ml
measur
ingcy
li
nder
i
i
. Thr
ead
i
i
i. Met
err
ule
Pr
ocedur
e
1. Cl
oselywr
apathi
nthr
eadt
ent
imesar
oundt
hecy
li
nder
asshownbel
ow.
Exampl
e
Whatar
ether
eadi
ngsi
ndi
cat
edbyar
rowsR1,R2,R3,R4,R5
andR6bel
ow.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
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ces 0701184913 11
2. Mar
kwi
thi
nkt
hebegi
nni
ngandendoft
het
urns.
3. Remov
ethet
hread.
4. Measur
ethel
engt
hbet
weent
hei
nkmar
ksandcal
lit
R1.
5. Repeatt
wot
imes,r
ecor
dingr ngsasR2 andR3 so Resul
eadi tsandCal
cul
ati
ons
ast
oensur
eaccur
acyofy
ourmeasur
ement
s.
 Hei
ghtoft
het
reei
sest
imat
edusi
ngt
heexpr
essi
on:
R +R2 +R3
6. Fi
ndt
heav
eragel has 1
engt .
3 heightoft
hetree,htree l
engt
hofshadowoftr
ee,Ltree
=
heigt
hofrod,hrod l
engthofshadowofr Lrod
od,
Resul
tsandCal
cul
ati
ons
R1 +R2 +R3
 Av
eragel
engt
hof10t
urns,
R=
3 Exampl
e
 Ci
rcumf
erenceoft
hecy
lnder= R
i I
nanexper i
menttoesti
matetheheightofatreei
nNyabur
uru
10 Gir
ls’Secondar
ySchoolcompound,Gr
acerecor
dedt
hef
oll
owing
data.
 Di
amet
eroft
hecy
li
nder(
D)i
sobt
ainedas:
I
. Lengt
hofshadowoft
het
ree=1000cm
ci
rcumfer
ence
D= I
I. Lengt
hofshadowoft
her
od=200cm
π
I
II
. Hei
ghtoft
her
od=100cm
Exer
cise I
V. Det
ermi
net
hehei
ghtoft
het
ree
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
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ces 0701184913 12
Theor
eti
cal Sol
uti
on
1. Alength550cm ofat
hinthreadwr
apsaroundacyl
inder hei
gthofthetr
ee,x l
engt
hofshadowoft
ree
=
exact
ly25t i
mes.Cal
culat
et heci
rcumf
erenceandt he hei
gthoftherod lengt
hofshadowofr
od
22
r
adi
usoft
hecyl
inder
.(Takeπ = )
.
7 x 1000
=
100 200
2. Phil
ipfoundthattheperimeterofhisf
armi
ngpl
otwas
approxi
matel
y500st ri
des.Hi sstri
dewas1.1m l
ong. x=5.
0m
Whatwast heper
imeteroftheplot
?
Exper
iment
al AREA
1. Esti
matethewidthofyourdeskbycountinghowmanyof  Ar ear
efer
stothemeasureofsur
face.
yourpal
ml engt
hsarethere
 TheSIuni
tofareai
sthesquaremeter
( .
m2)
2. Descri
beamet hodyoucanuset oestimatet
hethi
ckness
widthofonesheetofpaperofyourbook.
3. Descri
be a method t
hatcan be used t
o est
imat
ethe Mul
ti
plesandsub-
mul
ti
plesoft
hesquar
emet
re
thi
cknessofarazorbl
ade.
. 1m2=1000000mm2
I
I
I. 1m2=10000cm2
Est
imat
ionofLengt
h
Exper
iment2.
2 I
I. 1km2 =1000000m2
I
a)
Ai
m/obj
ect
ive:Toest
imat
ethehei
ghtofat
ree
Exer
cise
Appar
atus
1. Expr
esst
hef
oll
owi
ngi
nsquar
ecent
imet
er
 Ar
odofl
engt
h2met
ers
00027km2
a) 0.
 Amet
err
ule.
5m2
b) 4.
Pr
ocedur
e
2. Expr
esst
hef
oll
owi
ngi
nSIuni
ts
1. Hol
dther
odupr
ightandmeasur
eit
slengt
h.
b)
9000cm2
2. Measur
ethel
engt
hofi
tsshadow.
009cm2
c) 0.
3. Measuret
helengt
hoft
heshadow ofat
reei
nthe
school
compound. d) 25km2
Measur
ementofAr
ea Exampl
e
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
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ces 0701184913 13
Ar
eaofRegul
arl
y–ShapedObj
ect
s Esti
matetheareaoftheir
regul
arsurfaceshowninthe
fi
gurebel
ow bycount
ingt
hesmal lsquares.Thear
eaof
 Ar
ea ofi
rr
egul
ar-
shaped obj
ect
sis obt
ained usi
ng
onecomplet
esquar
eis1cm2.
appr
opr
iat
efor
mul
ae.
A. Rect
angl
e
Sol
uti
on
Ar
ea =l
engt
h ×wi
dth
o
Ar
ea =
1
B. Ci
rcl
e (numberofcompletesquares +2 ×numberofincompletesquares)
ar
eaofonesquar
e
1
o Ar (
ea =4 + ×22 ×1cm2
2 )
o Ar
ea =15cm2
Ar
ea =πr
2
,wher
er=r
adi
us
Exer
cise
1) Tracet
heout
li
neofyourpal
m onagraphpaperand
C. Tr
iangl
e esti
matet
heareaoft
heshapeobt
ained.
2) Det
ermi
net
hear
eaoft
het
opofyourdesk.
3) The diameterofthe bor

e ofa capi
ll
aryt
ube i
s 2.
0mm.
Calcul
atethecross-
secti
on ar
eaoftheborein cm2(
take
π=3.142)
4) Asheetofpapermeasur
es25cm by15cm.Cal
cul
atei
tsar
ea
nmm2
i
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
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ces 0701184913 14
1 Vol
ume
Ar
ea = (base ×per
pendi
cul
arhei
ght
2
 Vol
umer ef
erst
otheamountofspaceoccupi
ed by
matt
er.
D. Tr
apezi
um  I
tisader
ivedquant
it
yofl
engt
h.
 TheSIuni
tofv
ol st
umei hecubi
cmet m3)
er(
Mul
ti
plesandSub-Mul
ti
plesoft
heCubi
cMet
re
(
a)
1m3 =1000000cm3
1
ea = (
Ar sum ofpar
all des)×hei
elsi ght (
b)
2 1m3 =1000000000mm3
(
c)
1km3 =1000000000m3
Ar
eaofI
rr
egul
arl
y-ShapedSur
faces (
d)1m3 =1000l
i
ter
s
 Areaofir
r egul
arl
yshapedsurfacecanbeest i
mated (
e) 1l
it
er=1000ml
bysub-di
vidingthesurfacei
ntosmallequalsquar
es
andtheareaobtainedas: (
f) 1l=1dm3
Exer
cise
Ar
ea =
1 Conver
teachoft
hef
oll
owi
ngvol
umest
oSIuni
t
(numberofcompletesquares +2 ×numberofincompletesquares)
ar
eaofonesquar
e I
. 1500000000cm3
I
I. 20.
0li
ter
s
I
II
. 1.
0ml
I
V. 9000000000mm3
V. 1000000l
Vol
umeofRegul
ar–ShapedSol
ids
 Volumeofregul
arl
y–shapedsol
i
dsi
sobt
ainedby
apply
inganappr
opr
iat
efor
mul
a.
1. Cuboi
d Exampl
es
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
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ces 0701184913 15
Vol
ume=cr
oss-
sect
ionar
eaxhei
ght 1) Arim offoolscapscont
ains500paper
sandhasamassof
2kg.Thesizeis300mm by200mm by50mm.fi
nd:
Vol
ume =l
engt
h ×br
eadt
h ×hei
ght
I
. Thet
hicknessofonesheetofpaper
.
200mm
=0.
4mm
500paper
s
=0.
0004m
I
I. Themassofonesheetofpaper
.
2. Tri
angul
arpr
ism o 500paper
s=2kg
2kg
 massof1paper=
500
o =0.
004kg
I
II
. Thevol
umeoft
her
im.
o v
olume=L×W ×h
o 300mm x200mm x50mm

Vol
ume=cr
oss-
sect
ionar
eaxl
engt
h
=3000000mm3
1
Vol
ume= base×hei
ght×l
engt
h =0.
003m3
2
I
V. Thevol
umeofonesheetofpaper
3. cyl
inder Vol
umeof500paper
s=0.
003m3
0.
003m3
o v
olumeof1paper=
500
=0.
000006m3
2) Ablockofglassi
s50cm l
ong,4.
0cm t
hickand2.
5cm hi
gh.
Cal
culat
eit
svolume
v
olumeoft
hegl ock=l
assbl engt
h ×br
eadt
h ×hei
ght
Vol
ume=cr
osssect
ionar
eaxhei
ght =5.
0cm ×4.
0cm ×2.
5cm
ume=πr
Vol 2
h =50cm2
=0.
000050m3
4. Spher
ee.
g.f
ootbal
l 3) Fi
ndthevolumeoft
hecyl
indr
icalt
inofr
adi
us7.
0cm and
hei
ght3.
0cm.
v
olumeoft
in =πr
2
22
= ×7cm ×7cm ×3cm
7
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 16
0cm3
=462.
=0.
0004620m3
4) Fi
ndthevolumeofatri
angul
arpr
ism i
fbase=6.
0cm,hei
ght
=5.
0cm andlengt
h=12.
0cm
v
olume=ar
eaofcr
oss-
sect
ion ×l
engt
h
1
(
= ×6.
2
0cm ×5. )
0cm ×12.
0cm
4 3
v
olume= πr
3 =180.
0cm3
=0.
0001800m3
5. Cone 5) Fi
ndt
hevol
umeofaspher
ewhoser
adi
usi
s3.
0cm
4 3
v
ol e= πr
umeofspher
3
4 22
= × ×3.
0cm ×3.
0cm ×3.
0cm
3 7
=113.
14cm3
1 2 =0.
00011314m3
v
olume= πrh
3
6) Asphereofdi
ameter6.
0mm ismoldedint
oauni f
orm wi
re
of di
ameter0.2mm.Calcul
atet
he length of t
he wir
e.
22
(
takeπ = )
7
v
olumeofspher
e=v
olumeofwi
re
4 3
πR =πr
2
l
3
4 22 22
× ×3.
0mm ×3.
0mm ×3.
0mm = ×0.
1mm ×0.
1mm ×l
3 7 7
36mm3 =0.
01mm2l
36mm3
l= =3600mm =3.
600ml
0.01mm2
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
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ces 0701184913 17
Measur
ementofVol
umeofLi
qui
ds Sol
uti
on
i
. Usi
ngaCont
ainerwi
thUni
for
m Cr
oss-Sect
ionAr
ea. Vol
umeof1dr
op =0.
12cm3
 Theli
quidispour
edintothecontai
nerandt hehei
ght v
olumeof100dr
ops =1000×0.
12cm3
oft
heliqui
dinthecontai
nerismeasured.Thevol
ume
=12cm3
oft
heliqui
discal
cul
atedusingtheexpressi
on:
i
nit
ial
lev
el=24cm3
f
inal
lev
el=( cm3
24 +12)
Volumeofl
iqui
d =cr
osssect
ionar
eaofcont
ainer ×hei
ghtof
l
iqui
d
=36cm3
Not
e:
 When using a measuring v

esselt he readi
ng ofthe
vol
umei stakenwit
htheey epositi
onedinl ev
elwit
hthe
bot
tom of t he meniscus (for li
qui
ds whi ch cur
ve
upwards)asi n(
a)ort opoft hemeni scus(forl
iqui
ds
whichcurvedownwards)asin( b)bel
ow.
Measur
ingVol
umeofI
rr
egul
ar-ShapedSol
ids
 Themet hodusedi
nthi
scasei eddi
scal
l splacement
i
i
. Usi
ngasui
tabl
evol
umemeasur
ingappar
atus method sincet
hesol
id di
spl
acessomel
iquid when
i
mmer sed.
 Thefol
lowingapparat
usar eusedtomeasur
evol
ume
accur
atel
yofli
quidsinlaborat
ory
: Condi
ti
onsunderwhi
chdi
spl
acementmet
hodwor
ks:
a) Pi
pet
te Fordi
spl
acementmethodtoworkbest
,thesol
i
dwhose
vol
umeist
obedeter
minedshoul
d:
b) Bur
ett
e
(
a)notbesol
ubl
eint
hel
i
qui
dbei
ngused,
c) Vol
umet
ri
cfl
ask
(
b)notr
eactwi
tht
hel
i
qui
d,
d) Sy
ringe
(
c)si
nkintheli
qui
dand,
 Pipet
teandvol
umet
ri
cfl
askmeasur
efi
xedvol
umesof
l
i
quids. (
d)notabsor
btheli
qui
d.
 Thefol
lowingappar
atusareusedt o appr
oxi
mat
ely
measur
ev olumeofl
i
quidsi
nlabor
ator
y:
Exper
iment
s
a) Measur
ingcy
li
nder
s
Ai
m:Tomeasur
evol
umeofi
rr
egul
arl
y–shapedsol
id
b) Gr
aduat
edbeaker
s
Requi
rement
s:st
one,t
hread,measur
ing cy
li
nder
,wat
er,
c) Coni
cal
flasks Eurekacan(al
socall
eddi
spl
acementorov
erf
low can)
,
fl
oaterandasi
nker
.
TheBur
ett
e
Met
hod1:Usi
ngmeasur
ingcyl
inder
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 18
Pr
ocedur
e
Thescal
eoftheburet
teismar
kedsucht ocm3
hatzer
marki
satthetopandthemaxi
mum valuemarkatt
he
bott
om. 1. Par
tlyf
il
lthemeasur
ingcy
li
nderwi
thwat
erandnott
he
v umeV1oft
ol hewater
2. Ti
ethestonewi t
hat hr
eadandloweri
tgent
lyi
nthe
cy
li
nderunt
ili
tisf
ull
ysubmer
ged
3. Not
ethenewv
olumeofwat
erV2
Resul
tsandcal
cul
ati
ons
Thev
olumeoft
hest
onecanbecal
cul
atedas:
v
olume =V2 -
V1
Exampl
e
Waterlev
elinabur et
teis24cm3.If100dropsofwat
erf
all
fr
om theburett
eandt heaver
agevolumeofonedropi
s0.
12
cm3.Whatisthefi
nalwat
erl
eveli
nthebur
ett
e?
Met
hod2:Usi
ngEur
ekacan Exampl
e
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
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esour
ces 0701184913 19
Pr
ocedur
e
1. Fi
l
lEur
ekacanwi
thwat
erunt
ili
tov
erf
lows 1) Det
ermi
net
hevol
umeofwat
eri
nthecyl
indershownbel
ow.
2. Wai
tfort
hewat
ert
ost
opcomi
ngoutoft
hespout
3. Pl
aceameasur
ingcy
li
nderundert
hespout
4. Ti
et hestonewithat hr
eadandl
oweri
tgent
lyi
nto
waterunt
ili
tisf
ull
ysubmerged
5. Col
lectthewatercomi
ngoutoft
hespoutusi
nga
measuri
ngcyl
i
nder.
Sol
uti
on:
ume =33cm3
Vol
(
Remembert
hataccur
acyoft
hescal
eshownabovei
s1cm3)
2) Ifastoneofvolume6cm3isinser
tedt
osi
nkinwat
eri
nthe
abovecyl
inderwhatwi
llbet
henewwaterl
evel
?
Resul
tsandcal
cul
ati
ons
Sol
uti
on
Thevolumeofwatercol
l
ect
edi
nthemeasur
ingcy
li
nderi
s Newl
evel=i
nit
ial
lev
el+v
olumeofst
one
thev
olumeofthestone.
Newl
evel=33cm3 +6cm3
=39cm3
Mass
Method 3:Measuri
ng vol
ume ofan i
rr
egul
ar-
shaped
f
loaterusi
ngEur
ekacan  Massi
sthequant
it
yofmat
teri
nanobj
ect
.
Pr
ocedur
e  TheSIuni
tofmassi
stheki
logr
am (
kg)
.
1. Fi
l
ltheEur
ekacanwi
thwat
erunt
ili
tov
erf
lows
2. Wai
tfort
hewat
ert
ost
opcomi
ngoutoft
hespout Mul
ti
plesandSubmul
ti
plesoft
heki
logr
am
3. Lowerthesi
nkerti
edwithathreadgent
lyi
ntothe  1kg =1000g
can
 1tonne=1000kg
4. Measur
ethevolumeV1t
hatf
lowsint
othemeasur
ing
 1g =1000mg
cyl
i
nder
 1kg =1000000mg
5. Remov ethesinkerandt i
eittothecorkasy oufi
l
l
Eurekacanagainandallowitt
ooverf
low.Thenpl
ace  1tonne =1000000g
themeasuri
ngcy l
inderundert
hespout.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 20
6. Lowert
hesinkerandcorkti
edtoget
hergent
lyand 1.
measur
e V2that ov
erf
lows int
o the measuri
ng
cyl
i
nder
.
Exer
cise
2. Conver
t39.
6mgi
ntokg(
answer
:0.
0000396kg)
Resul
tsandcal
cul
ati
ons 3. Change50t
onnesi
ntog(
answer
:50000000g)
The v
olume of t
he st
one can be cal
cul
ated as: 4. 340kgi
ntot
onnes(
answer
:0.
340t
onnes)
Vol
ume =V2 -
V1
5. 20gi
ntokg(
answer
:0.
020kg)
6. 100gi
ntokg(
answer:0.
100kg)
Measur
ementofMass
 Ther
ear
ethr
eei
nst
rument
sthatcanbeusedused:
I
. Toppanbal
ance(
elect
ri
cal
type)
I
I. Beam bal
ance(
mechani
cal
type)
I
II
. Lev
erbal
ance(
mechani
cal
type)
AdvantagesofEl
ectr
icalBalance(TopPanBal
ance)Over
theBeam Bal
ance(MechanicalType)
1. El
ect
ri
cal
bal
ancei
saccur
ate.
2. I
tiseasyt
ouset
hanbeam bal
ance.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
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esour
ces 0701184913 21
V =L×W ×h
=6cm ×4cm ×3cm
V =72cm3
m 200g
ρ= ; =2. cm3
7777g/
v 72cm3
cm3 =1000kg/
1g/ m3
2.
7777g/
cm3 =2.
777×1000kg/
m3
m3
=2778kg/
1. Thedensi
tyofasubst
ancei cm3.Expr
s15g/ esst
hisi
nSI
Densi
ty
uni
ts
 Itis def
ined as t
he mass peruni
tvol
ume ofa 1g1cm3 =1000kgl
m3
subst
ance.
cm3 ×1000kgl
15g/ m3
 Densi
tyi
sdenot
edbyaGr
eekl
ett
err
ho(
ρ) cm3 =
15gl
1gcm3
mass
Densi
ty= m3
=15000kg/
vol
ume
2. The fi
gure al
ongside shows a measuri
ng cyl
inderwhi
ch
m m contai
nswaterini
ti
allyatl
evelA.Whena soli
dofmass11g
ρ= ;v= ;m =ρ ×v
v ρ i
si mmersedinwat erthelevelr
aisest
oB.Det erminet
he
densit
yofthesoli
d.
 Sincemassismeasuredinkgandvolumeinm3 t
hen
theSIunitofdensi
t st
yi heki
logr
am percubi
cmet er
3 -
3
(kg/m orkgm )
cm3=1000kg/
1g/ m3
Vol
umeofsol
i
d =VB -
VA
Exampl
es
48cm3-
33cm3 =15cm3
3 3
3. Showt
hat1g/
cm =1000kg/
m
m
ρ=
1g v
cm3 =
g/
1cm3 30g g
= =2.
000 3
0.001kg 15cm3
cm
=
0.
000001m3 =2000kg/
m3
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 22
=1000kg/
m3
4. Deter
minet
hedensi
tyi
nkg/m3 ofasol
idwhosemassi
s Exer
cise
40gandwhosedi
mensi
onsi
ncm are30 ×40 ×3
1. Thedi
agr
am bel
owshowst hechangeinvolumeofwat
eri
n
V =L×W ×h ameasur
ingcyl
inderwhenani
rregul
arsol
idisi
mmersedi
n
i
t.
V =30×3×4 =360cm3
m
ρ=
v
40g
11111gcm3
=0.
360cm3
o 1g1cm3 =1000kgl
m3
0.
1111g/
cm3 ×1000kgl
m3 Gi
vent
hatthemassofthesoli
dis56.7gdet
ermi
nethedensi
tyof
0. cm3 =
1111gl
1gcm3 t
hesol
idi
ng/ cm3(
giveanswercor
rectt
o2deci
malplaces
=111.
1kg/
m3
2. Compl
etet
het
abl
e
mass vol
ume Densi
ty
5. Awoodenbl
ockofmass200gis4.0cm wi
de3.
0cm thi
ck
and6.
0cm l
ong.Cal
cul
atet
hedensi
tyoft
hewoodenbl
ock 0.
012kg 20cm3 0. cm3
6gl
i
nkg/m3
200g ….
….…cm3 m3
800kgl
……….
tonnes 125m3 ….
…..
glcm3
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
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ces 0701184913 23
Densi
tyBot
tl
e m
V=
ρ
 I
tisasmal lglassbott
lefi
ttedwi
thgl
assstopper
0.
080kg
(
madeofgr ound gl
ass)whichhasaholethrough =
whi
chexcessl
iquidf
lowsout
. m3
1000kg/
00008m3
=0.
i
) Vol
umeoft
hedensi
tybot
tl
e
Pr
ecaut
ionsWhenUsi
ngaDensi
tyBot
tl
e
Vol
umeoft
hedensi
tybot
tl
e
1. Thebot
tl
eshouldbeheldbytheneckwhenwipi
ngit
.
Thi
sist o pr
eventitf
rom expandi
ng duet
o body =Vol
umeofwat
erf
il
li
ngi
t.
warmt
hwhenhel dbysi
desbyusi
nghands.
Vol
umeoft
hedensi
tybot
tl
e=0.
000008m3
2. Theout
sideoft
hebot
tl
emustbewi
peddr
ycar
eful
l
y.
3. Thereshouldbenoai
rbubbl
eswhent
hebot
tl
eis
fi
l
ledwit
hliqui
d. i
i) Massofsol
idDi
npar
tb)
i
ii
) 96-
8g
=48g
=0.
088kg
i
v) Densi
tyofsol
idD
m
ρ=
v
N/BDensit
ybott
lei
susedmeasur
ethedensi
tyofei
ther 0.
088kg
l
iqui
dorsol
id. =
0.
00008m3
=1100kg/
m3
Exampl
es
1. Themassofadensi tybott
leis20.0gwhenempt y,70.0g v) Vol
umeofwat
eri
nc)
whenful
lofwaterand55.0gwhenfullofasecondli
quidx.
Cal
cul
atethedensit
yoftheli
quid(t
akedensit
yofwat erto m
V=
cm3)
be1g/ ρ
Sol
uti
on 0.030kg
=
1000kg/m3
 Massofempt
ydensi
tybot
tl
e =20.
0g
=0.
000030m3
 Massofdensi
tybot
tl
e+wat =70.
0g
vi
) Massofsol
idDi
nd)
.
 Massofwat
eri
ndensi
tybot
tl=50.
0g
m =ρ×v
m 50.0g
 Vol
umeofdensi
tybot
tl
e= = =50cm3
ρ 1g/
cm3 m =1100×(
0.000080-
0.000030)
 Massofdensi
tybot
tl
e+l
i
qui
d =55.
0g m =0.
055k
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 24
 Massofl
i
qui
dfi
l
li
ngt
hebot
tl
e Exer
cise
=55.
0-20.
0 =35.
0g
 Vol
umeofl
i
qui
d =v
olumeofdensi
tybot
tl
e Adensi
tybott
lehasamassof17. 5gwhenempt y.Whenf ul
lof
wat
erit
smassi s37.
5g.Whenf ul
lofli
quidxitsmassi s35g.If
=50cm3 t
hedensit
yofwateri m3,
s1000kg/ f
indthedensi
tyofli
quidx.
m
 ρofl
i
qui
dx=
v
0 0.
35. 7g Densi
tyofMi
xtur
es
= =
50 cm3
 Ami xt
urei
sobtai
nedbyputt
ingtwoormoresubst
ance
=700kg/
m 3
suchthatt
heydonotr
eactwithoneanot
her
.
2. I
nanexperimentt
odeter
minet
hedensi
tyofacer
tai
nsol
id  Thedensit
yofthemi xt
ureli
esbet
weent hedensi
ti
esof
D,thefol
lowi
ngreadi
ngswereobtai
nedusingadensi
ty i
ts consti
tuent subst
ances and depends on thei
r
bot
tle propor
ti
ons.
a) Massofempt
ydensi
tybot
tl
e=8g Totalmassoft
hemixtur
e
Densi
tyofmi
xtur
e=
b) Massofadensi
tybot
tl
eandsol
idD=96g Totalv
olumeofmi
xture
c) Massofdensi
tybot
tl
e+30gwat
er+sol
idD=132g
d) Massofdensi
tybot
tl
e+wat
er=88g Exampl
e
Cal
cul
ate 1. Amixtur
econsistsof40cm3 ofwat erand60cm3 ofl
iqui
dX.
i
fthe densit
ies ofwaterand liquid X ar
e 1.
0g/cm3 and
vi
i) Massofwat
eri
ndensi
tybot
tl
einpar
td)
. 0.
8g/cm3respect
ivel
y,cal
cul
atethedensityoft
hemi xtur
e.
88g-
8g =80g Massofwat
er=ρw ×Vw
=0.
080kg =1.
0g/
cm3 ×40cm3
vi
ii
) Vol
umeofwat
eri
nd)( t
akedensi
tyofwat
erbe =40g
3
1000kg/m) .
massofl
i
qui
dx=ρx ×Vx
=0.
8g/
cm3 ×60cm3 =48g
massofwat
er+massofl
i
quidX
Densi
tyofmi
xtur
e=
volumeofwat
er+vol
umeofli
qui
dX
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
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ces 0701184913 25
40g +48g Si
mpl
ePendul
um
Densi
tyofmi
xtur
e=
40cm3 +60cm3
 I
ti s a dev
ice t
hatcan be used t
o det
ermi
ne t
ime
88g i
nterv
als.
Densi
tyofmi
xtur
e= =0. cm3
880g/
100cm3
 I
tmakesoscil
l
ati
onswhendi
spl
acedsl
i
ght
ly.
2. Asolut
ioncontains40cm3byvolumeofal coholand60cm3
wat
er.Ift
hedensi tyoftheal
coholis0.79g/ er  Anosci
cm3 andwat ll
ati
onisacompl
etet
oandfromot
ion.
3
i
s1.0g/cm .Calcul
atethedensi
tyofthesoluti
on.
massofwat
er =ρw ×Vw
Exper
iment
3
=1g/
cm ×60cm3 =60g
Aim: To det
ermi
ne t
ime t
aken t
o compl
ete gi
ven
massofal
cohol=ρa ×Va osci
l
lat
ions
=0. cm3 ×40cm3 =31.

79g/ 6g Apparatus:Pendul
um bob,t
hread,st
opwat
ch,cl
amp,boss
andretortst
and.
massofwat
er+massofal
cohol
Densi
tyofmi
xtur
e=
volumeofwat
er+vol
umeofalcoholPr
ocedur
e
60g +31.
6g 91.
6g i
) Sety
ourappar
atusasshownbel
ow.
Densi
tyofmi
xtur
e= =
60cm +40cm 100cm3
3 3
916g/cm3
=0.
Ti
me
 Ti
mei
sthemeasur
eofdur
ati
on.
 SIuni
tist
hesecond(
s).
Mul
ti
plesandsub-mul
ti
plesofsecond
i
) Sli
ghtl
ydispl
acet
hebobanddet
ermi
net
het
ime
1mi
nut
e =60second takentomake3osci
l
lat
ions
1hour =3600second i
i) Repeatthepr
oceduref
ort
hefol
lowi
ngnumberof
osci
ll
ati
onsandfi
ll
thet
abl
ebel
ow.
1day =24hour
s =86400second
1second =100cent-
second No. of Ti
me(
s) Time f or 1
osci
l
lat
ions osci
ll
ati
on, T
1second =1000mi
l
li
second(
ms) (s)
1second =1000000mi
crosecond(
µs) 2
Measur
ementofTi
me 6
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 26
 Ti
meismeasuredusingeit
herthestopwatchora 8
st
opcl
ockdependi
ngonlev
elofaccur
acyr
equir
ed.
Cal
cul
ati
ons
Ti
mef
or1osci
l
lat
ioncanbecal
cul
atedas:
Advant
agesofSt
opWat
chOverSt
opCl
ock
Ti
mef
ornosci
l
lat
ions
1.
)Stop wat
ch i
seasyt
o handl
eand r
ead t
han st
op T=
n
cl
ock.
2.
)Iti
smor
eaccur
atet
hanst
opcl
ock.
Exampl
e
Expr
esst
het
imeshownont
hest
opwat
chscr
eenbel
owi
nSI
.
Revi
sionExer
cise
1) I
dent
ifyt
hemi st
akei
nthef
oll
owi
ngSIuni
tsandhencewr
it
e
t
hem cor
rect
ly.
(
a)Amper
es(
a)
=10×60 +22 +34×0.

01 (
b)Candel
a(cand)
=600 +22 +0.

34 =622.
343seconds (
c) Met
res(
M)
(
d)Kal
vi
n
(
e) Seconds
(
f) Ki
logr
ams
(
g)Pascal
s
(
h)newt
ons
2) conver
tthef
oll
owi
ngi
ntoder
ivedSIuni
ts
(
a)0.
01cm
b)100cm2
(
(
c) 20days
(
d)3.
625g
(
e) 324t
onnes
(
f) 5dm3
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 27
(
g)400ml
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
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ces 0701184913 28
3) Est
imat
ethel
engt
hoft
hecur
veshown.
4) Def
inedensi
tyandgi
vei
tsSIuni
ts.
5) Aburetteshowsal i
qui
dlevelas20cm3.Tendropsofthe I
ftheini
ti
alr
eadi
ngwasat0cm mar
k,det
ermi
net
hevol
umeof
sameliquideachofvolume0.5cm3 ar
eadded.Calcul
ate onedr
op.
thenewliqui
dlevel
.
6) Anempt ydensi
tybott
lehasamassof15g.Whenf ul
lof
al
coholofdensi
ty0.
8g/cm3,
itsmassi
s47g.Cal
cul
ate:
-
i
) Thevol
umeoft
hebot
tl
e. 14.Ami xtureismadeupoftwomet al
sXandY.Themass
ofthemi xtur
ei s30gandthevol
umeoft hemixtureis4.
5
i
i) I
tsmasswhenf
ullofwat
er. cm3.Determi nethemassofmetalXinthemixture.
i
ii
)Itmasswhenf
ullofmer
cur
yofdensi
ty13. cm3.
6g/ (Densi
tyofmet s6000Kgm-3anddensi
alXi t
yofmet alY
-
3
i
s7900Kgm )
7) A measur i
ngcylindercont ns8cm3 ofwat
ai er.A small
pieceofbr assofmass24gi sloweredcareful
lyintoa
measur i
ngcyli
ndersothatitiscar
eful
lysubmerged,ift
he
densityofthebrassis8g/cm3,whatisthenewr eadi
ngof
thelevelofwat
erinthecyli nm3.
nderi
8) A Eur ekacanofmass60gandcr osssectionalareaof

2 3
60cm i sfi
ll
edwit
hwaterofdensit
y1g/ cm .Apieceof
steelofmass20ganddensi
ty8g/cm3 i
sloweredcaref
ull
y
i
nt othecanasshown
Cal
cul
ate;
a) Thetot
almassofwaterandtheEur
ekacan
bef
orethemetalwasl
owered.
b) Thevol
umeofwat
ert
hatoverf
lower
ed.
c) Thef
inalmassoft
heeur
ekacanandi
tscont
ent
s
d) I
nfi
ndi
ngt
hedensi
tyofl
iqui
d,whyi
sthemet
hod
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 29
ofusi
ngdensi
tybot
tl
emor eaccurat
ethant
he
oneofusi
ngameasuringcyl
inder
.
9) 25cm3ofal i
qui
dxofdensi
ty1.2g/cm3ismixedwit
hliqui
d
ofvolume30cm3 and0.
9g/cm3 wit
houtchangei
nvolume.
Calcul
atet
hedensit
yoft
hemi xt
ure.
10)Themassofanemptydensi
tybot
tl
eis25.
0g.I
tsmass
whenf
il
ledwit
hwateri
s50.0gandwhenfi
ll
edfor
mali
nit
s
massi
s60.0g.Cal
cul
ate.
a) Massofwat
er
b) Vol
umeofwat
er.
c) Vol
umeofbot
tl
e.
d) Massoff
ormal
in.
e) Vol
umeoff
ormal
in.
f
) Densi
tyoff
ormal
in.
11)Abutcherhasabeam bal
anceandmasses0.
5kgand2
kg.Howwouldhemeasure1.5kgofmeatonthebal
ance
atonce?
12)Deter
minet
hedensi
tyi
nkg/m3ofasol
idwhosemassi
s
40gandwhosedi
mensionsi
ncm ar
e30x4x3
13)Fi
gur
ebel
owshowst
her
eadi
ngonabur
ett
eaf
ter55dr
ops
ofal
iqui
dhavebeenused.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 30
Chapt
erThr
ee FORCE
Def
ini
ti
onofFor
ce c) Thefi
gur
ebelow showstwoobj
ect
sofmassm1and
m2act
eduponbyaf or
ceF
 Force r
efer
st o a push ora pul
lthatr
esul
tfr
om
i
nteract
ionofbodi
es.
 I
tist
hatwhi
chchangest
hest
ateofmot
ionofabody
.
 TheSIuni
toff
or st
cei henewt
on(
N).
I
denti
fyforceF
 Force has bot
h magni
tude and di
rect
ion and i
s
represent
edbyast
rai
ghtl
inewit
hanar ow asshown Gr
r avi
tat
ionalf
orce
below.
2. Cent
ri
pet
alFor
ce
 Thisi
saf orcewhi
chmai
ntai
nsabodyt
omov
eina
ci
rcul
aror
bitorpat
h.
 Thelengt
hofthel
ineshowsthemagnit
udeoft
hefor
ce
whi
lethearr
owheadshowsthedi
rect
ionoft
hef ce.  I
or tisdir
ect
edt
owar
dst
hecent
reoft
heci
rcul
aror
bit/
t
rack.
Ef
fect
sofFor
ce
Examplesofsi
tuat
ionsi
nwhi
chcent
ri
pet
alf
orceact
s
i
. For
cecanmakest
ati
onar
yobj
ectmov
e. i
nclude:
i
i
. I
tcani
ncr
easespeedofmov
ingobj
ect
.  Whi
rl
ingast
onet
iedt
oast
ri
ng.
i
i
i. I
tcanst
opamov
ingobj
ect
.
i
v. I
tcandecr
easespeedofmov
ingobj
ect
.
v
. I
tcanchangeshapeofanobj
ect(
i.
e.candef
orm
anobj
ect
).
v
i. I
tcanmakeanobj ecttur
naboutaf ixedpoi
nt
(
piv
ot)
.Thi
siscal
l
edturni
ngef
fectoff
orce.
v
ii
. I
tcanchanget
hedi
rect
ionofamov
ingobj
ect
.
Exer
cise
 Theear
thr
evol
vi
ngar
oundt
hesunal
ongi
tisor
bit
.
Whi
choft
heef
fect
sabovecanbecausedby:
 Cent
ri
fugeusedt
osepar
ategheef
rom mi
l
k.
a) Apushonl
y?
 Acarmov
ingr
oundaci
rcul
art
rackorr
oad(
cor
ner
).
b) Apul
lonl
y?
3. Magnet
icf
orce
c) Apushorapul
l?
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 31
Ty
pesoff
orce  Magnet
icf
orcei
sthef
orceofat
tract
ionorr
epul
si
on
duet
oamagnet.
 I
tisnon-
cont
actf
orce.
1. Gr
avi
tat
ionalFor
ce
 Magnet
icatt
ract
ionoccur
sbetweenamagnetanda
 I
tr efer
st othefor
ceofat tr
act
ionbetweenanytwo magnet
ic mater
ialorbetween unl
ike pol
es ofa
bodiese.g.f
orceofat
tract
ionbetweentheear
thand magnetwhi
lerepul
sionoccur
sbetweenli
kepol
esof
themoon. magnet
.
 Gr
avi
tat
ional
for sanon-
cei cont
actf
orce.
Gr
avi
tat
ionalFor
ceoft
heEar
th
 I
tisthef
orceofat
tract
iononbodi
est
owar
dthecent
re
oft
heeart
h.
Fact
orsaf
fect
inggr
avi
tat
ionalf
orce
I
. Massesoft
heobj
ect
s-Thel
argert
hemassest
he 4. Upt
hrustf
orce
st
rongert
hegr
avi
tat
ional
for
ce.
 Upt
hrust i
s an upwar
df or
ce acting on obj
ect
s
I
I. Di
stanceofsepar
ati
onbet
weent
het
woobj
ect
s.The i
mmer sedi
nfl
uids(
li
qui
dsorgases)
.
l
onger the di
stance of separ
ati
on t
he weaker
gr
avi
tat
ional
for
ce.  Upt
hrustcanal
sobedefi
nedastheappar
entl
ossi
n
wei
ghtofabodyimmer
sedinal
iqui
dorgas.
Exampl
es
a) Whatar
enon-
cont
actf
orces?
 Therear
efor
ceswhi
chacteveni
fobj
ect
sar
enoti
ncont
act
wit
honeanot
her.
b) Explai
nwhyabal
lthr
ownupwar
dsr
etur
nsbackt
othe
ground
 I
tisduet
oat
tract
ionbyear
th’
sgr
avi
tat
ionalf
orce
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
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Upt
hrustonabody f
) Smoot
heni
ngsur
faces.
=wei
ghtofbodyi
nai
r-wei
ghtofbodyi
nfl
uid g) Usi
ngbal
lbear
ings.
 Upt
hr sacont
usti actf
orce. h) Ai
rcushi
oni
ng
6. El
ect
rost
ati
cFor
ce
 Elect
rostat
icforce i
st he for
ce of att
ract
ion or
repul
sionbetweenel
ectr
ical
l
ychargedbodi
es.
 I
tis non-
cont
actf
orce.Ther et
e ar wo t
ypes of
el
ectri
calchar
ges(posi
ti
veandnegat
ive)
.
Examplesofsi
tuat
ionsi
nwhi
chupt
hrustf
orceact
s
i
nclude:  At
tract
ionoccursbet
weenunli
kechar
gesi.e.posi
ti
ve
and negat
ive whi
l
erepul
si
on occur
s bet
ween l
i
ke
 Bal
l
oonst
ori
sing
char
ges.
 Swi
mmer
sandboat
sfl
oat
ing
 Bodiesimmersed i
nli
qui
dswei
ghi
ng l
esst
han t
hei
r
weighti
nai
r.
Numer
icalExampl
e
Abodyweighs100Ninai rand80Nwhensubmer
gedi
nwat
er.
Cal
cul
atet
heupthr
ustact
ingonit. Exampl
esofsi
tuat
ionsi
nwhi
chel
ect
rost
ati
cfor
ceact
s
i
ncl
ude:
upt
hrust=appar
entl
ossi
nwei
ght
a) Aplast
icrul
erorpenrubbedwithpi
eceofdr
ycl
oth
=100N-
80N =20N
orhai
ratt
ract
spiecesofpaper
.
b) Awipedglasswindow r
apidl
yattr
act
sdustduet
o
5. Fr
ict
ionalFor
ce char
gesl
eftonthem dur
ingwipi
ng.
 Thi
si saf orce t
hatopposes mot
ion bet
ween t
wo c) Poli
shedshoesr api
dlyat
tractdustduet
ochar
ges
sur
facest
hatarei
ncont
act. l
eftonthem dur
ingbrushi
ng.
 Fr
ict
ionalfor
ceinf l
uids(l
i
qui
d and gases)i
scal
l
ed d) Anyl
onclot
hproducescr
ackl
i
ngsoundandst
icks
vi
scousdrag(vi
scosi
ty). ont
hebodywhenbeingr
emovedet
c.
 Fr
icti
onalf
orceisacontactfor
ce anditactsi
nthe
di
recti
onopposi
tet
othatofmoti
onofthebody
.
7. Act
ionandReact
ionFor
ces
 Acti
onandr eacti
onar
etwoequalf
orcesact
ingi
n
opposi
tedi
recti
ons.
econt
 Theyar actf
orces.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
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 Whenablockofwoodi splacedonat abl

e,i
tsweight
(
acti
on)actsont hetabl
e.Ther eact
ionofthetable
(
opposi
teforce)act
sontheblock.
Advant
agesofFr
ict
ionalFor
ce
Fr
ict
ional
for
cehel
psi
n:
a) Wr
it
ing.
b) Br
aki
ng.
c) Wal
ki
ng.
d) Er
asi
ng.
e) Li
ght
ingamat
chst
icket
c 8. Nucl
earFor
ce
 Thi
sisaf orcet
hatbi
ndspr
otonsandneut
ronsi
n
at
omicnuclei
.
Di
sadvant
agesofFr
ict
ionalFor
ce
 Nucl
earf
or sacont
cei actf
orce.
a) Causeswearandt
ear
.
b) Hi
nder
smot
ion.
c) Pr
oducesunwant
edheat
.
d) Pr
oducesunwant
edsound.
Met
hodsofReduci
ngFr
ict
ionalFor
ce
i
) Oi
l
ingandgr
easi
ng.
j
) Usi
ngr
oll
ers.
k) St
reaml
i
ningbodi
es.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
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9. Tensi
onFor
ce i
i
i) Brist
les ofa brush spr
ead in waterbutcl
ing
togetherwhenthebrushisret
riev
edoutofwater
.
 I
tisaf
orcewhi
chact
sonst
ret
chedbodi
es. Thecl i
ngingt
ogetherofbri
stl
esisduetosur
face
tensi
onofwat eronthesurf
aceofbri
stl
es.
 Tensi
onisasar esul
toft
woopposi
ngf
orcesappl
i
ed
oneateachendofabody.
 I
tisacont
actf
orce.
i
v) Adr opofwat erf
rom aburett
eorwat ert
apgr
ows
andst r
etchesoutbefor
eitfall
soffduetosur
face
tensiononthesurfaceoft
hedr op.
Not
e:Sur
facet
ensi
onact
sal
ongt
hesur
faceofal
i
qui
dso
astor
educesurf
acearea.Thi
scanbei
l
lust
rat
edbyt
he
fol
l
owi
ngobser
vati
ons:
i
) Whenbubbl eofsoapisblowntot hewi
deendof
10.Sur
faceTensi
on thefunnelandt heleftwit
htheupperend,t he
bubblerecedesslowl
yunti
litf
lat
tenstoafil
m.It
 Surfacetensi
oni
sdefi
nedast hefor
ceperuni
tlengthin ther
efor
emakesi tssurf
aceassmal l
aspossi
ble.
theplaneofal i
qui
dsurfaceactingatri
ghtangleson
eit
hersideofani
maginar
ylinedrawnint
hatsurface.
Mol
ecul
arExpl
anat
ionofSur
faceTensi
on
 Amol eculedeepi ntheli

quidi
ssur r
oundedbyl iquidon
al
lsidessot hatthenetfor
ceoni ti
szero.Amol ecul
e
onthesur facehasf ewermolecul
esont hev apourside
andt her
eforewi l
lexperi
encear esult
antinwardf orce, i
i
) Whenaf il
m ofasoapcontainedinawi r
eloopis
causi
ngt hesur f
aceoftheli
quidtobeintension. punctur
edorpiercedatpointXasshownbel ow,
the remaini
ng part of the fi
l
m acqui res a
mi ni
mum area.The thr
ead istheref
ore pull
ed
Examplesofsi
tuat
ionsi
nwhi
chsur
facet
ensi
onf
orceact
s from onesidemaki ngaper f
ectcurve.Thisis
i
nclude: becauseoff or
cesofsurfacetensi
onf rom one
sideonl
y.
i
) Asteelr
azorbl
adeorneedl
efloat
swhencar ef
ull
y
pl
aced on wat
eralt
hough st
eelis denserthan
water
.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
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i
i
) Aglassofwatercanbefi
lledwit
hwaterabovet
he Fact
orsAff
ect
ingSur
faceTensi
on
bri
m wit
houtwat erpour
ing out.Thi
sis due t
o
surf
acet
ensi
onont hesur
faceofwater
. i
) I
mpuri
ties
 Impuri
ti
esr educesurf
acet ensi
onofal i
qui
d.Soap
(det
ergent
)weakens t he cohesi
veforces bet
ween
surf
ace li
quid molecules and ther
efor
er educi
ng
surf
acetension.
i
i
) Temper
atur
e
 Temperat
urereducessurf
acetensi
onofthel iqui
d
because i
tweakens cohesi
veforce ofat
tracti
on
betweenl
iqui
dmolecul
es.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
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Exer
cise  Thelev
elofmercur
yi ncapi
l
laryt
ubesisl
owerthan
thatofmercur
yint hebasin.Bei
ng l
owesti
nt he
Expl
aint
hef
oll
owi
ngobser
vat
ions: narr
owtube.
a) Asteelneedlepl
acedcaref
ull
yonthesurf
aceofwaterdoes
 Inbothcapil
laryt
ubesmercurycurvesdownwardsat
notsi
nk.
theedge(doesnotwetglass)
.Thisisduetostr
onger
b) Whenasmal ldropofdetergent
sisplacedonwat er
,the cohesi
vef orce bet
ween mer cur
y molecul
es than
fl
oati
ngneedlemovesr api
dlyawayfr
om itandsi
nkswhen adhesi
ve f orces bet
ween mer cur
y and gl ass
moredetergenti
sadded molecul
es.
c) Amatchsti
ckwrappedatoneendwit
hsoapst
art
smoving  Thedownwar
dcur
vei edconv
scal
l exmeni
scus
i
mmediat
elyinonedir
ect
ionwhenpl
acedont
hesurf
aceof
wat
er.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
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ces 0701184913 37
11.Adhesi
on(
adhesi
vef
orce) Wat
eronCl
eanandWaxedgl
asssur
faces
 Adhesion refer
st ot he f
orce ofatt
ract
ion between
molecules ofdi f
fer
entkind e.g.for
ce ofat t
ract
ion
bet
weenwat erandglassmolecul
es.
Examples ofsi
tuat
ions i
n whi
ch adhesi
ve f
orce act
s
i
nclude:  Whenwat
eri
sdr
oppedonacl
eanpi
eceofgl
ass,i
t
spr
eadsbecauseadhesi
vef or
cesbet
weengl assand
1) Li
qui
dwet
ti
nggl
ass.
watermol
eculesarestrongerthancohesi
vef or
ces
2) Pai
ntst
icki
ngonwal
l
. bet
weenwatermolecul
es.
3) I
nkst
icki
ngonpaper
.  Whenwat erisdroppedonwaxedgl asssurface,i
t
roll
si nt
o smalldroplets.Thisi s because waxing
4) Chal
kmar
kst
icki
ngont
heboar
d. reduces adhesi
vef or
ce between wat erand glass
mol ecul
es.Cohesivef orce becomes gr eat
ert han
adhesivefor
ce.
12.Cohesi
on(
Cohesi
veFor
ce)
 Cohesion ref
erst othe for
ce ofatt
racti
on bet
ween MassandWei
ght
moleculesofsamekinde.g.for
ceofat
tract
ionbet
ween
watermolecules.  Massisdef
inedast
hequant
it
yofmat
teri
nabody
.
SomeEf
fect
sofAdhesi
veandCohesi
veFor
ces  Weighti
st hegr
avi
tati
onalpul
lonabody
.Iti
saf
orce
andther
eforei
tsSIuni
tisNewton(
N).
a) Capi
ll
aryTubesDi
ppedi
nWat
er
 Thedirect
ionofact
ionofwei
ghtonear
thi
stowar
ds
thecentr
eoftheear
th
Rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenMassandWei
ght
 Massandwei
ghtar
erel
atedasf
oll
ows:
wei
ght
=mass×accel
erat
ionduet
ogr
avi
ty
 Inbothcapill
arytubeswat ercurv
esupwar dsatthe (
Grav
itat
ionalf
iel
dst
rengt
h)
edge(wetsglass)
.Theri
seofwat erupthet ubeisdue
W =Mg
toadhesi
veforcesbetweenglassandwat ermolecul
es
bei
ng stronger than cohesi
ve force of attr
acti
on
betweenwatermolecul
es.
Def
ini
ti
onofaccel
erat
ionduet
ogr
avi
ty(
g)
 Theupwar
dcur
vei edconcav
scal
l emeni
scus.
 I
tisdef
inedasthegr
avi
tat
ionalf
orceact
ingonauni
t
massataplace.
b) Capi
ll
aryTubesDi
ppedi
nMer
cur
y  TheSIuni
tofg(
grav
itat
ionalf
iel
dst
rengt st
h)i he
newt
onperki
logr
am (
N/kg)
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
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ces 0701184913 38
 Note:Agr aphofwei
ghtversusmassi
sast
rai
ghtl
i
ne
thr
oughtheor i
ginandthesl opeoft
hegr
aphgives
accel
erat
ionduetograv
ity
,gi .
e.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 39
Di
ff
erencesbet
weenMassandWei
ght a) Ti
me
b) Temper
atur
e
Mass weight c) Ener

gy
Thequant
it
yofmatter Gravit
ati
onal
pull
onan
i
nanobjectbody object d) Speed
TheSIuni
tkg SIuniti
sthenewton
(ki
l
ogram) e) Ar
ea
Const
antever
ywher
e Var
iesfrom pl
acetopl
ace
Ascal
arquanti
ty Avectorquant
ity f
) Vol
ume
Measured using a Measur

edusi
ngaspr
ing g) Lengt
h
beam bal
ance bal
ance
h) Mass
i
) Di
stance.
Exampl
es
1)
1. Stat
ear easonastowhyweightofabodyvar
iesf
rom pl
ace
2) Vect
orQuant
it
y
toplaceontheear
th’
ssur
face.
Av ectorquant
it
yis one wi
th bot
h magni
tude and
di
rect
ione.
g.
Gravi
tat
ionalf
iel
dstrengthvar
iesfr
om onepl
acetoanotheronthe
eart
h’ssurf
acebeingstrongatthepol
esandweakattheequator
. i
) Wei
ght
i
i
) For
ce
2. Anobj
ectwei
ghs1000Nonear
th’
ssur
face(
g =10N/
kg) i
i
i) Vel
oci
ty
a) Cal
cul
atei
tsmass. i
v) Moment
um
w =mg v
) Accel
erat
ion
N v
i) Di
spl
acement
1000N =m ×10
kg
1000N
m = =100kg
10N/ kg  I
ft he weightofa cari s 8000 N,8000 giv
es
magnitude ofthe wei
ght,N ist he SIuni
tand
di
rect
ionistowardst
hecentr
eoftheearth.
b) I
fthesameobj ectwei
ghs160N ont
hemoonsur
face,f
ind
t
hegravi
tat
ionalf
iel
dst
rengt
hoft
hemoon.
W =mg Resul
tantvect
or
160 =100 ×g  Thisisthesum oft woormorevector

staki
ngi
nto
accountthedi
rect
ionoft
hevect
ors.
160
g= =1.
60N/
kg
100 Exampl
e
Updat
edhi
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,
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3. Amassof7.5kghasawei ghtof30N onacertai

nplanet
. Fi
ndtheresult
antf
orceoft
hef
orcesact
ingona
Cal
cul
atet
heaccel
erat
ionduetogravi
tyont
hispl
anet. poi
ntobj
ectshownbel
ow.
W =mg
30 =7.
5 ×g
30 (
a)
g = =4N/
kg
7.
5
4. Amanhasamassof70kg.cal
cul
ate:
Sol
uti
on
a) Hi
s weighton ear
th wher
ethe gr
avi
tat
ionalf
iel
d
st
rengt
his10N/
kg. (+4N) +(+5N) = +9N
W =mg
70×10 =700N
b) Hi
s weighton moon wher
ethe gr
avi
tat
ionalf
iel
d
st
rengt
his1.
7N/kg.
(
b)
W =mg
70×1.
7 =119N
Scal
arandVect
orQuant
it
ies Sol
uti
on
(-
7N) +(-
3N) +(+2N) +(+4 =-4N
1) Scal
arQuant
it
y
 Ascal
arquant
it
yisonewi
thmagni
tudeonl
ybutno
di
rect
ione.
g.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
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ces 0701184913 41
Exampl
es 11)Def
inet
het
erms.
1) The f
igure below shows t
wo gl
ass t
ubes of di
ff
erent a) Mass
di
ameterdippedinwater
.
b) Wei
ght
.
12)Themassofalumpofgoldisconst
antever
ywher
e,buti
ts
wei
ghti
snot.Expl
aint
his.
13) Amanhasamassof70kg.Cal
cul
ate:
a) Hi
s weighton ear
th,wher
ethe gr
avi
tat
ionalf
iel
d
st
rengt
his10N/
kg.
Expl
ainwhyh2i
sgr
eat
ert
hanh1
b) Hi
swei ghtonthemoon,wher
ethegr
avi
tat
ionalf
iel
d
i
) Adhesi
vefor
ceinnar
rowt
ubei
sgr
eat
ert
hanadhesi
ve st
rengt
hi s1.
7N/kg.
f
orceinwi
dert
ube.
14)Amassof7.5kghaswei ghtof30N onacert
ainplanet
.
i
i
) Volumeofwat
erinbothtubesi
sthesamehencet
he Cal
cul
atet
heaccel
erat
ionduetogr
avi
tyont
hisplanet
.
col
umnofwateri
nnar
rowtubeh2i
sgr
eat
er.
15)Def
inet
hef
oll
owi
ngt
erms,
givi
ngexampl
es.
2) Nametwoforcest
hatdet
ermi
net
heshapeofl
iqui
ddr
opon
t
hesol
idsur
face a) Vect
orquant
it
y
Cohesi
veandadhesi
vef
orces b) Scal
arquant
it
y
3) Gi
vear easonwhyweightofthebodyvari
esfrom pl o 16) (
acet a)Def
inearesult
antvect
or.
pl
ace.
(a) Fi
ndtheresult
antofaf
orceof4Nandaf orceof
Thegravi
tati
onalf
iel
dst
rengt
hvar
iesf
rom pl
acet
oplace. 8Nacti
ngatthesamepointonanobj
ecti
f:
4) A metalbi
nwasobservedt ofl
oatont hesurfaceofpur e i
) The f
orce acti
nthe same di
rect
ion i
nthe same
water
.Howeverthepin sankwhen af ew dropsofsoap st
rai
ghtli
ne.
sol
uti
onwereaddedt
othewat er
.Expl
ainthi
sobservat
ion.
i
i) Thefor
ceacti ntheopposi
tedi
rect
ionsbuti
nthe
Soapsol
uti
onisani
mpuri
ty.Whenaddedtowater
,itl
ower
sthe samest
rai
ghtl
ine.
sur
facet
ensi
on(bydi
ssol
vi
ng)ofwatermaki
ngtheneedl
etosi
nk.
17)Show diagr
ammat
icall
yhow for
cesof7N and9N canbe
combinedtogi
vearesult
antt
ogivear
esul
tantf
orceof
:
Revi
sionExer
cise (
a)16N (
b)2N
1) Byconsi
deri
ng action-
react
ion f
orces,i
dent
if
ywhywat
er
ri
sesupathi
ncapil
larytube.
2) Gi
vet
woexampl
esofcont
actf
orceandnon-
cont
actf
orce.
3) Sket
chhowavect
orquant
it
yisr
epr
esent
edonadi
agr
am.
4) Def
inef
orceandgi
veSIuni
t.
5) Nameal
lthef
orcesact
ingont
hef
oll
owi
ngbodi
es:
(
a) Aboxpl
acedonat
abl
e
(
b) Amasssuspendedf
rom aspr
ingbal
ance.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
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(
c) Amovi
ngcarnegot
iat
ingabend.
6) Def
inecohesi
vef
orceandadhesi
vef
orce.
7) Expl
ainwhyamanusi ngaparachutefal
lst
hroughai
rsl
owl
y
whil
eastonef
allt
hroughai
rveryfast.
8) Aspr
ingst
ret
chesby6cm whensuppor
ti
ngal
oadof15N.
(
b) Byhow muchwoul
ditst
ret
chwhensuppor
ti
nga
l
oadof5kg?
(
c) Whatl
oadwoul
dmaket
hespr
ingext
endby25mm?
9) Expl
ain each of t
he fol
lowi
ng,usi
ng t
he behavi
our of
molecul
eswherepossi
ble:
(
a) Asteelneedl
epl
acedcar
eful
lyont
hesur
faceofwat
er
doesnotsi
nk.
(
b) Whenasmal ldropofdetergentisplacedonwat er
,the
needl
emovesr api
dlyawayfrom itandsinkswhenmor e
deter
gentisadded.(assumet hatdetergentdoesnot
aff
ectthedensityofwater
)
(
c) A match –st
ickr ubbed atoneend with soap st
arts
movingi
mmedi atel
yinonedirect
ionwhenplacedont he
sur
faceofwater.
10)Def
inesur
facet
ensi
on.
a) How doestemper
atureriseand i
mpur
it
iesaf
fectt
he
sur
facet
ensi
onofwater?
b) Howwoul
dthesur
facet
ensi
onofwat
erbei
ncr
eased?
Chapt
erFour PRESSURE
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
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ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 43
Def
ini
ti
onofPr
essur
e Wei
ght
a)Mi
nimum Pr
essur
e=
Maxi
mum Area
 Pr
essur
eref
erst
ofor
ceact
ingper
pendi
cul
arl
yperuni
t
ar
ea. 48 ×10
=
4×3
 Sinceforceismeasuredinnewtonsandareai
nsquare
met er
,thent heSIunitofpr
essureisthenewtonper 480
= m2
=40N/
squaremet er(N/m2)orthepascal(Pa)
.1newtonper 12
squaremet er( m2)=1pascal(
N/ Pa)
For
ce F =P ×A Weight
Pr
essur
e= 480
Area b)Maxi
mum Pr
essur
e = =
Mi
ni ea 2×3
mum ar
F F =80N/
m2
P= A=
A P
5. Anobj
ectwhosear
eaofcontactwit
hthefl s5m2 exer
oori ts
apr
essur
eof900pascal
.Cal
culat
eitsmass
Pr
essur
einSol
ids F(
Wei
ght
)=P ×A
Wei m2 ×5m2
ght=900N/
For
ceexer
tedbyasol
i
drest
ingonasur
facei
sequalt
othe
wei
ghtt
heobject
. w
m =
g
For
ce(wei
ghtofsol
id)
Pr
essur
e=
Areaofcont
act 4500N
= =450kg.
10N/kg
6. Tr
ackswhi
chcar
ryheavyl
oadshavemanywheel
s.Expl
ain.
wei
ghtofsoli
d
Maxi
mum Pr
essur
e= Manywheelsi ncreasethear eaofcont
actwi t
htheground
Mi
nimum Area
ther
ebyr
educingpr essur
eexer t
edontheroad.Thi
spr
events
damageofther oadsbytracks.
7. Ablockofcopperofdensi
ty9g/cm3 measur
es5cm by3cm
wei
ghtofsol
id by2cm.Givent
hatgis10N/kg,det
ermine:
Mi
nimum Pr
essur
e=
Maxi
mum Ar
ea
Fact
orsAf
fect
ingPr
essur
einSol
ids
1. Wei
ghtoft
hesol
id(
for
ce) a) Themaxi
mum pr
essur
e
Weight
 Ifthe ar
ea ofcontactbetween soli
d and sur
face i
s Maxi
mum pr
essur
e=
const
ant,pr
essur
eincr
easeswithweight. Mi
nimum ar
ea
ρVg
2. Ar
eaofcont
actoft
hesol
idwi
thsur
face. Maxi
mum pr
essur
e=
Mi
nimum ar
ea
 Thesmal l
erthearea,thehigherthepressur
ei fsame
for
ceisappli
ed.Therefor
epr essur
ecanber educedby kg
9000 3 ×(
30×10-6m3)×10N/
kg
i
ncreasi
ngtheareaofcontact
. m
=
4 2
-
6 ×10 m
Exampl
es
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
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ces 0701184913 44
=4500N/
m2
1. Ablockofasoapstoneofdi
mension4m by2m by3m i
s48kg b) Themi ni
mum pr
essur
ethati
tcanexer
tonahor
izont
al
andismadetorestonasmoothhori
zont
alsur
face sur
face.
2. Cal
cul
atet
hemi
nimum pr
essur
eitexer
tsont
hesur
face. Weight
,W
Mi
nimum pr
essur
e=
Maxi
mum ar
ea
3. Cal
cul
atet
hemaxi
mum pr
essur
eitwi
llexer
tont
hesur
face
2.
7N
=
2
15×10-4m
2.
7N
= m2
=1800N/
0015m2
0.
8. I
tispai
nfuli
fonet
ri
est
oli
ftaheavyl
oadbyat
hinst
ri
ng.
Therei
sasmal lar
eaofcont
actwi
ththefi
nger
swhenat hi
n
str
ingi
sused.Asar esul
t,morepr
essur
eisgener
atedand
thi
sispai
nful
.
Exer
cise 2. Densi
tyoft
heLi
qui
d
1. A pickup car ryi

ng st ones wei ghs 40, 000N.The wei ghtis  Pressurei
nliqui
dsincreaseswi t
hdensityoftheli
quid.
evenlyspr eadacr osst he4t ypes.Thear eaofcont actofeach
ti
rewi t
ht hegr oundi s0. 05m2.Cal culatet hepressureexer
ted  Considertwo ident
icalcy l
i
nder sfil
l
edwi thwat er( of
byeacht ireont hegr ound. densit
y 1000kg/ m3) and gl yceri
ne ( of densi ty
1260kg/m3)respect
ively
.
2. At humbi susedt opushat humbpi nintoapi eceofwood.
Explainint er
msofpr essurewhyt hepr essureonwoodi s
greaterthant hepr essureont hethumb.
 PressureatpointBisgr eaterthanpressureatpoi ntA
becauseglyceri
neisdensert hanwat erandt herefore
3. Anel ephantofmass2800kghasf eetofaver ageareaof200 exert
smor epressur
et hanwat er.
cm2.Avul tureofmass12kgwal ksbesi detheelephantona
muddyar ea,theaver agear eaoft hef eetoft hevult
ureis2.0
cm2.Whi chonei sl i
kelytosi nk?Expl ai
nyouranswershowi ng
anynecessar ycalculati
ons.
4. Agirlst
andingupr
ightexert
sapressur
eof15000N/m2ont
he
f
loor.Giventhatt
het otalareaofcont
actofshoesandt
he
f
looris0.02m2.
a) Det
ermi
net
hemassoft
hegi
rl
.
b) Deter
minet
hepressur
eshewoul
dexer
tont
hef
loori
fshe
st
oodononefoot.
5. A bl ock of copper of densi

ty 8.
9 g/cm3 measur
es
10cm ×6cm ×4cm.Gi vent
hatthef
orceofgr
avi
t s10Nkg-
yi
1
,det
ermine: To Demonst
rat
e Var
iat
ion ofPr
essur
e wi
th Dept
h of
Li
qui
ds
a) Themaxi
mum pr
essur
e.
 Consi
deratal
lti
nwi
thholesA,BandCequallyspaced
b) Themi ni
mum pr
essur
ethati
tcanexer
tonahor
izont
al ononesideal
ongav
ert
icall
ineasshownbel
ow.
sur
face.
 Whent heti
nisf
il
ledwit
hwat er
,thewaterjet
soutoft
he
holeswit
hthatf
rom holeAthrownf ar
thestfol
l
owedby
thatfr
om hol
eBandlastlyf
rom holeC.
Pr
essur
einLi
qui
ds
 Thi
smeanst
hatpr
essur
eofwat
eratAi
sgr
eat
ert
han
Fact
orsAf
fect
ingPr
essur
einLi
qui
ds
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
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esour
ces 0701184913 45
1. Dept
hoft
heLi
qui
d pressur
eatBandpressur
eatBisgreatert
hanpressur
e
atC.Hence,
Pressur
einli
qui
dsi
ncreaseswithdept
h.
 Pr
essur
einl
i
qui
dsi
ncr
easeswi
thdept
h.
 Thisi
sthereasonastowhywallsofadam ar
ethi
ckerat
thebott
om thanatthetopasshownbelow.Thi
ckwalls
atthebott
om ofthedam wi
thst
andhighpr
essur
eduet o
wateratt
hebottom.
 Pressureincreasi
ngwithdepthofli
quidexpl
ainswhya
diveratt
hebot tom oft
heseaexperi
encesmorepressure
duet omor eweightofwaterabov
ehimt hanadivernear
thetop/surfaceofthesea.
To Demonstr
ate Var
iat
ion ofPr
essur
e wi
th Dept
h and
Densi
tyofLi
quids
 Considerat ranspar
entglassvesselfi
l
ledwit
hwater
andat hi
stl
ef unnelconnect
edtoau- tubef
il
ledwi
th
col
oredwat ertosomel ev
eldi
ppedint
oit.
 I sobser
ti vedthatthedeeperthefunnelgoesbel
owthe
surf
aceofwater,t
hegreaterthedif
ferenceinl
evel
sof
waterint
hetwol i
mbsoft heu-tube,h.Thisisdueto
i
ncreasei
npressur
ewithdepth.
 Whengl yceri
neisusedinpl aceofwateritisobserved  Thepr essur
e p,exer
tedatthebot tom ( base)ofthe
thatatt he same depththe dif
fer
ence i
nl evel
s,h is cont
ainerbythewei
ghtoft
heliquidabov eitisgi
venby :
great
erthanwhenwat erisused.Thi
sisbecauseglyceri
n
i
sdensert hanwaterandtherefor
eiti
spressureatsame F w(weightofl
iquid)
P= =
depthishighert
hanthatofwater. A A(cr
oss-
secti
onareaoft hecont
ainer
)
Butw =ρAhg
Wher
eAh =v
olumeoft
hel
iqui
d
Ahρg
∴P =
A
P =hρg.Thi
sist
hef
lui
dpr
essur
efor
mul
a.
 Fr
om t
hef
ormul
aiti
scl hatpr
eart essur
einf
lui
dsdoes
notdepend on cr
oss-sect
ion ar
eaoft
hecont
ainer
hol
dingt
heli
quid.
ToDemonstrat
ethatPr
essur
eatEqualDept
h,Act
sEqual
ly Exampl
es
i
nAllDi
rect
ions
 Consideratinwi t
htwosi mi
larholesonit
ssideatsame
1.
) Adi verworkingunderwateri
s15m belowt hesurf
aceofthe
heightasshownal ongsi
de. sea.Cal cul
atethepressur
eduetowat erexperi
encedbythe
diver(takeg=10N/kg)anddensi
tyofseawat ert
obeequalto
 Whent heti
ni sfil
l
edwi t
hwat er
,i sobser
ti vedthatwater
1.03g/cm3.
travel
soutoft heholesequalhor i
zont
aldist
ancesfrom
thecan.Ther eforepressur
eexer tedatequaldepthi s
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 46
samei
nal
ldi
rect
ions. P =hρg
=15m ×1030kg/
m3 ×10N/
kg
=154500N/
m2
2.
) Thef
igur
ebel
owshowsal
iqui
dinapai
l.
Fl
uidPr
essur
eFor
mul
a
 Consi
deracont
ainerwit
hcr
oss-sect
ionarea,A,f
il
led
wit
hal i
qui
dofdensity
,ρ,t
ot hehei
ght,h,asshown
al
ongsi
de.
Ift
heliqui
dhasadensityof0.
79g/cm3,det
ermi
net
hepr
essur
e
exer
tedatthebot
tom oft
hepai
lbyt
heliqui
d.
o P =hρg
=0.
45m ×790kg/
m3 ×10N/
kg
=3555N/
m2
b) Suggesta reason whypailmanuf

act
ures pr
efert
he
shapeshowntoothershapes
To reduce the heightoft he pailbutmai nt

aint
he
capaci
ty.Thisr educes the pressur
e exer
ted byt
he
l
iqui
datt hebott
om oft hepail
.
3.
) Cal
cul
atet
hepressureexert
edby76mm col
umnofmer
cur
y
gi
vent
hati
tsdensit
yis13.6g/cm3
o p =hρg
kg
o =0.
76m ×13600 3 ×10N/
kg
m
o m2
=103360N/
4.
) A columnofgl ycer
in8. 20m hi gh,acolumnofseawat er
10.08m hi
gh,acolumnofmer cur y0.
76m hi
ghandcol umnof
fr
eshwat er10.34m hi ghexer tt hesamepr essureatthe
bottom of a cont ai
ner . Arr
ange t hese substances in
decreasi
ngorderofthei
rdensities.
Mer
cur
y,gl
ycer
ine,
seawat
er,
freshwat
er
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 47
Pascal’
s Pri
nci
ple (
The Pr
inci
ple of Tr
ansmi
ssi
on of  Pressur
eexer
tedont
hel
i
qui
dbypi
ston,
Sduet
ofor
ce,
Pressur
einLi
qui
ds) FS,i
sPS.
 Pascal
’sprincipl
est at
est hatpr
essureappli
edatone FS
parti
nal i
quidistransmit
tedequall
ytoal
lotherpar
tsof PS =
AS
theenl
argedliqui
d.
 By Pascal
’
s princi
plethi
s pr
essur
e PS i
s equalt
o
Demonst
rat
ingPascal
’
sPr
inci
ple pr
essurePLexer
tedbyli
qui
donpist
on,L.
 Consi
derali
quidunderpressur
eduet
ofor
ce,
F,act
ingon PS =PL
thepl
ungerasshownbelow.
Fs FL
 Not
e:Thehol
esar
eofequal
diamet
er. =
As AL
Exampl
es
1. Thef
igurebel
owshowstwomassesplacedonl
ightpi
stons.
Thepist
onsarehel
dstat
ionar
ybytheliqui
dwhosedensity
0.
8g/cm3.Det
ermi
nethef
orceF.
 Whent heplungerispushedin,watersqui
rt
soutoft he
hol
es wi t
h equalf orce.This shows that pressure
gener
ated byt he pi
ston on t
he wateristransmitted
equal
lytoallot
herpar
tsoftheli
qui
d.
Appl
icat
ionsofPascal
’
sPr
inci
ple
 Pascal
’
s Pri
nci
pleis appl
ied i
nt he worki
ng oft
he
hydr
auli
cmachi
nes.Thesemachi
nesincl
ude:
FB FA(
i.
e.w =mg)
o hρg + =
a) Hydrauli
cpressusedt ocompr
esst
ext
il
epr
oduct
s AB AA
l
ikeblanket
sforpacki
ng.
60 ×10N kg FB
o =1.
8m ×800 3 ×10N/
Kg +
b) Hy
draul
icl
if
tusedt
ohoi
stcar
singar
ages. 0.
0008m2 m 0.
00025m2
c) Hy
draul
icbr
akesyst
em usedf
orbr
aki
ngi
ncar
s. N FB
m2 +
o 750000 2 =1440N/
m 0.
00025
Pr
essur
eTr
ansmi
ssi
oni
nHydr
aul
icMachi
nes
N N
 Notethatpr
essur
eatsamel
eveli
nthel
i
qui
dist
hesame (
o FB =750000 2 -
m m )
00025m2
1440 2 0.
asseenearl
ier
.
=187.
14N
 Considert hehy dr
aul
i
cmachinebelow consist
ingofa
smallpiston,S,andalar
gepi
ston,
L,ofcross-sect
ionas
shownal ongside.
2. Theareaofthelargesyri
ngeinanexperi
mentis18cm2 and
2
thatoft
hesmalleroneis3.0cm .Afor
ceof2Nisappli
edon
thesmallerpi
ston.Fi
ndt hef orcepr
oducedonthelarger
pist
on.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
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ces 0701184913 48
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
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ces 0701184913 49
Fs FL Pr
oper
ti
esoft
heHydr
aul
icBr
akeFl
uid
o =
As AL
(
a) I
tshoul
dnotcor
rodepar
tsoft
hesyst
em
2N FL
o = (
b) I
tshoul
dbehi
ghl
yincompr
essi
ble
0. 0018m2
0003m2 0.
0018m2
2N ×0. (
c) I
tshouldhaveal
owf
reezi
ngpoi
ntandhi
ghboi
l
ing
FL = =12N poi
nt.
0.0003m2
At
mospher
icPr
essur
e
4. Thediagr
am bel
owshowsau-t
ubefil
ledtwol
iqui
ds,xandy.
I
fthedensit
yofl
iqui
dyi
s1.
00g/cm3,det
ermi
nethedensi
tyof  Thisisthepr
essur
eexer
tedont
heear
th’
ssur
faceby
l
iqui
dx. thecol
umnofairar
oundi
t.
ToDemonst
rateExi
stenceofAtmospher
ic
Pr
essur
e(Cr
ushingCanExperi
ment)
 Consi
derat incont ai
nerwithsomewaterinit
.The
cont
aineris heated forsome ti
me whi
l
e open and
o hxρxg =hyρyg cl
osedaf t
erwi t
hdrawingheati
ng.Col
dwateristhen
pour
edoni ti
mmedi ately
.
N kg
o 40m ×ρx ×10 =0.
0. 30m ×1000 3 ×10N/
kg
kg m
4.
0Nm N
o ×ρ =3000 2
kg x m
kg
o ρx =750
m3
Hydr
aul
icBr
akeSyst
em
 The hydr
auli
c br
ake syst
em uses the pr
inciple of
tr
ansmi
ssionofpr
essur
einli
qui
ds(Pascal
’
sprincipl
e)in
i
tsoper
ati
on.
 I sobser
ti vedthatthecontainercr ushesi nwardswhen
col
dwat erispouredonit.Thisi sbecausest eam f r
om
boi
lingwat erdri
vesouttheai rinsi
det hecontainerand
a par t
ialvacuum is created when t he containeris
cooled.The hi gheratmospher i
c pr essuref r
om t he
outsidecrushesthecontai
neri nwar ds.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 50
Exampl
e
Aseadiveri
s18m belowthesurf
aceofseawat
er.I
fthedensi
ty
ofseawateris1.
03g/cm3 andgi
s10N/kg,det
erminethetot
al
pr
essur
eonhi m.(
Takeatmospher
icpr
essur
epa=103000N/m2).
Tot
alpr
essur
e=hρg +Pa
kg N
m2
=18m ×1030 3 ×10 +103000N/
m kg
=288400N/
m2
ModeofOper
ati
onofHydr
aul
icBr
akeSyst
em
 Whenasmal lf orcei sappl i

ed ont he br akepedal ,it
pushest hepistonoft hemast ercyli
nderi nwards.This
producesapr essur ethatisequal lytransmi t
tedt othe
pistonsint heslavecyl i
nders.Thepr essuregener atesa
force whi ch pushest he pi
stonsoft he sl av
e cy l
i
nder
outwar ds.Thepi stonst henpusht hebr akeshoesand
thereforet he brake l i
ning outwards.The br ake lini
ng
touchesandst opsr otati
ngwheel drum.
 The return spr

ing r
etur
ns the br
ake shoes i
ntot
hei
r
ori
ginalpositi
on af
terforceon brakepedalhasbeen
remov ed.
Measur
ementofPr
essur
e 2) Thedi agr
am below show amer curymanometer.Somedry
gas is presentinthe closed space.I
ft he at
mospheri
c
1) U-TubeMonomet
er pressureis105000N/m2anddensityofmercur m3,
y13600kg/
determinepressur
eofthegas(takeg=10N/kg).
 I
ti omeasur
susedt egaspr
essur
e.
 I
tconsi
stsofu-t
ubef
il
ledwi
thsui
tabl
eli
qui
dtosome
l
evel
.
 Consideru-
tubemanometerbel
ow i
nwhi
chonel
i
mbi
s
connectedt
ogassuppl
y.
o hρg +Pg =Pa
kg N
o 0. m2
25m ×13600 3 ×10 +Pg =105000N/
m kg
o m2 +Pg =105000N/
34000N/ m2
N N
o Pg =105000 2-
34000 2
m m
 AandBar eatthesamehorizont
all
evelandt
her
ef e o
or =71000N/
m2
pr
essur
eatAisequal
topr
essureatB.
 Pr
essur
eatAi
sduet
othegas,pg whi
l
epr
essur
eatBi
s
2) Mer
cur
yBar
omet
er
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 51
duet
othecol
umnofl
i
qui
dandat
mospher
icpr
essur
e.  I
ti omeasur
susedt eat
mospher
icpr
essur
e.
Pr
essur PA =Pr
eatA, essur
eatB,
PB  I
temploy
sthefactt
hatat
mospher
icpr
essur
esuppor
ts
acol
umnofli
quidi
natube.
Pg =hρg +Pa
Const
ruct
ionofMer
cur
yBar
omet
er
 Wher
eρi
sthedensi
tyofl
i
qui
dint
heu-t
ube.
 Iti
smadeofathick-wal
l
edgl
asst
ubeofabout1m l
ong
seal
edatoneend.
Exampl
es  Thet
ubei
sthenf
il
ledcar
eful
l
ywi
thmer
cur
ytot
het
op.
1) Thehei
ght
,hofawat ermanomet
eri
s20cm whenusedt
o  Anybubbl
esofai
rinthet
ubeareremovedbycl
osi
ng
measur
epressur
eofagas. t
heopenendandi
nver
ti
ngt
hetubesever
all
y.
 Thet
ubei
stheni
nver
tedi
ntoadi
shf
il
ledwi
thmer
cur
y.
 Mercur
yispr
efer
redintheconstr
ucti
onofbar
omet
ert
o
ot
herli
qui
dsbecauseisv
t eryhighdensi
ty.
a) Deter
minethepr
essur
eduet
ogas,I
fat
mospher
icpr
essur
eis
m2.
103000N/
o Pg =hρg +Pa

o =0.
20m ×1000kg/
m3 ×10N/
kg +103000N/
m2
o m2
=105000N/
b) Whatwould bethehei
ghti
fthel
iqui
d used i
sgl
ycer
inof
densi
ty1.
26g/cm3
o Pg =hρg +Pa
N
o 105000 m3 ×10N/
=h×1260kg/ m2
kg +103000N/
m2
o m2 =12600N/
105000N/ m3 ×h +103000N/
m2
o m2 =12600N/
2000N/ m3 ×h
2000N/m2
h= =0.
16m
m3
12600N/
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
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ces 0701184913 52
Usi
ngMer
cur
yBar
omet
er
 Thehei
ghth,oft hemercur
ycol
umni
sthemeasur
eof
at
mospher
icpressure.
 Thecolumnofmer
cur
yh,atseal
eveli
s76cmHg.
InSI
uni
titi
s:
Pa =hρg
0.
76m ×13600kg/
m3 ×10N/
kg =103360N/
m2
Si
phon
 Siphonisusedtotr
ansf
erliquidfr
om onecont
ainerto
 The at mospheric pr
essur
e atsea lev
eli s cal
led one
another.
atmospher
eorst andardatmospher
icpressur
e( 76cmHg
2
or103360N/m)  Theuseofsi phontotransferli
quidduetopressure
di
f f
erencei
scaledsi
l phoni
n g.Consi
derthesi
phoning
Examples
ar
rangementshownbel
ow.
1) Astudenti
naplacewherethemercur
ybarometerreads75cm
wantedtomakeanalcoholbar
ometer
.Ifal
coholhasadensity
of800kg/m3,whatist heminimum l
engthofthet ubethat
coul
dbeused?
Pa =hHgρHgg =halρalg
0.
75m ×13600kg/
m3 ×10N/
kg =hal ×800kg/
m3 ×10N/
kg
10200
hal = =12.
75m
8000
2) Thebar ometr
ichei ghtinatowni s70cm mercury.Gi
venthat
thestandardatmospher icpressur
eis76cm mer cur
yandt he
densit
yofmer curyis13600kg/ m3,deter
minethealti
tudeof  Pr
essur
eatA isequaltopr
essur
eatBandi
tist
he
thetown.(Densityofairi
s1.25kg/m3). at
mospher
icpr
essur
e,Pa
(Note:Standar
dpr
essur
eref
erst
otheat
mospher
icpr
essur
e  Pressur
eatci sequaltopressur
eatBpl uspr
essur
e
atsealevel)
. duetowatercol
umn, h,
ie.PC =PB +hρg
.
Pdi
ff
erence=P atseal
evel-
Patt
own
 Pressur
ediff
erencebetweenBandC(i
.e.PC -
PB =hρg)
( hHgtn)×ρHg ×g =hair ×ρair ×g
hHgsl- i
s whatmakes t he li
qui
dtof l
ow f
rom t he upper
contai
nert
othel owerone.
(
0.76-
0.70)m ×13600kg/
m3 ×10N/
kg =hair ×1.
25kg/
m3 ×10N/
kg
Condi
ti
onsunderwhi
chSi
phonWor
ks
8160
hair = =652.
8m(
Thi
sist
heal
ti
tudeoft
het
own) a) Thetubemustbefil
ledwi
tht
hel
i
qui
dfi
rst
.Thi
scr
eat
es
12.
50
apressur
edi
ff
erence.
3) Thefi
gurebel
owshowsaper
sonsuckingwat
erusi
ngast
raw.
Expl
ainhowsucki
ngi
smadepossi
ble. b) Ther
emustbeadi
ff
erencei
nlevel
sofl
i
qui
dint
het
wo
cont
ainer
s.
c) The end ofthe tube mustremai

n bel
ow t
he l
i
qui
d
sur
faceoftheuppercontai
ner
.
Exampl
e
When one sucks pressur

ei nside t
he str
aw reduces bel he Thef
ow t i
gurebelow showshow toemptywat
erf
rom al
arget
ank
at
mosphericpressure.Thepressuredif
fer
encecauseswat ertogo i
ntoalowlyi
ngtankusingr
ubbert
ubi
ng.
i
ntot
hestrawandr iseuptothemout h.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
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ces 0701184913 53
Test
ingt
heVacuum i
ntheBar
omet
er
 Thevacuum i
stestedbyti
lt
ingthet ube.I
fthetubei
sful
ly
fi
ll
edthenthespacei sav acuum buti fthetubeisnot
ful
lyfi
l
ledt
henthespaceisnotav acuum; i
thassomeair
occupyi
ngi
tandt her
efor
e,thebaromet eri
sfault
y.
2) TheBi
cycl
ePump
 Theleat
herwasheract h av
sasbot alveand pi
ston
i
nsi
dethepumpbarr
el.
 Whenthepumphandl eisdrawnoutasshown,ai ri
nthe
a) Explainwhyt hetubemustbef il
led wi
thwaterbeforethe barr
elexpan ds and i
ts pr
essur
e reduces bel
ow t
he
empt yi
ngprocessst
arts. atmospher
icp r
es sure.Ai
r f
rom out
sidethepumpt hen
fl
owspastt hel eatherwasherintothebar r
el.Atthe
Tocreatepr
essuredif
ferencebetweenCandDt hi
swilll
eadto sametime,thehigherairpressur
einthetyr
eclosesthe
cont
inuousfl
owofwat erfrom t
heuppertanktot
helowertank. tyr
eval
ve.
b) Soon af
tert he tank begins t
o empt ythe l
owerend i
s  Whenthepumphandl
eispushedi
n,theai
risfor
ced
momentari
lyblockedbyplacingafi
ngeratendD. i
ntot
hetyr
ethr
ought
hety
reval
vewhi
chnowopens.
I
. Det
ermi
nepr
essur
edi
ff
erencebet
weenpoi
ntAandD. Not
e:Ther
eisani
ncr
easei
ntemper
atur
eoft
hepump
o PAD =hρg bar
relduri
ngpumpingt
hisi
sbecauseoft
hewor
kdone
i
ncompr essi
ngai
r.
kg N
o PAD =2m ×1000 ×10
m3 kg
m2
o PAD =20000N/ 3) TheLi
ftPump
I
I. whatwil
lbethepr
essureexper
iencedbyt
hefi
ngeratpoi
ntD.
(
takedensi
tyofwater
=1000kg/m3andpa=100,
000N/m2
o PD =Patm +hρg
N N2
o PD =100000 +20000
m2 m
o =120000Nm -2
Appl
icat
ionsofPr
essur
einLi
qui
dsandGases
1) ASyr
inge
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
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ces 0701184913 54
 Whent hepistoni spull

ed upwards( during upstroke)
,
spaceiscr
eatedi nthebarr
elthuslower i
ngthepr essure
i
nside below at mospheri
c pr essur
e. The hi gher
atmospher
icpr essur
eact i
ngont heliquidpushest he
l
iquidi
ntot
hebar rel
.
 Duri
ng a down st
roke,the pr
essur
einsi
de i
ncr
eases  Tost
artt
hepump,waterispouredontopofthepist
on
aboveatmospher
icpressur
eandt heli
qui
disexpel
led sot
hatgoodai
rti
ghtseali
smader oundthepi
stonand
fr
om thebar
rel
. i
nval
vePthepumpisoperatedbymeansofalever
Upst
roke
 Whent heplungermov esupduri

ngtheupstroke,val
veR
closesduetoitsweightandpressureofwaterabov ei
t.
Att he same time,airabovev al
ve expands and its
pressur
er educes below atmospheri
c pressure.The
atmosphericpressureont hewaterint hewel lbel
ow
thuspusheswat eruptopastval
veintothebarrel
.
 The pl
ungeri
s moved up and downhi
l
lthe space
bet
weenRandSisf
il
ledwit
hwater.
Downst
roke
 Dur
ingdownst
roke,val
veScl
osesduet
oit
swei
ghtand
pr
essur
eofwateraboveit
.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 55
Li
mit
ati
onsoft
heLi
ftPump Exer
ciseonappl
icat
ionsofpr
essur
e
 I
npr act
ical
,thepossi
blehei
ghtofwat erthatcanbe (
a)Thef
igur
ebel
owshowsal
if
tpump
r
aisedbythi
spumpislesst
han10m becauseof
i
)Low at
mospheri
cpr
essur
einpl
aceshi
gh
abov
esealev
el,
i
i
)Leakageatt
hev
alv
esandpi
stons
4) TheFor
cePump
Thi
spumpi
susedt
orai
sewat
ert
ohei
ght
sofmor
ethan
10m. Expl
ainwhy,
whent
hepi
stoni
s;
(
b)Pul
ledupwar
ds,
val
veAopenswhi
leval
veBcl
oses.
(
c) Pusheddownwar
ds,
val
veAcl
oseswhi
leval
veBopens
(
d)Aft
ersever
alst
rokes,wat
err
isesabovet
hepi
stonasshown
bel
ow.
St
atehowwat
eri
sremovedf
rom t
hecyl
indert
hrought
hespout
.
(
e) Ali
ftpumpcanl iftwateruptoamaximum hei ghtof10m.
det
erminethemaxi mum hei
ghttowhi
chthepumpcanr ai
se
par
affi
n.(
takedensit
yofparaff
inas800kgm-3anddensi
tyof
Upst
roke wateras1000kgm-3)
 Duri
ngupstr
oke,airabovethevalv
eFexpandsandi ts (
f) Stat
eonef
actort
hatdet
ermi
nest
hehei
ghtt
owhi
chaf
orce
pr
essurereduces below atmospher
ic pressure.The pumpcanl
if
twater.
at
mospheri
cpressureonwat eri
nthewellpusheswat er
uppastval
veFintothebarr
el.Pr
essur
eabov ev al
veGi s
at
mospheri
c.Hence,t hi
svalvedoesnotopen i nthis
st
roke.
Downst
roke
 Dur i
ngthedownst roke,t
hev alveFcl oses.Increasein
pressureduet owaterinthebar relopensv alveG and
forceswat erintochamberSsot hataswat erf il
lsthe
chamber ,airistrappedandcompr essedatt heupper
part.Duringthenextupst roke,valv
eG cl osesandt he
compr essedairexpandsensuringacont i
nuousflow.
Advant
ageofFor
cePumpovert
hel
if
tpump
a) I
tenabl
esacont
inuousf
lowofwat
er.
b) Thehei
ghtt
owhi
chi
tcanr
aisedoesnotdependon
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 56
at
mospher
ic.
Fact
orsAf
fect
ingWor
kingoft
heFor
cePump
a) Amountoff
orceappl
i
eddur
ingt
hedownst
roke.
 Abi
li
tyofthepumpandi
tsworki
ngpart
stowit
hst
and
pr
essureofthecol
umnofwat
erinchamberc.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 57
Revi
sionExer
cise 15.Thef
igur
ebel
owshowsahydr
aul
icpr
ess
1. Apistonwhosedi ameteri
s1.4m i
spushedintoacyli
nder
contai
ningafl
uid,Ift
hepressureproducedi
nthecyli
nderi
s
4.0x105pa,Calculat
etheforceappli
edonthepist
on.
2. Anoct opusisresti
ngintheocean.Iftheoct
opusisata
dept
hof47m i nseawhosewat erhasadensi
t m3,
yof1200kg/
cal
culatethepressureexperi
encedbytheoct
opus(Take
atmosphericpr
essure=1. 0125x105Pa)
3. Explainwhyifai
rget sinthebrakesyst
em woul
dreducet
he
eff
iciencyoft
hebrakes.(2mar
ks)
4. A concr
etebl
ockofmass50kgr
est
sont
hesur
faceoft
he
t
ableasshownbel
ow. Thetwopist
onsareofareas10mm2and20mm2r espect
ivel
y.A
for
ceof100Nisappli
edont hesmal
lerpi
ston,
findtheloadthat
canbeli
ft
edonthelargerpi
stoni
f:
a. Thepist
onhasnegl
igi
blewei
ghtandnof
ri
cti
onalf
orces
exi
st.
b. Thepist
onshavenegl
igi
blewei
ghtandf
ri
cti
onal
10Nand
40Nrespect
ivel
y.
Thesmall
erpi
stonhastheweight5Nthelar
gerpistonhasa
Whatisthemaximum pr
essur
ethatcanbeexer
tedont
he wei
ghtof10Nandthefr
ict
ionalf
orcesar
enegli
gible.
benchbythebl
ock?
5. A hol eofarea4.0cm²atthebott
om ofatank5m deepis
closedwithacork.Deter
minethefor
ceont
hecorkwhenthe
tanki sfi
ll
edwithwater.(Takeg=10msˉ²anddensityof
wat er=1000kgmˉ³)
.
6. Ameasur i
ngcyl i
nderofheight25cm isfi
lledtoahei ghtof
15cm wi th waterand the restis occupied by ker
osene.
Determinethepressureacti
ngoni t
sbase( densi
tyofwat er=
1gcmˉ³densi t
y ofker osene = 0.
8gcmˉ³and at mospher i
c
pressur
e=103, 000pa).
7. St
ate one advant
age ofhydr
aul
ic br
akes overmechani
cal
br
akes.
8. Expl
ainwhyal adywear
ingsharpheel
edshoesi
snotl
ikel
yto
ski
donaslipperymuddyroad.
9. Whydoesat
mospher
icpr
essur
edecr
easet
owar
dshi
gher
al
ti
tude?
10. Showt
hatPr
essur
einf
lui
dsi
sgi
venby P=hρg
11.Gi
veareasonwhynosebl
eedi
ngi
sli
kel
ytooccuratt
het
opof
amountai
n.
12. Ablockofglassofdensit
y2. cm3hasdi
5g/ mensi
ons8cm by
10cm by15cm.Itisplacedononeofi
tsfacesonahori
zont
al
surf
ace.Cal
culat
e:-
a) Thewei
ghtoft
hebl
ock
b) Thegreatestpr
essur
eitcanexer
tont
hehor
izont
al
sur
face.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 58
c) The l
eastpr
essur
eitcan exer
ton t
he hor
izont
al
sur
face.
13.Thereadingofamer cur
ybarometeri
s75.58cm atthebaseof
amount ainand66.37cm atthesummit.Calcul
atethehei
ght
ofthemount ai
n(Densit
yofmercury=13. m3anddensi
6g/ tyof
ai
r=1.25kg/m3
14.Inahydraul
icbrake,themasterpi
stonhasanareaof4mm2
2
andthewheelpi stoneachhasanar eaof4cm .Findthe
for
cesappli
edtot hewheelwhenaforceof10Ni
sappl
iedon
themast
erpist
on.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 59
Chapt
erFi
ve PARTI
CULATENATUREOFMATTER
I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Mat
teri
sany
thi
ngt
hatoccupi
esspaceandhasmass.
 Matt
erisnotcontinuousbuti
tismadeupofev
eryt
iny
par
ti
cleshencepar
tici
pat
enat
ureofmat
ter
.
 Par
ticul
ate nat
ure of mat
ter t
herefor
eref
erst
o t
he
exi
stenceofmatteri
nver
yti
nypar
ticl
es.
Experi
mentt
odemonst
rat
ethatMat
teri
smadeupofTi
ny
Part
icl
es
i
) UseofaPi
eceofPaper  Thechal
kdusti sobservedtobei nconst
antrandom
moti
on.Thisis due t othecont i
nuouscol
li
sion of
 Apieceofpapercanbecutcont i
nuousl
yunt ilwhent he chal
kdustparti
cleswi t
ht hewatermolecul
eswhi ch
smallpiecescannotbecutintopiecesanyf urt
her.This arei
nconti
nuousr andom motion.
suggeststhatt
hesheetofpaperi
smadeoft i
nypi ecesof
paper.Hencematteri
smadeupoftinypar
ti
cles. ToDemonst
rat
eBr owni anmot i
oninGases(TheSmoke
Cel
lExper
iment
)
 Consi
der t
he set up bel
ow f
or t
he smoke cel
l
exper
iment
.
i
i) Di
lut
ingPot
assi
um Per
manganat
eSol
uti
on
 Theprocessofdi
lut
ingpurpl
epotassium manganese(
VII
)
canconti
nueunt
ilt
hesolut
ionappearscol
orl
ess.
 This suggests that t he part

icl
es of pot assium
permanganat
earespreadevenl
yinwaterandeachdi
lution
processspr
eadthem fur
ther
.Thi
sisapr ooft
hatmatteris
madeupoft i
nypart
icl
eswhichcanbeseparat
ed.
 Note:Thesmokei sintroducedint
othesmokecellby
Explai
nwhyi tispossiblet odi
ssol
vesugari nwaterwi thoutany bur
ningthestrawandl etti
ngthesmokefi
llt
hesmoke
noti
ceableincreasesi
nvol umeofwater.Thesugarpar t
icl
esoccupy cel
lfrom t
heot herend.Smokei susedherebecause
thesmalli
ntermolecul
arspacesofwatermolecul
es.Thisbehaviourof smokeparti
clesareli
ghtandbr i
ght.
sugarsuggeststhatmatterismadeupofveryti
nypart
icl
es.
 Theconv er
ginglensisusedt ofocus/concentr
ate
Br
owni
anmot
ion converge the l i
ght t
o t he smoke cellthereby
i
ll
umi nat
ingt hesmoke.Themi cr
oscopeassiststhe
 Browni
anmoti
onr ef
erst
other
andom mov
ementofl
i
qui
d
observerseet hei
ll
umi
natedsmokeparti
cl
esclearl
y.
andgaspar
ti
cles.
 Thebr ightspecksar eobservedmovi ngr andoml yin
ToDemonst
rat
eBr
owni
anmot
ioni
nLi
qui
ds
the smoke cell.The bri
ghtspecksar et he smoke
 Considerthe set
-up al ongsi
de in which chal
k dustis parti
cleswhichscatter/ref
lectli
ghtshi ni
ngont hem.
spri
nkledonthesur faceofwat erint hebeakerandt he Theymov erandomlyduet ocontinuouscol li
si
onwi th
beakercover
edusi ngat ranspar
entlid.Thebehaviourof i
nvisibleai
rparti
cleswhichar ei
ncont inuousr andom
chal
kdustisthenobser v
edwi tht
hehel pofahandl ensas mot i
on.
shownbelow.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 60
TheKi
net
icTheor
yofMat
ter Exampl
e
 Theaboveexperi
ment
sonBr ownianmot i
onconstit
utethe Usi
ngabl ockdiagram andcor
rectterminol
ogyshow how one
ki
net
ictheor
yofmat t
erwhichstatesthatmat t
erismade stateofmat terchangestotheotherwhent hetemperat
ureis
upofti
nypart
icl
eswhi
chareincontinuousrandom moti
on. changed.Def
ineallter
minol
ogi
es used.
i
) Melt
ing-i
stheprocessbywhi
chasol
i
dchangest
oa
Ar
rangementofPar
ti
clesi
nMat
ter l
iqui
datfi
xedtemperat
ure.
Sol
ids i
i
) Evaporat
ion -istheprocessbywhi
chal
i
qui
d
changestoagasatanyt
emperatur
e.
 Par
ti
cles ar
e cl
osel
y packed t
oget
heri
n an or
gani
zed
mannerandinfi
xedposi
ti
on. i
i
i) Condensat
ion -isthepr
ocessbywhi
chagaschanges
toali
quidatf
ixedtemper
ature.
 Part
iclesinsoliddonotmov erandomlybutinsteadvibrat
e
aboutt heirf
ixedpositi
ons(vi
brator
ymot ion)becauseof iv) Freezi
ng -isthepr
ocessbywhi
chal
i
qui
d
very strong inter
molecul
ar f
orce (cohesivef or
ce).Thi
s changestoasol
i
datf
ixedt
emper
atur
e.
expl
ainswhysol i
dshavefi
xedvolumeanddef ini
teshape. v) Subl
imat
ion -istheprocessbywhichasol
idchanges
togasdi
rect
lywi
thoutpassi
ngthel
iqui
dstat
e.
vi
) Deposi
ti
on -i stheprocessbywhichagaschanges
tosol
iddi
rect
lywi
thoutpassingt
hel
iquidst
ate.
Di
ff
usi
on
 Di f
fusion r
efer
st ot he process bywhi ch par
ti
cles
Li
qui
ds spreadfrom regi
ono fhi
g hc oncent
rat
iontoar egion
oflowconcentrati
on.Noti
ceablediff
usiontakesplace
 Part
icl
esi nli
quidsarenotcl
oselyfi
xedasinsoli
dsbut i
nl i
quidsandgasesduet ot hei
rconti
nuousr andom
moveaboutrandomly(Br
ownianmoti
on).Thi
sisbecause mo ti
on.
t
heinter
molecul
arfor
cesinli
quidsar
eweakerthanthose
i
nsoli
ds. Demonst r
ati
ngDiffusi
oninLiquids
 Thesamer easonexpl
ainswhyli
quidshavenof xedshape  Consi
i der t
he set up below used t oinvesti
gat
e
butassumetheshapeofthecontai
ner. dif
fusioni
nliqui
ds.Concent
rat
edc opper(I
I)sul
phat
e
(bl
ueincolour)i
scaref
ull
yandslowlyint
roducedint
o
 Theinter
molecul
arfor
ceinli
qui
dsisstrongert
haningases thebeakert
hroughafunneltoobt
aintwolayers.
areasonast owhyl i dshav
qui efixedvolumebutgases
don’
t.
Gases
 Parti
clesingasesar ef
urtherapar
tandhav eanincreased  Aft
ersomet ime,i
tisobser vedthattheboundar y
random mot i
oncomparedtoli
qui
dparti
cl
es. betweenthetwoli
quidsdi sappearsanda
homogenouspalebluemi xtur
eisobt ained.Thisis
 Thisis because ofv eryweak inter
molecul
arforces in
becausetherei
sagr eaterrateofmov ementofwat er
gasespar t
icl
esascompar edtoli
quidsandsol i
ds.The
part
icl
esfrom t
hewat erlayertocopper( I
I)sul
phate
samer easonexplai
nswhygaseshav enodefini
teshape l
ayer.Atthesametimet her ei
sgreatermov ementof
andvol ume. copper(I
I)sul
phat
epar ti
clesfrom thecopper( II)
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
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ces 0701184913 61
sul
phat
elay
ert
othewat
erl
ayer
.
 Not
e:I
fhotli
qui
dsareused,f
ormat
ionoft
hemixtur
e
wi
ll
befast
erbecausethepar
ti
cl
esmovefast
erdueto
i
ncr
easedki
neti
cenergy.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 62
Demonst
rat
ingDi
ff
usi
oni
nGases (
b)Ont
hedi
agr
am,
showt
heobser
vat
ion
 Consi
der the setup bel
ow used t
o demonst
r e (
at c) Ift
heexperi
mentwasperformedatahightemperat
urewil
l
di
ff
usioni
ngases youexpectittotakel
ongerorshor
terti
met oform whi
te
deposi
t?Explai
n.
Short
erti
me.Thisisbecauseani ncreaseintemperat
ure
i
ncreasestheki
neticenergyoftheparti
clesofthegases
andhenceincreasedrateofdif
fusionofthegases.
Di
ff
usi
ont
hroughPor
ousMat
eri
als
 Whent hecardboardi sremov edandt het wojarspr essed

together,itis observed thatahomogenouspal ebr own
mixtureformsi nthetwoj ars.Thisisbecausebromi negas
spreadsi ntogasjarcontainingairatagr eat
errate.Att he
samet imeai rspreadsintogasj arcontai
ningbromineata
greaterrate.
 Not
e:Di
ff
usi
oni
ngasesi
sfast
ert
hani
nli
qui
dsbecause:
(
a)Gaseshavel
owdensi
ty.
(
b)Gaseshavehi
ghki
net
icener
gy.
(
c)Gasesver
yweakcohesi
vef
orces.
 I
nit
ial
l
y ,
hydrogengasdif
fusesint
otheporouspotsat
Rat
esofDi
ff
usi
onofGases afasterrat
et hanairdif
fusi
ngout .Asar esul
t,ai
r
bubbl
esoutofwaterasshowni nfi
gurei
).
 Di ff
erentgaseshav edi
f f
erentrat
esofdi
ff
usi
ondependi
ng
ont heirdensi
tyorr
elat
ivemasses.  Whent hegassuppl yisstoppedhy drogengasdi ff
use
outoft hepotthrought hefineholesataf asterr ate
 A gas wi t
h a hi
gherdensi t
yhas heavi
erpar
ti
cl
es and thanairget
sbacki ntothepot .Thi
sdecreasesthegas
thereforeitsrat
eofdi ff
usionislowert
hanthegaswith pressureint he potand as a r esultthe higher
lowerdensi t
y. atmospheri
cpr essureactingont hewat ersurfacei n
thebeakertopusheswat erupt hetubeasinfigurei i
).
Example
Note:Thebeakerisusedtoconf
inethehydr
ogengas
 Int
hef i
gurebel
ow,ammoni
agasandhydr
ochl
ori
caci
dgasdi
ff
use aroundtheporouspot.I
tisobvi
ousthatai
risdenser
andreact
. t
hanhydrogengas.
(
a)St
ateandexpl
aint
heobser
vat
ionmadeaf
tersomet
ime.
 A whi t
e deposi
tisformed near t
he cot
ton woolsoaked i
n
concentr
atedi
nhydr
ochl
ori
cacid.Theammoniagasisl
essdense
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
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ces 0701184913 63
andhasl
ightpar
ti
clest
husi
twi
l
ldi
ff
usef
ast
ert
hant
hehydr
ochl
ori
c
gaswhi
chisdense.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 64
Revi
sionExer
cise
1. Whati
smat
ter
?
2. Wit
htheai
dofadiagram,
descr
ibeanexper
imentt
hatyou
woul
dusetoshowthatmatt
eri
smadeupoft i
nypart
icl
es.
3. Dur
ingacl
assdi
scussi
on,Emmanuelobser
vedt
hatBr
owni
an
moti
onwasonl
yexhibi
tedbysmal
lpart
icl
es.
(
a)I
sthi
sobser
vat
ioncor
rect
?
(
b)Expl
ainyouransweri
n(a)above.
4. St
atet
heki
net
ict
heor
yofmat
ter
.
5. Di
sti
ngui
shbetweenthet
hreest
atesofmat
teri
nter
msoft
he
i
nter
molecul
arf
orces.
6. Whatf
act
ordet
ermi
nest
hest
ateofmat
ter
?
7. Expl
ainwhysol
idsar
enotcompr
essi
blewhi
legasesar
e.
8. Def
ineBr
owni
anmot
ion.
9. Dur
ingBrowni
anmot i
onexper
iment,
thesmokeparti
clesmust
besmallandl
ight
.Expl
ainwhyiti
snecessar
ythatt
heparti
cles
bel
ight
.
10.Smokeisi
ntroducedi
ntosmokecel
lwhi
chi
sthenvi
ewedunder
amicr
oscope.
(
a)Whatdoyouobser
vet
hrought
hemi
croscope?
(
b)Whatconcl
usi
oncanbedr
awnf
rom t
hisobser
vat
ion?
11.Temper
atur
eaf
fect
sBr
owni
anmot
ion.Expl
ain.
12.Lycopodium powderisli
ghtl
yspri
nkledonacl eanwatersur
face
i
nal argetray.Aredhotneedl
eisplungedintothecentr
eofthe
watersurface.St
ateandexplai
nwhati sobserved.
13. Def
inedi
ff
usi
on.
14.Descr
ibeanexper
imentt
odemonst
rat
ethepr
ocessofdi
ff
usi
on
i
n;
(
i) Li
qui
ds
(
ii
) Gases.
15.Nameandexpl
aint
hef
act
orst
hataf
fectt
her
ateofdi
ff
usi
oni
n
gases.
Chapt
erSi
x THERMALEXPANSI
ON
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 65
Def
ini
ti
on Ther
momet
ri
cLi
qui
ds
 Ther
malexpansi
onr
efer
stoi
ncr
easei
nvol
umeofabody  Theyi
nclude:
whenheat
ed.
a) Mercury
b) Al
cohol
Temper
atur
e
c) Oi
lofcr
eosot
e
 Temperat
urei
sthedegr
ee(ext
ent
)ofhot
nessorcol
dness
ofabodyonsomechosenscal
e. Pr
opert
iesofaGoodTher
momet
ri
cLi
qui
d
 Temper
atureismeasuredusingathermomet
eranditisa a) I
tshoul
dnotwetglass.
basi
cquant
itywhoseSIuni
tistheKelvi
n.
b) I
tshoul
dexpandunifor
mly(
regul
arl
y).
0
 Degr
eeCelsius(C)isanotheruni
tinwhicht
emperatur
es
canbemeasured. c) I
tshoul
dbeagoodconductorofheat.
 Temper
atur
eisascal
arquant
it
y. d) I
tshoul
dbev
isi
ble.
Ther
momet
ers e) I
tshoul
dhav
ehi
ghboi
l
ingpoi
nt.
 A thermometer is an inst
rument used t
o measur e f
) I
tshouldhavelowfreezi
ngpoi
nt.
temper
atur
e.Therearemanyt ypesoft
hermomet
ers,each
 Note:Watercannotbeusedasat her
momet
erl
i
qui
d
desi
gnedforaspecif
icuse.
because:
Li
qui
d-i
n-Gl
assTher
momet
er(
CommonTher
momet
er) (
a)I
twet
sgl
ass,
 The li
qui
d commonly used i
nal iqui
d– i n – gl
ass
(
b)I
texpandsi
rr
egul
arl
y(anomal
ousl
y),
ther
momet smer
eri cury.Al
coholcanalsobeused.
(
c)I
tisabadconduct
orofheat
,
 Not
e:Al
i
qui
dusedi
nther
momet
eri
scommonl
yknownas
t
her
momet
ri
cli
qui
d. (
d)I
tisi
nvi
sibl
e(col
our
less)
,
Feat
uresofaLi
qui
d–I
n–Gl
assTher
momet
er (
e)I
thasar
elat
ivel
yhi
ghf
reezi
ngpoi
nt.
Compar
ison between Mer
cur
y and Al
cohol as
Ther
mometri
cLi
quids
Mer
cur
y Al
cohol
(
a)
ABul
b I
thas a high boi
l
ing I
thasalowboi
l
ingpoi
nt
0 0
poi
nt(
357C). (
78C).
 Contai
ns the thermomet
ri
cliqui
d.Itist n wal
hi l
ed to
i
ncreasesensit
ivit
yofthethermomet
er(i
.e.al
l
ow qui
ck I
thasarel
ati
vel
yhi
gher I
t has a l ow mel
ti
ng
tr
ansferofheat
). mel
ti
ngpoi –390C)
nt( . point(
-1150C).
(
b)Capi
ll
aryBor
e
Itis a good t
her
mal Itis a poor t
her
mal
 I
tal
lows t
he l
iqui
di nt
he bul
btor
ise and f
allwhen conduct
or. conduct
or.
t
emper
atur
echanges.
I
texpandsr
egul
arl
y. I
tsexpansi
oni
ssl
i
ght
ly
 Ithasasmal ldi
amet
ertoincreasei
tsaccur
acysothata i
rr
egul
ar.
smallchangeint
emperat
urecaneasi
lybemeasur
ed.
I
tdoesnotwetgl
ass. I
twet
sgl
ass.
(
c)Gl
assSt
em
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 66
 I smadeupoft
ti hickgl
asstostr
engt
hent
het
her
momet
er I
tisopaqueandsi
l
ver
y. Iti s transpar
ent and
andther
efor
epr
otectt
heli
qui
dinsi
de. therefor
e has t o be
coloured to make i t
 Thi
ckgl soact
assal sasamagni
fyi
nggl
asst
omagni
fyt
he
l
i
qui
dthr
ead. visi
ble.
 Not
es
I
. Alcoholther
momet eristhebestf
oruseinverycol
d
condit
ionsbecausei t
sf r
eezi
ngpointi
sverylow (-
1150c) but cannot be used i n a ver y hi
gh
temperaturebecausei t
sboili
ngpointi
sr el
ati
vel
y
l
ow( 780C).
I
I. Mer cury thermometersis bestforuse in high
temper at
ure because ofit
s high boi
li
ng points
0
(357c)butcannotbeusedi nverylowtemperature
becausei thasar el
ati
vel
yhighf r
eezi
ng poi
nt( -
0
39c) .
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 67
Cal
ibr
ati
ngLi
qui
d-i
n–Gl
assTher
momet
er 1) Anuncalibr
atedmercur
yther
momet eri
sattachedt
oacm
scalewhichreads14cm inpuremel ti
ngiceand30cm i
n
 At
her
momet
erhast
womai
nfi
xedpoi
nts: steam.Ifitreads10cm infreezingmixt
ure,whatist
he
temperat
ureofthefr
eezi
ngmixture?
I
. Theupperf
ixedpoi 1000c)
nt(
o I
nmel
ti
ngi
ce,
14cm cor
r o00C
espondst
0
I
I. Thel
owerf
ixedpoi
nt(c)
o I
nst 30cm cor
eam, r o1000C
espondst
 Theupperfixedpointismarkedbyputti
ngthebulboft he o ∴1000C-
00Ccor
respondst
o30cm -
14cm
ther
mometer in st eam of water boi
li
ng at standard
atmospher
icpressureof76cmHg. o 1000Ccor
responds16cm l
engt
h
 Thelowerf
ixedpoi
nti
smar kedbyput
ti
ngt
hebul
boft
he 1cm ×1000C
ther
mometerinpur
emelt
ingice. o 1cm cor
respondst
o 250C
=6.
16cm
 Ther
angebetweenupperfi
xedpointandlowerf
ixedpoi
nt o Temper
atur
eoft
hef
reezi
ngmi
xtur
eis:
i
ssubdi
videdi
ntoequaldi
vi
sionsof10Ceach.
00C +( 250C =-
10-14)×6. 250C
The Celsi
us ( Cent
igr
ade) and Kel
vi
n (
Ther
modynami
c
Temper
ature)Scal
e
 TheCelsiusscalehasfix
edpoi sat00Cand1000Cwhi
nt e 2) Af
l aul
tythermometerreads18℃ aticepointand80℃ at
theKelv
inscalehasf i
xedpoi
ntsat273Kforpuremelt
ing st
eam point
. Det
erminethec or
recttemperat
urewhenit
r
eads60℃.
i
ceand373Kf orst
eam orpureboi
li
ngwateratst
andard
atmospheri
cpressure. o Aticepoint
,180Ccorr
espondstoact y00C
ual
l
 Temper
atur
eonCelsi
usscal
eandKel
vi
nscal
ear
erel
ated o Atst
eam poi
nt800Ccor
, respondst
oact y1000C
ual
l
byT(
: K)=θ(℃)+273.
o 800C-
( 180C)cor
respondst
oact
ual
l
y(1000C-
00C)
Absol
uteZer
oTemper
atur
e
o 620Cf
aul
tycor
respondst
oact y1000C
ual
l
 Thisisthelowesttemperat
ureonKelvi
nscalei
nwhi
cht
he
energyofthepart
iclesi
namat er
ial
iszero. 10C ×1000C
o 10Cf
aul
tycor
respondst
oact
ual
l
y 60C
=1.
620C
 I
tsv
al szer
uei oKel
vi
n(2730C)
- .
o Cor
rectt
emper
atur
ewhenf
aul
t eads600Ci
yoner s:
0℃ +( 18)×1.
60- 6℃ =67.
2℃
Exer
cise
1) Afault
ymer cur
yther
mometerr
eads15℃ whendippedi
nto
melt
ingiceand95℃ wheninst
eam atnormalat
mospheri
c
pr
essure.Whatwouldthi
sther
momet err
eadwhendipped
i
ntoaliqui
dat25℃
2) When mar
king t
hef
ixed poi
ntson a t
hermometeriti
s
Exampl
es obser
vedt
hatat0℃ themercuryt
hreadisofl
ength2cm
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 68
3) Conver
t each of t
he f
oll
owi
ng f
rom Cel
sius t
o Kel
vi
n and9cm at100℃.Whatt
emper
atur
ewoul
dcor
respondt
o
(
Hint
:useT(
K)=θ(
℃)+273.
) alengt
hof4cm?
200C
a) - Cl
ini
calTher
momet
er
T =-
20 +273 =253K  Iti
saspecialtypeoft
her
mometerusedformeasur
ing
humanbodyt emperat
urewhoset
emperatur
erangeis
b) 00C about350C-430C.
T =0 +273 =273K
c) 100C
T =10 +273 =283K

ubehasaconst
 Thet ri
cti
onwhi
chbr
eakst
hemer
cur
y
2730C
d) -
t
hreadf
ort
emper
atur
ereadi
ngt
obet
aken.
T =-
273 +273 =0K
 Aft
erthether
mometerhasbeenr eadthemer
cur
yis
4) Conver
t each of t
he f
oll
owi
ng f
rom Kel
vi
n t
o 0
C ret
urnedt
ob ul
bbyali
ght
lyshaki
ngthether
momet
er.
(
Hint
:useθ(
℃)=T(
K)-
273.
)
 Methyl
atedspi
ri
tisusedt
ost
eri
l
izet
het
her
momet
er
a) 0K af
teruse.
2730C
273 =-
θ =0-  Note:cli
nicalther
mometercannotbe steri
l
ized by
boil
ingwaterbecauseitwil
lbr
eaksincet heboil
i
ng
b) 167K pointofwaterisfarabov
ethetemperat
urerangeof
thether
momet er.
1060C
273 =-
θ =167-
c) 283K
θ =283-
273 =10℃
d) 3450K
θ =3450-
273 =3177℃
Updat
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ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 69
Si
x’
sMaxi
mum andMi
nimum Ther
momet
er
 Thisthermometerrecor
dst hemaximum and mini
mum
temperat
urer
eachedinaplacedur
ingaspeci
fi
edperi
odof
ti
me,sayaday.
Obser
vat
ion:Whent
hebal
lisheat
ed,
itdoesnotpass
thr
ought her i
ngbutwheni tisleftont her i
ngfor
somet i
mes i tpasses t hrough.Expl anation:When
heated, t
heballexpandsandsocannotgot hroughthe
ri
ng.Wheni tisleftont her i
ngf orsomet i
met he
temper atur
e of t he bal
ldecr eases and t he bal
l
contracts.Atthesamet imet her i
ngabsor bssome
heatf r
om thebal lit
stemperatureincreasesandsoi t
expandsal l
owingt hebal
ltopasst hrough.
2. TheBarandGaugeExper
iment
Quest
ion
ModeofOper
ati
onoft
heSi
x’
sTher
momet
er I
nt hefi
gur
ebel
ow,atr
oom t
emper
atur
e,t
hebarf
it
sint
othe
gauge.
 Whent emperaturer i
ses,thealcoholinbulbRexpandsand
pushesthemer curyupt her i
ghtl i
mboft heu-tube.The
mercurypushesi ndexYupwar ds.Thelowerendoft hi
s
i
ndexindicatesthemaxi mum t emperatur
ereachedduri
ng
thespeci
fiedperiod.
 Whent emperaturefal
ls,t
healcoholi
nbulbRcontractsand
mer curyispull
edback,r i
singupinthel
eftl
imb.Thei ndex
Xi st her
efore pushed upwards.Duri
ng contracti
on of
alcohol,theindexYi sleftbehindinthealcoholbyt he
fall
ingmer cury. Themi nimum temper
atur
ei sreadf r
om
thel owerendofindexX.
Toresetthet
hermometer
,amagnetisusedt
oret
urnt
he (
a) Expl
ainwhatwouldhappenwhent
hebari
sheat
edand
youtr
ytofi
titi
nthegauge.
st
eeli
ndicest
othemercur
ysur
faces.
Thebardoesnotf
iti
ntot
hegaugebecausei
texpandswhen
Expansi
onandCont
ract
ionofSol
ids heat
ed.
 When sol i
dsar eheat ed theyexpand (incr
easein si
ze/ (
b)Consi deracasewher ethebarissli
ghtl
ybiggerthanthe
volume)andwhencool edtheycontract(
decreasei
nsize/ gaugeatr oom temper at
ure.Expl
ainwhatyouwi lldoto
volume). Mass oft he solid doesnotchange when it maket hebarfi
tintothegauge.
contractsorexpands.
Heatthegaugesot hatitexpandsandthebarwi
llf
it
.
 Densityoft hesol i
dincreaseswhent hebodyi scooled
(becausev olumedecr eases)andi tdecreaseswhent he
bodyi sheated(becausev ol
umei ncr
eases).
Compari
ng Expansi
on and Cont
ract
ion of Di
ff
erent
Exper
iment
stoDemonst
rat
eExpansi
onandCont
ract
ionof Metal
s
Updat
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KASNEB&ot
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ces 0701184913 70
Sol
ids Quest
ion
1. TheBal
landRi
ngExper
iment Anexper
imentwassett
ocompar
etheexpansi
onofdi
ff
erent
met
alsasshownbel
ow.
 Theballandri
ngexperi
mentapparat
usareasshowni
nthe
fi
gurebelow.Theballj
ustpassest
hrought
heri
ngatr
oom
temperat
ureandpressure.
Exampl
e
The fi
gure bel
ow shows a bi
met
all
ic st
ri
p at a r
oom
(
a) Expl
ainhowt
heexper
imentwor
ks temper
atur
e(250C)
o When t he met albarisheat ed i

texpandsand pushest he
pivotedpoi nt
erandt her eadi
ngistakenont hescal
e.Met al
barsoft hesamesi zemadeofdi ff
erentmater
ial
sareat
tached
tot heclamponeatat i
meandheat edforthesamelengthof
ti
me.Ther eadi
ngsont hescalear
erecordedandcompared. i
) Draw t
hesamebi met
all
icst
rpwhenat900c.Expl
i ain
theobser
vat
ion.
(
b)Whatpr
ecaut
ionsshoul
dbet
akent
oensur
efai
rresul
t
i
) Themet
alsshoul
dbeofsamel
engt
handdi
amet
er.
i
i) Themet
alsshoul
dbeheat
edusi
ngsamebur
ner
.
Themet
alshoul
dbeheat
edf
orsamel
engt
hoft
ime.
When t
emperatur
ei ncreases above room temper
atur
e
al
umi
num expandsatafasterr
atethancopper
.
Li
nearExpansi
vi
ty
 Li
nearexpansi
vi
tyi
sthet
endencyofamat
eri
alt
oexpand
i
i) Dr
aw t
hebi
met
all
icst
ri 250C.Expl
pwhenat- aint
he
Updat
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,
KASNEB&ot
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when heat ed.Dif

ferentmateri
als have di
ff
erentl i
near obser
vat
ion.
expansi
vi
ties meaning thatt
heirrates ofexpansion or
contr
acti
onar enotthesameexceptaf ewmateri
als.
 Theuni
tofli
nearexpansi
vi
tyismeasur nperKel
edi vi
n.
Thef
oll
owi
ngaresomeexamples;
When t
emperatur
e decr
eases bel
ow room temper
atur
e
Mat
eri
al al
umi
num cont
ractsataf
asterr
atet
hancopper
.
Li
nearExpansi
vi
t K-1)
y(
Al
umi
num 26x10-6
Appl
icat
ionsofExpansi
onandCont
ract
ionofSol
ids
Br
ass 19x10-6
1) Expansi
onj
oint
sinSt
eam Pi
pes
Copper 16.
8x10 -
6
 Pipes carryi
ng steam ar e fi
tted wit
h loops or
expansionjoi
ntstoal
lowf orexpansionwhensteam i
s
I
ron 12x10-
6
passingthroughthem andcont r
actionwhentheyare
cooled.Withouttheloopt heforceofexpansionand
Concr
ete 11x10-6 contract
ionwill
causebreakageoft hepi
pes.
St
eel 11x10-6
TheBi
met
all
icSt
ri
p
 Bi
metall
icstri
pismadebyr ivet
ingtogethertwomet al
sof
di
ff
erentl
inearexpansi
vi
ti
es.Themet alwhichexpandsata
hi
gherrat
ewhenheat edcontr
actsfasterwhencooled.
 Considerabi met al
l
icst r
ipmadeofironandbr assatroom
temper atureandpr essureinfi
gur
e(a)below.Br asshasa
higherlinearexpansivi
tythanir
onandthereforeexpandsat
af asterr atethan iron.When thest r
ipi sheated toa
temper ature great
ert han room temper atur
ei tbends
towardsi ronasshowni nfi
gur b)andwhent
e( hestr
ipis
cooled,i tbendst owar dsbrassasshown i nf i
gure(c)
below.
Updat
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,
KASNEB&ot
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2. Fi
xingofRai
lwayLi
ne 5. I
nst
all
ati
onofTel
ephone/El
ect
ri
cWi
res
 Rail
waylinesar econstruct
edi nsectionswi thexpansion  They arel ooselyf i
xed to al
low for contr
acti
on.
gapsandt hesectionsheldtogetherbyfishplat
es.Thebolt Telephoneorel ect
ri
cwiresappeartobeshor t
erand
hol
esi nt herail
sar e ovalto all
ow freeexpansi onand tautinthemor ning.Whenitishot,t
hewi resappear
contr
act
ionofr ai
lsasthebol t
smov efreelyintheholes. l
ongerandsl ackened.
 A moder n method of al
l
owing for expansi
on and
contr
acti
oninrai
lway
sistoplanesl
antther ai
l
ssothat
theyover
lap.
6. TheBi
met
all
icMet
alAppl
icat
ion
 Oneoft hemostcommonappl i
cati
onofabi metalli
c
stri
pisint heinthet her
most at
.A thermostatisa
3. Fi
xingofSt
eelBr
idges device f
ormai nt
aini
ng a steady temperat
ure.The
thermostatshownbelow isusedf orcontrol
li
ngt he
 Inbr i
dgesmadeofsteelgi
rder
s,oneendi
sfi
xedandt
he temperatur
e of an iron box.A heat er ci
rcui
ti s
otherendplacedonr
oll
erst
oal
l
ow f
orexpansi
onand connect
edt
hrought
heel
ect
ri
cal
ter
minal
s.
contr
acti
on.
4. Ri
vet
s  I
fthei ronboxbecomest oohott hebi metal
li
cst ri
p
 Thickmet alplat
esinshipsandotherstr
uctur
esarejoi
ned bends c ur
ving awayfrom the l
ow ercontact
.T hi
s
togetherbymeansofr iv
ets.Ari
veti
sfitt
edwhenhotand breaks the cont
acts and sw i
tches of
ft he heater.
thenhammer edflat
.Oncoolingi
tcont
ractspul
li
ngthetwo Wh enitcools,
thebimetal
li
c st
ri
pb endsclosi
ngupt he
platesfi
rmlytogether. gapbetweent hecontactsandt heheaterisswitched
onagain.
 I
fthei r
onboxi sr equi
redtobev eryhot( i
.e.high
t
emperatur
e),t
heset t
ingknobisadj
ust edtopusht he
metalKsuchthatthecontactsar
et ighttoget
her.For
l
owt emper
aturerangetheadjust
ingknobi sreleased
Updat
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,
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sot
hatt
heposi
ti
onKi
slower
ed.
 Ther
most ati
salsousedtocont
rolthet
emperat
ureof
el
ect
riccookers,el
ect
ri
cheater
sf orwar
mingrooms,
andfr
idges.
Expansi
onandCont
ract
ionofLi
qui
ds
ToDemonst
rat
eExpansi
onofLi
qui
ds
 Consi
derthe f
lask bel
ow f
il
led wi
th col
ored wat
eras
shownbel
ow.
Ef
fect
sofAnomal
ousExpansi
onofWat
er
1) Suppor
tAquat
icLi
fei
nPol
arCount
ri
esDur
ingWi
nter
 Duri
ngwi nterwaterf r
eezersi
ntoice.Icebeingl
ess
densethanwat erfl
oatsonwat er
.Sinceiceisapoor
conduct
orofheat ,i
tinsul
atest
hewat erbel
owagai
nst
heatl
osst oairaboveit.
 Whenthef
laskisheatedi
tisobser
vedthatwat
eri
nthe
gl
asst
ubef
allssl
i
ghtl
yandthenst
art
sri
si
ng.
 Thei ni
ti
alf al
loft hewat erlevelint het
ubei sduet o
expansi
onoft heflaskwhichget sheatedf
irst
.Thewater
star
tsexpandingwhenheatf inall
yreachesi
tanditr
isesup
2) Anomal
ousexpansi
onofwat
erl
eadst
ofor
mat
ionof
thetubesinceliqui
dsexpandf ast
erthansol
ids.
i
cebagswhi
chposeagr
eatdangert
oshi
ps.
 Not
e:Di
ff
erentl
i
qui
dsexpanddi
ff
erent
ly(
i.
e.t
heyhav
e
3) I
tcauses weat
her
ing ofr
ocks si
nce when wat
er
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
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ces 0701184913 74
di
ff
erentr
atesofexpansi
on) tr
appedinfreezes;i
texpandst
husbr
eaki
ngr
ocksi
nto
smallpi
eces.
 I
ft heaboveexper
imentwasr epeat
edusingalcoholand
thenmet hy
lat
edspir
itf
ort hesamel engthoftimeand 4) I
tcausesbur
sti
ngofwat
erpi
peswhenwat
erf
reezer
s
using same heat
er,it woul
d hav e been noted t
hat i
nthem.
methyl
atedspi
ri
texpandsmostf
oll
owedbyal
coholand
f
inal
lywater
. Expansi
onofGases
Anomal
ousExpansi
onofWat
er Exper
imentt
oDemonst
rat
eExpansi
onandCont
ract
ion
ofGases
 Anomal
ousexpansi
onofwat
eri
sdef
inedast
heunusual
behavi
orofwateri
nwhichitcont
ract edand  Consi
swhenheat derthe setup bel
ow which can be used t
o
expandswhencool
edbet 0
ween0and4C. demonst
rateexpansi
onandcont
ract
ionof gases.
 Consi
derheati
ngi cef r
om - 80C unt
ilitchangestowater
anditstemperatureincreasest o80C.A pl otofvol
ume
ver
sestemperatureforthewat erisasi nfi
gure(a)whi
le
densi
tyver
sestemperatureisasi nfigur
e(b)below.
Updat
edhi
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,
KASNEB&ot
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 Whent
hef
laski
swar
med,i
tisobser
vedt
hatt
hel
evelof 7) Thef
igur
ebel
ow r
epr
esent
sabi
met
all
icst
ri
pofmet
alsX
watercolumni nsi
detheglasst
ubedropsindi
cat
ingt hat andYatr
oom t
emper
atur
e
theairhasexpanded.Whent hefl
askiswarmedf urt
her,
somebubbl esareseenattheendofthet
ubeinwat eras
airescapesfr
om thef
lask.
 Whent
hef
laski
scool
ed,wat
erl
ev sobser
eli vedt
ori
seup Thef
igur
ebel
owshowsi
tsshapewhendi
ppedi
ntocr
ushedi
ce
theglasst
ubebecauset
heai
rinsi
det
hef
laskcont
ract
sto
creat
espace.
Exampl
es
1) Thef
igurebelow showsabeam bal
ancemadeoutofconcr
ete
andr
einf
orcedwithsteel
Sket
chadiagram i
nthespacegivenbel
owtoshowtheshape
whenthestri
pisheatedtoat emperat
ure abovet
heroom
temper
atur
e
Useadiagram t
oexpl
aint
hebehavi
ouroft
heshapeoft
hebeam
whenheat
edup.
8) Givear easonwhyaconcr etebeam r einfor

cedwi t
hst eel
doesnotcr ackwhensubj ectedtoChangesi ntemper ature.
Thebeam expandsl inear
ly.Thebeam r emainsstraightbutl onger Bothconcr et
eandst eelhavesamer atesofexpansi on.
thanbef oreheati
ng.Bot hconcr et
eandst eelhavesamer at
esof Theirval
ueofl inearexpansivi
tyis11x10-6K
-6
expansion.Thei
rvalueofli
nearexpansivi
tyi
s11x10 K
9) Aquatic animal s and plants are obser ved to survive in
2) St atetwol i
qui
dswhi char eusedinthermomet er.Alcoholand fr
ozenponds.Expl ainthisobservati
on.
Mer cur
y. Wat erfreezesandt heiceformedf l
oatsi nwaterbecause
3) Wi t
har eason,statewhi chofthetwol i
quidsin3( a)abovei s i
tsdensityisl essthanthatofwat er,i
nsul ati
ngwat erbelow
usedt omeasuret emperaturei
nareaswheretemper at
ur esare: i
t.Temper atures i
ncreases down t he pond because of
(i
)Bel ow -400C al cohol,becauseithasal ow freezi
ngpoi ntof anomalousexpansi onofwat er.
o
–115C.
(
i)1500C,
i mer
cur
y,becausei
thasahi
ghboi
l
i ntof357oC,
ngpoi
4) Whatdoyouunder standbyt
hestat
ement‘l
owerfi
xedpoint
’on
atemperat
urescale?
Thi
sisthetemperatureofpuremel
tingi
ceatstandar
d/nor
mal
at
mospheri
cpressure;
5) Name t wo adaptati
ons t
hat can be made t
o a mer
cur
y
thermomet ertomakeitmoresensi
ti
ve.
Usingathinwalledbul
b Usi
ng a
narrowercapil
l
arytube
6) Thefigur
ebel ow showsabi met
all
icst
ri
pmadeofbrassand
i
ron.Amar bl
eisplacedatendAofthebi
metal
li
cst
ri
passhown
bel
ow:-
St
ateandexpl
ainwhatwi
llbeobser
vedwhent
hebi
met
all
icst
ri
p
i
sstr
ongl
ycooled
Oncool
i
ng,t
hebr
asscont
ract
smor
ethani
ron,hencebecomeshor
ter
Updat
edhi
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,
KASNEB&ot
herl
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thanironandf ormsupwar
dscurve,maki
ngt
hemar
blet
orol
land
sett
leatthecentr
eoft
hecurve.
Updat
edhi
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,
KASNEB&ot
herl
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Revi
sionExer
cise Expl
ainhow r
isei
nt emper
atur
ecausest
hepoi
ntert
o
moveinthedi
rect
ionshown.
1. Onepr opert
yofal i
qui
dthatisconsideredwhileconst
ructi
nga
l
iquidinglassther
mometeristhattheli
quidexpandsmor ethan 9. I
nthesetupshowni nfi
gur
ebelow,i
tisobser
vedthatthe
theglassforthesametemperatur
echange.St at
eanyot hertwo l
evelofwat
eri
nit
ial
lydr
opsbef
orestar
ti
ngtori
se.Expl
ain.
propert
iesoftheli
qui
dsthatar
econsidered.
2. Giveareasonwhyaconcr
etebeam r
einf
orcedwithst
eeldoes
notcr
ackwhensubj
ect
edtochangei
ntemperatur
e
3. Explai
nwhyagl asscont
ainerwit
ht hi
ckwal
lsismoreli
kel
yto
crackthanonewithathi
nwal lwhenaveryhotl
iqui
dispour
ed
i
ntoi t
.
4. Figur
e below shows a ci
rcui
tdi
agr
am f
orcont
rol
li
ng t
he
temperat
ureofaroom.
10.Gi
veareasonwhywat
eri
snotsui
tabl
eli
qui
dforusei
na
t
hermometer
.
11.The t emper ature ofwat erin a measuring cyl

inderi s
i
) St
ateandexpl
aint
hepur
poseoft
hebi
met
all
icst
ri
p.
l
ower edf om about200ct
r o00c.Sketchagraphofvol ume
i
i) Descr
ibe how t
he cir
cuitcont
rol
sthe t
emper
atur
e againstt emper atureassumingthatwaterdoesnotfreeze.
whentheswit
chSi sclosed.
12.Figurebel ow showsaf l
askfil
ledwithwater.Thef l
aski s
5. Fi
gurebel
owshowsaf i
real
arm cir
cuit
. fi
ttedw i
thac o r
kt hr
o ughw hi
chat ubeisinsert
ed. Wh en
thef l
aski scool edt hewat erlevelr
isessli
ght
lyandt hen
fall
sst eadil
y.Expl ai
n.
Expl
ainhowt
heal
armf
unct
ions
6. Fi
gur
e below showsa bi
metall
icst
rip atroom temper
atur
e.
Br
assexpandsmor et
hani
nvarwhenheatedequal
ly.
13.Aclini
calt
hermometerhasaconstri
cti
oni nthebor
ejust
abovethebul
b.St
atetheuseoft
hisconstr
icti
on.
Sketch t
he bimetal
li
c stri
p afterbeing cool
ed sever
al
degr
eesbelowroom t
emper at
ure 14.Fi
gurebelow showsanal
umi
num t
ubet
ight
lyst
ucki
na
st
eeltube.
7. Fi
gurebelowshowsabimetall
icther
momet er.
Explai
n how the two tubes can be separated by
applyi
ngat emperat
urechangeatt hesamej unct
ion
giventhatal
uminum expandsmoret hansteelforthe
samet emperat
ureri
se.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
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8. Fi
gure below shows a f l
atbot
tomed fl
ask cont
ai ng some 15.I
ni nanexper imenttoinvesti
gat
et heunusualexpansionof
water
.Itisheateddirect
lywit
haveryhotf
lame.Explai
nwhythe wateraf i
xedmassofwat erat00C washeat edunt i
lit
s
fl
askisli
kelyt
ocr ack. temperat
urereached200C.Ont heaxi
sprovided,sketcha
graphofdensi
tyagainstt
emperatur
eofthewat erfom 00c
r
0
to20C.
Chapt
erSev
en HEATTRANSFER
Updat
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,
KASNEB&ot
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Def
ini
ti
onofHeat  Wood
 Heati
saform ofenergywhi
chfl
owsfr
om apointofhi
gher  Ai
r
t
emperat
uretoanotherpoi
ntofl
owtemper
atur
e.
 Wat
er
Di
ff
erencesbet
weenHeatandTemper
atur
e
 Rubber
HEAT TEMPERATURE
 Pl
ast
ic
For
m ofenergythatf
lows Degree of hotness or
due t o t emperatur
e col
dness of a body in  Gl
ass
di
ff
erence. somechosenscale.
Exampl
e
Thefl
ow ofheatcannot Can be measur
ed Thef
igurebelowshowspiecesofwoodandir
onofequall
engt
h
bemeasur
edpreci
sel
y. accurat
ely usi
ng a anddiametermaintai
nedincontactbyasheetofpaper .A
ther
momet er
. fl
ame is t hen passed over the paper sever
al t
imes.
SIuni
tandj
oul
es(
J). SIuni
tisKel
vi
n(k)
.
St
ateandexpl
aint
heobser
vat
ionmade:
ModesofHeatTr
ansf
er
Thepaperget sbl
ackedontheregi
oncoveri
ngt hewoodenrod.
 There arethr
ee modes ofheatt
ransf
er: conduct
ion, Thisisbecausewoodisapoorconductorofheatandtheref
ore
conv
ecti
onandradi
ati
on. doesnotconductheatfrom thepaperandtheref
orethepaper
burns.I
ronisagoodconductorofheatandconductsheataway
Conduct
ion fr
om thepaper.
 Conduct
ioni
sthetransf
erofheatwi
thi
nanobj
ectwi
thout Fact
orsAf
fect
ingTher
malConduct
ivi
ty
themovementoft
heobjectasawhol
e.
1. Nat
ureofMat
eri
als
Mechani
smsofHeatConduct
ion
 Natur
eofmat
eri
almeanswhatt
hemat
eri
ali
smade
(
a)Vi
brat
ionofmol
ecul
es of
.
(
b)Thr
oughf
reeel
ect
rons  Consi
dert
hesetupbel
ow.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofMat
eri
alsI
nTer
msofConduct
ion
 Mater
ial
scanbeclassif
iedasgoodorpoorconduct
orsi
n
t
ermsofheatconduct
ion.
(
a)GoodConduct
ors
Goodconduct
orsar
emat
eri
alst
hatcanal
l
ow heatt
opass
t
hrought
hem e.
g.
 Copper
 Si
l
ver
 I
tisobservedthatthewaxat
tachedtocopperdrops
fi
rstf
oll
owedbyt hatonal
uminum, i
ronl
eadandt hat
 Al
umi
nium
ofwooddi dnotdropsi
ncewoodi sapoorconductor
.
 Br
ass
Pr
ecaut
ions
 Mer
cur
y (
a)Rodsofsamedi
amet
ert
obeused.
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 I
ron (
b)Rodsequall
engt
htobeused.
 Zi
nc (
c)Waxoft
hesamesi
zet
obeused.
 Ti
n
 Leadet
c.
(
b)PoorConduct
ors(
Insul
ator
s)
 Thesear
emat er
ial
swhi
chdonotr
eadi
l
yal
l
owheatt
opass
thr
oughthem e.
g.
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2. The Thi
ckness/Di
amet
er/Cr
oss Sect
ion Ar
ea oft
he  I
ti s obser
ved thatwax on rod B dropped f
ir
st.
Conduct
or Ther
efore, ther
mal conduct
ivi
ty incr
eases wi t
h
decr
easei
nlengt
hoft
heconduct
or.
 Consi
dert
hesetupbel
ow;
Pr
ecaut
ions
(
a)Rodspl
acedatequaldi
stancef
rom heatsour
ce.
(
b)Rodsofsamemat
eri
alused.
 Itisobservedthatthewaxonthethi
ckerir
onroddr
ops (c)Waxofthesamesizeused.
fi
rst.Thi
si sbecausemoreheatfl
owsthroughathi
cker
conductorperuni
tti
me. (
d)Rodsofsamethi
cknessused.
 Therefor
e,conducti
vit
y of conduct
orsi
ncr
eases wi
th Lagging
thi
cknessoftheconductor
.
 Laggi ngref
erstothecover
ingofagoodconductorof
Precauti
ons heatwi t
hani nsul
ati
ngmat er
ialt
oreduceheatloss
throughsur
faceeff
ects.
(
a)Equalt
imeofexposur
eoft
her
odst
oheat
.
 Consi
dert
hesetupbel
ow;
(
b)Equall
engt
handt
ypeofr
odsused.
(
c)Samesi
zeofwaxused.
(
d)Rodspl
acedatequaldi
stancesf
rom t
heheatsour
ce.
3. Temper
atur
eDi
ff
erence
 Consi
dert
hesetupsAandBbel
ow.
 Plot
softemper
atur
ev ar
iat
ionf
rom t
hehotendt
othe
coldendwithl
aggingandwi t
houtl
aggi
ngonsame
axeswil
lbeasf
oll
ows;
 I
tisobservedthatwaxinsetupBdroppedfi
rstbecauseof
great
ertemperaturedi
ff
erentt
haninA.Therefor
e,heatis
tr
ansfer
redfasterwhentemper
atur
edif
fer
enceisgreat . Appl
er icat
ionsofLaggi
ng
 I
ronpi
pescar
ryi
ngst
eam f
rom boi
l
ersorst
eam wel
l
s
ar
ecov er
edwiththi
ckasbest
osmater
ialwhi
chi
san
Pr
ecaut
ions i
nsul
atortor
educeheatl
ossfr
om st
eam.
(
a)Ther
odsofequaldi
amet
erused. Ther
malconduct
ivi
tyI
nLi
qui
ds
(
b)Rodsofequall
engt
hused.  Li
qui
dsar
egener
all
ypoorconduct
orsofheat
.
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(
c)Waxofsamesi
zeused.
(
d)Waxplacedatequaldi
stancef
rom oneendoft
her
odi
n
eachcase.
(
e)Rodsofsamemat
eri
alused.
5. Lengt
hoft
heConduct
or
 Consi
dert
hesetupbel
ow;
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ToDemonst
rat
ethatWat
eri
saPoorConduct
or Appl
icat
ionsofGoodandPoorConduct
orsofHeat
Exper
iment1 (
a)Cookingutensi
lsandboil
ersar
emadeofmetal
sthat
conductheatrapi
dlywhil
ethei
rhandl
esar
emadeof
 Consi
dert
hesetupbel
owf
ordemonst
rat
ingt
hatwat
eri
s i
nsulator
s(poorconduct
ors)
.
apoorconduct
orofheat
.
(
b)Modernbuil
dingsar
emadeofdoublewal l
swit
han
 i
nsul
atorbetween t
hewall
st o mi
nimi
zeheatloss
f
rom t he house and t
heref
ore mai
ntai
n stabl
e
t
emperatur
e.
(
c)Fi
ref i
ght
ersputonsui
tsmadeofasbestoswhi
chi
sa
poorconductorofheatto keep them saf
e whi
le
putt
ingofff
ir
e.
(
d)Bir
dsf l
apthei
rwi ngsaftergett
ingwettoi
ntr
oduceai
r
pocketswithi
nt heirfeather
st hi
shelpst
omi nimi
ze
heatlossf
rom theirbodies.
 Aftersometi
mesi tisobservedthatwat
eratt hetopofthe
tubeboil
swhiletheiceremainedunmelted.Waterisapoor (
e)In exper
iment
si nvol
vi
ng heat
ing l
iqui
ds i
n glass
conductorofheat.Glassusedformakingt estt
ubeisalso vessel
.Thevesseli
splacedonawiregaugebecause
apoorconductorofheat. thegaugeisagoodconduct orofheati tt
heref
ore
spr
eadst
heheatt
oal
argear
eaoft
hevessel
.
Convect
ion
Exper
iment2
 Convect
ioni
sthepr
ocessbywhi
chheati
str
ansf
err
ed
 Anot
herexperi
mentthancanbeusedt
oshowthatwat
eri
s
t
hroughf
lui
ds.
apoorconduct
orofheati
sasshownbelow.
ToDemonst
rat
eConvect
ioni
nLi
qui
ds
Exper
iment1
 Considerthe diagr
am below i n whi
ch potassium
permanganatecryst
alisputatonecorneri
nabeaker
contai
ningwaterandthebeakerheat
edatthatpoint.
 I
tisobser
vedt
hatt
hewaxcoat
ingonbeakercont
aini
ng
mercur
ymeltedwhilethatonbeakercontai
ningwat
erdid
notmelt
.Thisisbecausemercuryisagoodconductorof
heatwhi
lewateri
sapoorconductorheat
.
 Aft
ersometime,i
tisobser
vedthatapur
plecol
orat
ion
Ther
malConduct
ivi
tyi
nGases ri
ses up f
rom potassi
um per
manganateforming a
ci
rcularl
oop.Thi
si sduet ocreat
ionofconvect
ion
 Gasesar
epoorconduct
orsofheat
.Thesetupbel
owcan curr
entsi
nwater.
beusedt
osuppor
tthi
sfact.
Exper
iment2
Consi
dert
hesetupbel
ow
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 I
tisobser
vedt
hatt
hemat
chst
ickhel
dwi
thi
ntheunbur
nt
gasregiondoesnotgeti
gni
tedbecausegasi
sapoor
conduct
orofheat
.
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ces 0701184913 85
 I
ti s obser
ved t
hatt hepur pl
ecolourat
ionofpot um 2. Engi
assi neCoolingSystem
permanganatemov esi ntheanti
-cl
ockwisedi
recti
oninthe
tube.Thisisduetocr eati
onofconvecti
oncurrentbyheat  Engi
necooli
ngi senhancedbybot
hconduct
ionand
whosedi r
ecti
onisanti-cl
ockwise convect
ionprocesses.
Convect
ioni
nGases
 Consi
dert
hesetupshownbel
ow.
 Themetalsurf
aceconduct
sawayheatf rom engi
ne.
Thi
sheatsupthewat
ersett
ingupconvect
ioncurr
ents
whi
chcir
culat
esasshowninthedi
agram.
 Iti s obser
ved t
hatthe smoke i
s sucked i
ntot
he box  Thehotwat erispumpedi ntotheradiat
orwhichhas
thr
oughchimneyPandexi tsthr
oughchimneyQ.Thisis thin copperfins thatconductawayheatf r
om the
duetoconvect
ioncur
rent
swhicharesetupwhentheai
rin wat er
.
theboxisheat
ed.
 Thef insaremadeofcopperbecausei ti
sthebest
APPLICATIONSOFCONVECTI ONINFLUIDS conductorofheat .Theyarepaintedblackbecausea
blacksurfaceisagoodabsor berofheat.
1. Vent
il
ati
on
 Fastf l
owing ai
rpastf
ins speeds up t
he cool
i
ng
 Vent
il
ati
onr
efer
stot
hesuppl
yoff
reshai
rtot
her
oom. process.
3. Domest
icHotWat
erSyst
em
 Warm ai
rexhal edbytheoccupant softheroom ri
sesand
getsoutthroughv ent
il
atorssinceiti
sl essdense.Fr
esh
col
dairfl
owsi nt
ot heroom throughwindowsanddoor s.
Thiswayconv ecti
oncurrenti
ssetupandt her
ei sal
way s
suppl
yoffreshair.
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 Hotwaterrisesupbecauseoft
hel
ower
ingofi
tsdensi
ty Appl
icat
ionofTher
malRadi
ati
on
whenheated.
1. Sol
arHeat
er
 Col
dwat ermovedownf r
om thecoldwat
ert
ankt
othe
boi
l
erbecausei
tisr
elat
ivel
yheavi
er.
 Theexpansionpipehasanout l
etforexcesswat
ert
hat
coul
dhaveresul
tedfr
om ov
erheat
ing
 Thepi
pethatconvey
st hehotwaterandt
hecy
li
nderar
e
l
aggedt
omi ni
mizeheatlosses.
Ther
malRadi
ati
on
 Thermalr adi
ati
on ist he process by whi
ch heat i
s
tr
ansfer
redthroughvacuum.Inthermalr
adi
ati
ont
heref
ore
matteri
snotinvolv
edintransf
erofheat
 I
tisthroughthispr
ocessofradi
ati
onthatr
adi
antheat
r
eachestheear
th’
ssurf
acef
rom t
hesun.
 Thehi
gherthetemperat
ureofabodyt
hemor
etheamount
oft
her
mal r
adiati
on.
Absor
pti
onandEmi
ssi
onofRadi
antHeat
 Agoodabsor berofradi
antheati
salsoagoodemi tt
erof
radi
antheatwhil
eapoorabsorberofradi
antheati
salsoa
pooremitt
eroftheheat.
 Consi
dert
hesetupbel
ow.
 Copperpi
peisusedbecauseiti
sagoodconductorof
heatandwil
lconductheatintothewat
erinsi
det he
pi
pe.Iti
spaint
edblackcolourisagoodabsor
berof
heat
.
 Theglasscoveral
l
ow radi
antheatf
rom thesunto
passthr
oughandprev
entst
heweakerener
gyemit
ted
aft
er.
 Theblackcoppercol
lectorabsorbsheatenergyand
conductsi
ttocopperpipeswhi chtr
ansmitittothe
water.
 Thei
nsul
ati
ngmat
eri
alpr
event
sheatf
rom bei
ngl
ost
fr
om t
hepi
pe.
 Thecopperpi
peiscoi
l
edsever
all
ytoi
ncr
easesur
face
 Itisobservedt hatwat erl
evelinl
i
mbAr isesupwhilet
hat ar
eaforabsor
pti
onofheat
.
i
nl i
mbBf al
ls.Thisi sbecauseboi
li
ngtubeBr ecei
vesmore
heatthanboi l
ingt ubeAwar mingtheai
rinsideitmor
e.The
airexpandsandt heref
orepushesdownt hewaterinl
imbB.
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Asar
esul
twat
erl
evel
inl
i
mbAr
ises.
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2. Ther
mosFl
ask 6. Housesinhotar eashavethei
rwall
sandroofspai
nted
wit
hbr i
ghtcolourstorefl
ectawayheatwhil
ethosein
col
dar eashavewal l
sandr oof
spaint
edsil
verybri
ght
toref
lectasmuchheataspossi bl
ebacktothehouse.
7. Ket
tle,cooki
ngpansandi r
onboxeshavepol
i
shed
sur
facestoreduceheatl
ossthr
ought
her
malr
adi
ati
on
Revi
sionExer
cise
1. Twosi milaropentinswi t
hequalamount sofwaterat
800cwer el ef
tt ocool.IftinAi sshinyandtinBi s
blackened,sketchont hesameaxest hegraphsof
temperatureagainstti
mef ort
hetwot i
ns.
2. Thef i
gurebelowshowsaboxwi t
htwoglasstubesA
 Thestopperr
ubberpadandrubberringpadprev
entheat an d B projecti
ng from the top ofa r
ect
a ngul
ar
l
ossthroughconduct
ionsi
ncerubberisapoorconduct
or w oodenb ox wit
hremo vableglassfr
ont.
ofheat
 Sil
veredwal lprev
ent
sheatlossthrough r
adiat
ion si
nce
theshinnysurf
aceisapoorr
adi
atorandemitt
erofheat.
 Vacuum prevent heat l

oss through conducti
on and
convect
ionsi
ncet hetwomodesofheatt r
ansferrequi
re
materi
almedi
um fortr
ansf
erofheat.
 Shockabsorberprev
ent
sbr eaki
ngoft
hegl
asswal
l
sdue
topressur
efr
om theout
side. (
i) Whatwi llbe t he dir
ecti
on oft he smoke
thr
ought hebox?
 Vacuum sealpr
eventsairf
rom reoccupy
ingthevacuum.I
t (ii
) What conclusion can be made f rom the
i
st hr
ought
hevacuum seal
thatairwassuckedout. obser
vation?
(ii
i) Whyar et heventil
ati
onsforaroom madehigh
uptheroof?
3. GreenHouseEf
fect(
HeatTr ap) 3. Studythesetupbel ow andusei tto answerthe
quest
ionsthatfoll
ows:
 Green houseeffectisa phenomenon i
n which heati
s
all
owedt opasst hr
oughat r
anspar
entmater
ialbutdoes
notpenetr
atetotheoutsi
de.Thi
swayheataccumul at
esi
n
thegreenhouseconti
nuousl
y.
 Gr
eenhousesareusedtoprov
ideappr
opr
iat
econdi
ti
onsi
n
pl
ant
sespeci
all
yincol
dareas.
4. Sol
arConcent
rat
ors
(
a)Whatdoest heexper i
menti
ll
ust
rat
es?
(
b)Whatt wo factor
s shoul
d one consi
derwhen
select
ingtherodtobeused?
(
c)Statetheobservati
onsmadeinthi
sexperi
ment
.
4. Expl
aintheGreenhouseeff
ect.
5. Namet woexampl esofgr
eenhousegases.
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 Concav erefl
ectori
susedt or ef
lectradi
antheatfr
om t
he
sun into a common poi nt(focus).Temperat
ureatthi
s
pointisv er
yhi ght
hereforetheconcentrat
edheatcanbe
usedf orpurposesl
ikeheati
ngwat er.
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1. Thediagram belowshowstheessent
ialf
eat
uresofa
solarheati
ngpanel.Asmallel
ect
ri
cpumpcircul
atest
he
l
iquidthroughthepipes.
St
atebr
ief
lywhy:
i
. Thepi
pesandmet
alpl
atesar
ebl
ackened.
i
i. Ther
eisamat
eri
alf
ibr
egl
assont
hepanel
.
2. Thef
igur
ebel
owshowsanel
ect
ri
cir
on.
Twometalplat
esAandBar
eri
vet
edt
ofor
m abi
met
alst
ri
p
asusedabove.
(
i) Whi
chmet
alexpandsmor
e
(i
i) Expl
ainhowt
heel
ect
ri
cir
onwor
kswhent
hepower
i
son
Updat
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Chapt
erEi
ght ELECTROSTATI
CSI
I
ntr
oduction Exer
cise
 El ectr
ostati
cs isa br anch ofphysi
csthatdealswith 1. Twobal l
oonsinfl
atedwi thairaret i
edwit
hst ri
ngs
stati
celectri
cit
ywhichi sanon-mov
ingel
ectr
icchargeon andhel d1met reapar t
.Bot hball
oonsarer ubbed
thesurfaceofanobj ect. withfur.Whydo t he ball
oons move apartwhen
 Al lsubstancesaremadeofat oms.
Atomshavethreesub broughtcl
osetoget
her ?
-atomicpar t
icl
esnamel y: 2. Foreach sit
uati
on below st at
e whethert
he force
 Pr otons betweenthem i
srepulsi
veorat t
ract
ive.
 Neutrons
 Elect
rons
 Prot
onshaveaposi
ti
vecharge.El
ect
ronshav
eanegat
ive
char
ge.Neutr
onsdonothav eanycharge(i.
e.t
heyare
neut
ral
).
TypesofChar
ges
 Posi tiv
echar ge( s).Thesechar ge(s)ar eobt ai nedwhen
anat om losesanel ect ron(s).
 Negat i
v echar ge( s).Thesechar ge(s)ar eobt ai nedwhen
anat om gai nsanel ect ron(s)
 TheSIuni tofchar gei st hecoul omb, C.
 Achar gedat om ( posi t
ivel yornegat i
v el
y)iscal ledani on.
 Abodyt hathasnei theranegat i
vechar genoraposi ti
ve
a) Conduct orsandI nsulator s.
char ge cont ains an equalnumber of pr otons and
 Subst ances whi ch do notal low el ectrons t o pass
electrons( Neut ralat om) .Whent hesechar gesar eequal
throught hem ar ecal ledi nsulat ors.
i
nnumber ,abodyi sel ect r
icallyneut ral
.
 Subst ances whi ch al low el ectrons t o pass easi ly
El
ect
rostat icChar gesofaMat erial
throught hem ar ecal ledconduct ors.Ther easonswhy
 Ahar dr ubberr odgai nsmi ll
ionsofel ectronswheni tis
they( met als)conducteasi l
yi sbecausewi thi
nany
rubbedwi thawoolcl ot h.Thecl othl osesel ectronst othe
met alsomeel ect ronsar enotat t
ached t o specifi
c
rod and becomes posi ti
vely char ged. The r ubber
atomsbutar efreet owanderabout .
becomesnegat ivelychar ged.
 I fy ouwer et ohol damet alr odandr ubi twi thwool
 Whengl assr odi sr ubbedwi t
hf ur,thef urlosesel ectrons
woul di tbechar ged?NO Howev erify ouf itpol yt
hene
tot hegl assr od.Gl assr odbecomesnegat i
velychar ged
handl e ont ot he met alr od i tcan be char ged by
andf urbecomesposi ti
v elychar ged.
rubbi ngi t.Weexpl ainthi sbysay ingt hatthepol yt
hene
 Abodyi ssai dt obeposi ti
velychar gedi fithasanexcess
i
sani nsul atorandwi llnotal l
ow el ectronst omov e
ofposi ti
v echar gesori thasl ostsomeel ectrons.
throughi tonal ongi tssur face.Whenani nsul at
oris
 Abodyi ssai dtobenegat i
velychar gedi fithasanexcess
rubbed,t he el ect r
ons whi ch ar et r ansfer r
ed come
ofel ect r
ons i .
e. I fithasgai nedsomeel ect r
ons.
from at oms on t he sur face.The met als become
 Thef ol l
owingmat erialsbecomesnegat ivelychar gedby
char gedbyel ectronsf rom t hewool .Buti ft hemet al
fri
ctionwhenr ubbed:
i
sdi rectlyhel d,t hese el ect ronsi mmedi at ely ‘leak’
 Pol ythene
awayt ot he ear tht hr ough t he hand on t he body
 Mostpl ast ics
wher easwhent hehandl eisi nsulated t heyr emai non
 Eboni t
e
the met albecause t hey cannotpass t hrough t he
 Thef oll
owi ng on t heot herhand becomesposy i
tivel
y
i
nsul at i
nghandl e.
char gedwhenr ubbed:
ChargingMet hods
 Acet at e
Thefollowi ngmet hodsar eusedt ochar gemat erials:
 Per spex
(a)I nduct ion
 Gl ass
(b)Cont act
 Fur
(c)Separ at i
on
TheBasi
cLawofElect
rost
atics
 Itst at hat l
es t ike charges r
epel
,unl
ike char
ges
att
ract.
Updat
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(a)Inducti
on (
b)Contactmet hod
Chargingpolyst
yreneballnegat
ivelybyinduct
ion  Suspendthepoly styr
enebal
lcoat
edwithal
umini
um
 Suspendt hepolyst
yreneballcoatedwithalumi
nium usi
ng usingdrysi
lkthread.
drysil
kthread.  Bri
ngachar gedgl assrodcl
osetobutnott
ouchi
ng
 Br ing aposit
ivel
y charged glass r
od close t
o butnot thesuspendedbal l.
touchi
ngt hesuspendedball
.
Note:Theposi
ti
vechar
gesar
erepel
l
edwhi
l
ethenegat
ive  Bri
ngachargedglassrodi
ncont
actwi
tht
hebal
l
,
chargesar
eatt
ract
edtother
od. rol
l
ingi
toverthesurf
ace.
 Touchthesi
deoft
hebal
lawayf
rom t
hegl
assr
odwi
tht
he
fi
nger
.
 Wi
thdr
awt
hechar
gedr
od.
Note:Elect
ronsf
low f
rom t
heear
tht
oneut
ral
i
zet
heposi
ti
ve
chargeonthebal
l.
 Whil
ehol di
ngthegl
assrodneart
hebal
l
,wi
thdr
aw t
he
f
ingerandthent
hegl
assr
od.
Notes
a) Whenaposi ti
verodisroll
edont heball,someoft he
negativechar gesi
nducedint heballareneut r
alizedby
Note: The r emaining negat i
ve char ges r edi
str
ibute someposi ti
vechargesont herod.
themselvesunif
ormlyont heball. b) When t he r od is wi
thdrawn,t he positive charges
 When a bodyi s char
ged byi nduct
ion,i
tacqui r
es the redist
ributethemselvesalloverthesurface ofthe r
od.
chargest
hatareopposi
tetotheinduci
ngcharge. c) Wh en a body is charged by cont
a ctme tho d,i
t
acquireschar gesthataresimi l
artot heonesont he
Questi
on: chargingrod.
Expl
ainbyuseofdi agramshow t heabovemat eri
alcanbe Ques t
ion:Explainhowamat eri
alischargednegat ivelyby
char
gedpositi
vel
ybyinducti
onmet hod. contactmet hod
(
c)Separ
ati
onMet
hod
 Placet wospheresAandBt ogethersot
hattheyf
orm
asi ngl
econductor.
 Bring a charged pol
ythene r
od close t
o butnot
touchingsphereA.
Updat
edhi
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Updat
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,
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 Mov esphereB awaysoast obr eakthecontact

,whi e  I
l tconsistsessent i
all
yofamet alcap( brass)andr od
holdi
ngthechargedr odi
nposi
tion. (boast)atwhi chisconnect edapi eceofv eryt hin
met alf oi
lcal led the l eaf ( somet imes gol df oil
,
aluminum) suppor t
ed wi th a pi ece of i nsulating
mat er
ial( could be cor k,cel lulose acet ate)whi ch
formspar tofaboxwi thgl asssl i
des.
 Themet alcasingpr otectst hel eaffrom t heeffectof
thedraught .
 Thegl asswi ndowi stranspar entf orobser vati
ont obe
made.
 Ther od issuppor t
edbyapl ugofgoodi nsulators
 Withdr
awt hechargedrodandtestthetwospheresusi
nga whichst opschar gesgi vent othecapf rom spreadi ng
negati
vel
ychargedr odfort
hepresenceandtypeofcharge tothecaseandhencel eaki ngaway .
i
neachspher e.  Thecapi sci r
culartoensur euni for
m di stri
buti
onof
chargeoni t.
 Eart
hing-Process oflosi
ng charges t
o orgai
ning
char
ges f r
om t he eart
h t hr
ough a conduct
or.
Representedbythesymbol:
Char
gingaGol
dLeafEl
ect
roscopebyCont
act
 Anel ectroscopei schar gednegat i
velybybr i
ngi nga
chargedpol yt
henest ri
pupt ot heel ectroscopeand
Exer
cise rollitov ert he el ectroscope cap.The negat ivel
y
Whenachar gedrodishel
dclosetoamet alspher
eplacedon charged pol ythene r od r epel st he negat ive char ge
aninsul
atedstand,t
hechargedi
str
ibut
ionont hespher
eisas whichspr eadsont hepl ateandt hel eaf ,maki ngt hem
shownbelow. repeleachot herhencel eafdi vergence.I fthepr ocess
i
sr epeated sev eralt i
mes t he leafdi vergence wi ll
keepsi ncr easingunt ili
tr eachest hemaxi mum poi nt.
This way t he el ect roscope i s sai dt o hav e been
chargedbycont act.
 The met alcap,l eafand r od wi l
lt her eforer emai n
diverged.
 Indampweat her,thi spr ocessmaybedi fficult.Itis
helpedi far azorbl adei scellot apedont ot hecapso
(
a)Whati sthesignofchargeontherod? thatitproj ectsov ert heedge.Ther azoredgewi l
lt hen
(
b)Describeasimplemet hodtochargetherod. bef oundt ogat hert hechar gemor er eadilyt hant he
(
c)Expl
ainwhyt hefarsi deofthemet alspherehasa capal one.
posi
tivecharge.  To char ge an el ect r
oscope posi ti
v ely,a char ge
(
d)Whathappenst othechargesont hemet alspher
e,i
f cell
uloseacet atest ripisr ubbedal ongt heedgeoft he
thechargedrodismovedawayf r
om thesphere? cap.El ectronsar eaccept edf rom t hecapt ot hest ri
p
TheGol
dLeafEl
ect
roscope whichmeanst hatt hecapandl eafgai nanetposi ti
ve
charge.
 Thel eafther eforedi vergesagai n.
Char
ging a Gol
d Leaf El
ect
roscope Posi
ti
vel
y by
I
nducti
on
 Toucht hecapoft heelectr
oscopewi thyourfi
ngerto
ensurethati
tisf ull
ydischarged.
 Bri
ng a char ged r od (-
)cl ose t
ot he cap ofthe
unchargedelect r
oscope.
 Whiletherodr emainsinitsposit
ion,touchthecap.
 Withdrawthef ingerandsubsequentlyremov et
herod.
Obser
vat
ions
Updat
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 Whenthechar gedrod( -)i

sbroughtcl
oset
othecap,
t
heleafri
ses.
 Whenthecapi stouchedwhi l
etherodisi
nposi
ti
on,
t
heleafdi
vergencedecr eases.
Updat
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,
KASNEB&ot
herl
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ces 0701184913 97
 Whenthefi
ngeri
swi
thdr
awnandt
het
hent
her
od,
thel
eaf
di
ver
ges.
Expl
anat
ion Charge on Char ge Ef
fectonleaf
Whent her odi sbr oughtcloset othecap,el ectronsare el
ectroscope brought di
vergence
repelled tot he plate and the leafmaki ng the leafto near t he
diverge. cap
When t he cap ist ouched,el ect
rons fl
ow t ot he eart
h + + I
ncrease
throught hebody . - - I
ncrease
When t he eart
h connect i
on is broken byr emov ing t
he + - Decrease
fi
ngerandt her od,thepositivechargesr edi
str
ibutesonto - + Decrease
theleafandt hepl ate.Theleafasar esultdiv
ergesandt he +or- Uncharged Decrease
electroscopebecomesposi ti
velycharged. body
UsesofElect
roscope
1. Detecti
ngthepresenceofchar
geonabody
 Char gedbodi esbr oughtneart hecapwi l
lcauset he
ChargesinAir
l
eaft or ise( di verge).Ift hel eafdoesn’ tdiv er
get he
Ai
rcanbechar gedby :
bodyi sunchar ged.
 Heat i
ng
2. Measur i
ngt heinsul at i
ngpr opertiesofanobj ect (
mat eri
al)  Radi ations
 Char get heel ectr oscopeandbr i
ngt heobj ectt othetop
Appl
icati
onsofEl ectrostati
cChar ges
oft heel ect
roscopeandear t ht heel ectr
oscope.The
 El ectr
ost ati
cspr ecipitator
s
rate atwhi ch t he l eaff allist he measur e oft he
conduct ingabi li
tyoft heobj ect.  Fi ngerpr i
nting
3.Tomeasur et hequant ityofchar geonachar gedbody  Spr aypai nting
 I fabodybei ngt estedhasl i
ttlechar geoni tt heleafof  phot
oc op yi
n g
theel ectroscopewi lldiv
ergeal i
ttleandi fthebodyhas
muchchar geoni ttheleafwi l
l divergemor e. DangerofElect r
ost ati
cs
4.test
ingt hesignofchar geonachar gedbody  Rubbi ngliquidmol eculescanbechar ged.Ifthel i
quid
 I fachar gedbodyi sbr oughtneart hecapofachar ged i
s inf
lamma ble,i t ca n spark and explode.I t is
electroscope,t hel eafoft heel ect r
oscopewi lldiv
erge advisabl
et os toref uelsi nme talcanssot hata ny
mor ei ft hebodyandt heel ect roscopehav esi mil
ar chargesg e neratedc onti
n ual
lyleako ut.Thisi st he
chargesandt hel eafdi vergencewi l
ldecr easei fthe reasonbehi ndt hepr esenceofl oosechainint ankers
twohav edi f
fer entchar ges. carry
inginflamma ble l
i
q ui
d s.
Test
ingf
orchar
ges
a) Charge an el ect roscope negativ
ely .Bri
ng a negat i
vely Assi
gnment
chargedpol yt
henest ri
pclosetot hecap.Not icethatt he 1.A nyl
on dr
ess st
icks on the bodyand
l
eafdiv ergesf urther .
b) Bringupaposi tiv echargecell
uloseacet atestripcloset o
cr
ackl
eswhenremoved.Expl
ain.
thesamenegat iv elychargedel
ectroscope.Not icethatthis
ti
met hel eafcol lapses( decr
easeindi ver
gence.) 2. You are given a posi t
ivel
y charged
c) Placey ourhand on anyunchar ged met alcloset ot he el
ectr
oscope and a char
ged body.Expl ai
n
chargedel ectroscope.Not i
ceagaint hatt
hel eafcoll
apses. howyouwi l
ldet
erminethetypeofthecharge
 Not ethatt her esul tsinexperi
ment s(b)and( c)wer et he
samehencet hecol l
apsingofthel eafisnotev i
dencef or
onthechargedbody.
thepresenceofachar gedbody .We cant herefore state
therulef ortestingachar geasfoll
ows: 3.You ar e provided wit
ht he f
oll
owi ng:
1) I
ft heleafofchargeelect
roscopediver
gesfurt
herwhena pol
ythene r od,dust er and a uncharged
bodybr oughtcl
osetothecapthenthatbodyischar
ged. el
ectroscope.Explainhowyouwil
lchargethe
2) Thesi gnofthechargeont hebodyisthesameast haton
theelectr
oscope.
el
ectroscopenegat i
vely.
 Incr
easeindiv
ergenceistheonlysurewayoftest
ingt he
signofchar
geonabody .Notethatchar
gingbycontactis
notasurewaybutinducti
onis.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
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Chapt
erNi
ne CELLSANDSI
MPLECI
RCUI
TS
I
ntr
oduct
ion Not
es
 Elect r
icalener
gyisusedf
orli
ghti
ng,Heat
ingandoperati
ng a) Acircuitt
hatall
owschar
gest omov ei
nacomplete
el
ect r
onicdev i
cessuch asT.V,computers,hi
gh speed pathwhent heswit
chi
sclosedissai obeacl
dt osed
tr
ainset c.Thi
senergyiscar
riedthr
oughconductor
sl i
ke ci
rcuit
.
wires.
b) A cir
cuitt
hatdoesnotallow char
gestomov
ei na
El
ectr
icCur rent completepathsuchacircui
tissaidtobeanopen
(
brokenci
rcui
t).Opencir
cuitcanal
sobeasar
esul
tof
 Elect
ri
ccurrentisthe r
ate offl
ow ofchar
ge (
fl
ow of l
ooseconnect
ionofwires.
chargeperunitt
ime)
.SIuni
ti heamper
st e(A)
c) For cl
ari
t ness, sy
y and neat mbol
s ar
e used i
n
 Fr
om t
hedef
ini
ti
onabov
e, r
epr
esent
inganel
ect
ri
cal
cir
cui
t.
Charge,
Q
Cur
rent
,I=
Time,t
Q
I= , Q =I
t
t
Exampl
e
Calcul
atet
heamountofcurr
entflowi
ngthr
oughabulbi
f360
coulombsofchar
gef
lowsthroughiti
n3.
5mi nut
es.
Di
rect
ionoft
heFl
owofEl
ect
ri
cCur
rent
Sol
uti
on
 Convent
ional
ly,
thef l
owofcurrenti
sfrom t
heposi
ti
ve
Q ter
minaltot he negati
veterminalofthe cel
l
.Itis
I=
t opposi
tetothedirect
ionoff
lowofelectr
ons.
360  Thei
nstr
umentf ormeasuri
ngelect
ri
ccur
renti
scall
ed
I=
3.
5x60 anammet erwhileel
ect
ri
ccurr
entfl
owiscontr
oll
edby
avar
iabl
er esi
stor.
=1.
714A
TypesofEl
ect
ri
cCur
rent
a) Di
rectcur
rent
(d.
c)–whi
chf
lowsi
nonedi
rect
iononl
y
b) Al
ter
nati
ngcurrent
(a.
c)–whi
chr
ever
sesdi
rect
ionwi
tha
gi
venfr
equency
Si
mpl
eEl
ect
ri
cCi
rcui
ts
 A simpl
e electri
c ci
rcui
tconsi
stofa cel
l
,a bul
b and
connect
ingwires.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 99
Devi
ce Symbol
Cel
l
Bat
ter
y
Swi
tch
Bul
b/f
il
ament
l
amp
Wires crossi
ng
wit
h no
connect
ion
Wi
res crossi
ng
wi
thconnecti
on
Fi
xedr
esi
stor
Pot
ent
ial
div
ider
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
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esour
ces 0701184913 100
Thetablebel
ow shows Cel
lsi
nPar
all
el
some ofthe elect
ri
cal
 Twoormor ecell
sareplacedsi
debyside,theposi
tiv
e
symbols used i n
termi
nalsjoinedtogetherandthenegati
vet er
minal
s
drawi
ngcir
cui
ts.Fuse alsoconnectedtoget
her.
Capaci
tor  Whencel
l
sarei
nparal
l
elarr
angementt
hei
re.
m.f
.is
t
hesameast
hee.
m.f
.ofonecel
l.
 Curr
enti s suppl
ied f
ora l
ongert
ime i
n par
all
el
connect
ionofcell
s.
Rheost
at
Ammet
er
Note:Cel
lsshoul
d shoul
d bearr
anged i
nparal
l
elonly
whentheyhavethesamee.m.fother
wiseonewil
ldr
ain
t
heother.
Vol
tmet
er
Bul
bsi
nSer
iesandPar
all
elConnect
ion
Bubsi
nPar
all
el
Gal
vanomet
er  Eachbulbfunct
ionsindependent
ly.I
fonegoesof
f,
other
scont
inuel
ight
ing.
 Ther
e’sdecr
easedresi
stanceasthecurr
enthasmany
al
ter
nati
veloops(completepaths)t
hroughwhichto
El
ect
romot
iveFor
ce(
E.m.
f)andPot
ent
ialDi
ff
erence fl
ow.
 Elect
romoti
vefor
ce( E.
m.f
)refer
sto vol
tageacr
ossthe  Bul
bsinpar al
l
elhavethesamepot
ent
ialdi
ff
erence
termi
nalsofabatt
eryinanopencir
cui
t(whennocurr
ent butdi
ff
erentamount
s ofcur
rent
.
fl
owsi nt
hecir
cui
t)
.
 Potenti
aldi
ff
erence( Pd)r
eferst
othevolt
ageacrossthe
t
erminal
sofabat ter
yi naclosedci
rcui
t(whencurr
entis
f
lowingint
hecir
cuit)
.
 Potent
ialdi
ff
erenceandE.m. far
emeasur nv
edi olt
sbyan
Bul
bsinSer
ies
i
nstrument caled v
l olt
met er.A volt
meter i
s alway
s
connectedi
nparall
el(
across).  Ifonebulbgoesof
f,ot
her
sal
sogoof
f.
 Thedif
fer
encebet
weenPot
ent
ialdif
fer
enceandE.
m.fis  Ther
e’si
ncreasedr esi
stancethusthebulbsmi
ghtnot
known as l
ost vol
tage beasbri
ghtast hoseinparall
elconnect
ion.
e.
m.f=P.
d +l
ostv
olt
age
 Bul
bsinseri
eshavethesamecur
rentbutdi
ff
erent
l
ostv
olt
age=e.
m.f-
P.d pot
ent
ial
dif
fer
ence.
 Thi
sv olt
agei
slostbecauseoftheopposit
iont
othef
low
ofchargeswi
thi
nthecel
l(i
nter
nalr
esi
stance)
Connect
ingCel
lsi
nSer
iesandPar
all
el
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 101
Cel
lsi
nSer
ies
 Twoormor
ecel
l
sar
econnect
edsucht
hatt
heposi
ti
ve
ter
minal
ofonei
sjoi
nedt
othenegat
ivet
ermi
nal
ofanot
her
one.
 Twoormor
ecel
l
sconnect
edi
nser
iesmakeabat
ter
y
Not
e:Bulbsi
nparal
lelar
rangementl
i
ghtbr
ight
ert
han
t
hoseinseri
esar
rangement.
Note:Connect
ing cell
sin ser
ies i
ncr
eases t
he e.
m.fand
cur
renti
nthecircui
tishi
gher
.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
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esour
ces 0701184913 102
Example Not
e:
An electr
ici
an i
nstal
led el
ect
ri
c wi r
ing in a house and
connected t
he bul
bs and the swi
tches as shown i
nt he 1) Material
s whose electr
icalpropert
ies fal
lbetween
bel
ow.C thoseo fconduct
orsa ndinsul
ator
sa rerefer
redtoas
semi-conduct
orse.g.si
li
conandger manium.
2) Somel i
quidssuchasdi lut
esulphur i
caci d,sodi
um
chl
ori
desol uti
onand potassi
um hy droxi
deconduct
el
ectr
ici
ty.Theyar
eref
erredtoaselectrol
ytes.
Sour
cesofEl
ect
ri
cit
y
 Mai
nsour
ces:
 Chemi
cal
cel
l
s
(a) Explai
nwhathappenswhenswi t
ch:  Gener ators
(i) S1isclosed.
OnlybulbB1wi l
lli
ght;  Sol arcell
s
(ii
) S2isclosed.
 Ot hersourcesinclude:
BulbB1 andB2 lightsbutwithlessbr
ight
ness
becauseofincreaseinresi
stance.  Ther mocoupl es
(ii
i)S3isclosed.
BulbB1B2andB3wi llal
ll
ightbutwithmuchl essbr
ight
ness  Pi ezoelectri
cit
y
compar edtoa( ii
)
ChemicalCell
s
(b)(i)Usingar edrawndi agram show thebestpositi
on
thebulbsshoul dbeinstall
ed. Thesearecel l
st hatproduceanE.
m.fasar
esul
tofa
chemi
cal
react
ions.Theyar
ecat
egor
izedi
ntot
wo:
I
. Pr
imar
ycel
ls
 Thesear
ecell
swhichcannotber
echar
gedf
oruse
agai
ne.
g.si
mplecel
l
.
Si
mpl
eCel
l
(i
i)Explai
nwhyyouconsi derthearr
angementi n(b)(i
)
abovet obet hebest.
Whent hebulbsar econnect
edsucht hatt
heyareinparall
el,
the
ci
rcuitrésist
ance is si
gnif
icant
lyreduced;and hence mor e
curr
entf l
ow,t hebulbl i
ght
swi thequalbri
ghtnesssincet he
operat
ionvoltageisthesame;
Conduct
orsandI
nsul
ator
s
Def
ect
sofasi
mpl
ecel
l
 Conduct orsaremat eri
alsthatall
owel ect
ri
ccurrenttofl
ow
 Polar i
zati
on – accumul at
ionofbubbl esar oundt he
throught hem e.
g.copper,silv
er,graphi
teandalumini
um.
copperpl at
e( posit
ive pl
ate)
.Thi s defectpr ovi
des
 Insulat
orsar emat eri
alsthatdonotal l
ow fl
ow ofelect
ric i
nsul ati
on tot hef l
ow ofcur r
entand al so setsup
currentthroughthem e.g.plasti
c,paperandrubber. so me“ l
ocal
”c ell
sw it
hc opperw hosee l
e ctr
o nflow
tendst oopposet heflow ofelect
ronsfr om t hezinc
plate.Theov eral
leffectisincreasei nt hei nternal
resistance oft he cel
l,which reduces t he flow of
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 103
cur
rent
.
 Localact
ion–t
hezi
ncpl
atei
sdepl
eted(
eat
enaway
)
asitr
eact
swithdil
utesulphur
icaci
d.I
mpur
it
iesi
n
zi
ncpr
omotel
ocal
action.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
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ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 104
Waysofcor
rect
ingPol
ari
zat
iondef
ect
: TheDr
yCel
l
 Additi
onofpot assi
um dichromat
e( depolari
zer
).Oxy
gen
fr
om thedepolari
zercombineswit
hthehy drogenat
omsto
producewater
.
 Remov
ingcopperpl
ateandbr
ushi
ngof
fthegasbubbl
es.
Waysofcor
rect
ingLocalact
iondef
ect
:
 Useofpur
ezi
nc.
 Coat
ingzi
ncwi
thmer
cur
y(amal
gamat
ion)
.
TheLecl
anche’
cel
l
Local
act
ionandPol
ari
zat
ionhav
ebeenmi
nimi
zedi
nthi
scel
l
.
 I
tisr
efer
r oasdr
edt ycel
lbecausei
thasnol
i
qui
d.
 Theammonium chl
ori
desoluti
onintheLecl
anche’
cel
l
i
srepl
acedwit
ht heammoni um chl
ori
dejel
l
yorpaste
whi
chisusedastheelect
rol
yte.
 Manganese(
IV)oxi
deandactast
hedepol
ari
zer
.
 carbon powderincreases t
he sur
face ar
ea oft
he
posit
iveel
ectr
ode(carbonRod)
 Thezinccaseact i
ngasthenegati
veelect
rodegets
depl
etedbyt heammonium chl
ori
deandchangest o
zi
ncchlor
ide.Local
act
ioni
sstil
ladef
ectint
hiscel
l
.
 Thecel
lcannotber
enewedoncethechemicalact
ion
st
ops.Anewdrycel
lhasane.
m.fofabout1.
5V.
 The car
bon rod (
posi
ti
veter
minal
)is sur
rounded wi
th
manganese(
IV)oxi
demixedwi
thcar
bonpowder.
Car
efort
hedr
ycel
l
 Lar
gecurrentsshoul
dnotbedr
awnf
rom t
hedr
ycel
l
 Carbonpowderincreasestheef
fect
ivear
eaoft
hepl
ates
wit
hinashortti
me.
hencereducedr
esistance.
 Theter
minal
sshoul
dnotbeshor
ted.
 The manganese ( IV) oxi
de acts as a depol ari
zer
(depol
ari
zat
ionissl
owthuslargecur
rentscannotbedr
awn
 Thecel
lsmustbest
oredi
ndrypl
aces.
outofthi
scellst
eadi
lyf
oralongtime).
Usesoft
hedr
ycel
ls
 Local
act
ioni
sst
il
ladef
ecti
nthi
scel
l
.
 Dr
ycellsar
eusedint
orches,
cal
cul
ator
sandr
adi
os.
 Thecel li
susedf orpurposeswherecur
rentisnotdrawn
from itf ora verylong ti
me,li
ke operati
ng bel
l
s and
telephoneboxes.I
thasal ongerl
if
espant hanthesimpl
e
cell. I
I. Secondar
yCell
s:
 Thesear
erechar
geabl
ecel
l
s.
 Theyarealsocaledst
l or
agecell
sastheycanst
ore
el
ectr
ical
energyaschemi
calener
gy.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
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ces 0701184913 105
 Examples arethe Lead-

acid accumul
atorand t
he
Nickel
-al
kal
ineaccumul
ator
.
Updat
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,
KASNEB&ot
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ces 0701184913 106
Lead–aci
daccumul
ator Mai
ntenanceoft
heAccumul
ator
s
 Consistofposi
ti
v eandnegati
veplat
eswhicharemadeof 1) The l evelof the electrol
yte shoul
d be checked
l
ead-anti
monyalloy. regularl
yandmai ntai
nedabov et heplates.Topping
shouldbedonebydi st
il
ledwater;NOTACI D!
 Theplatesaredi
ppedinsulphuri
caci
dsoluti
onwhichisan
el
ectrol
yte. 2) Theaccumul atorshouldbechargedwhent hee.m.fof
the celldrops below 1.8 V and when t he r
elat
ive
 Thecapshav esmal lventholeswhich al
low gasesto density oft he acidisf al
ls below 1.12 (usi
ng a
escape(02andH2) hydromet er
).
 I
fthedensi
tyoftheaci
dbecomest
ool
owt
heaccumul
ator 3) Largecurr
entsshoul
dnotbedr
awnf
rom t
hebat
ter
y
i
ssaidtobedischar
ged. foralongti
me.
 I
tischar
gedbyconnect
ingad.
csour
ceasshownbel
ow. 4) Shouldnotbelefti
nadischargedcondi
tionforalong
peri
odassul phati
onmayt akeplace.(thelead(II
)
sul
phatedeposit
sontheplateshardenupandcannot
beconvert
edbacktolead(I
I)oxideandlead.
)
5) Shor
ting/ov
erchar
gingoft
heaccumul
atorshoul
dbe
avoi
ded.
6) The terminal
s shoul
d al
way
s be keptcl
ean and
greased.
7) Theaccumulat
orshoul
dnotbedi r
ect
lyplacedont
he
groundduri
ngstor
age.Itshoul
dber est
edonsome
i
nsulat
orl
ikeawoodenblock.
 Thisi
st hemostrel
iable,l
onglasti
ngandcost
-ef
fect
iveof
Al
kali
neAccumul ator
s:
thesecondar
ycell
s.A12Vl ead-aci
daccumul
atorhassix
cel
lsconnect
edinseries.  The elect
rolyteint hi
scaseisan al
kal
i
nesol
uti
on,
suchaspotassium hydr
oxi
de.
Capaci
tyofanAccumul
ator
 Thecommont y
pesar
eni
ckel
-cadmi
um andni
ckel
-
 Thisi
stheamountofcur
rentt
hatcanbedr
awni
nagi
ven i
ronaccumul
ators.
ti
mefrom t
hebat
ter
y.
 I
tisexpr
essedi
namper
e-hour
s(Ah)
.
Exampl
es
1. A bat
ter
yi srated120AH.How longwi
lli
twor
kifi
t
st
eadi
lysuppl
iesacurr
entof4A?
capaci
ty=cur
renti
namper
es×t
imei
nhour
s
Advant
agesofAl
kal
ineAccumul
ator
soverLead–Aci
d
120AH =4A ×t
ime Accumulat
ors
120AH 1. Lar
gecurr
entscanbedr
awnf
rom t
hem ov
erashor
t
t
ime= =30hour
s
4A per
iodoft
ime.
2.Thecur
rentcapaci
tyofanaccumul
atori
s40Ah.Fi he 2. Theyr
ndt equi
rev
eryl
i
ttl
eat
tent
iont
omai
ntai
n.
amountofcur
rentf
lowi
ngi
ftheaccumul
atori
susedf
or600
minut
es. 3. Theyar
eli
ght
er(
mor
epor
tabl
e)t
hant
heLead–aci
d
accumul
ator
s.
Updat
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,
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ces 0701184913 107
capaci
ty=cur
renti
namper
es×t
imei
nhour
s 4. Theycanbekeptinadischar
gedcondi
ti
onf
orav
ery
l
ongti
mebeforethecel
l
sar er
uined.
600
40AH =I×
60
40AH
I= =4A
10H
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
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ces 0701184913 108
Di
sadvant
ages 1. Youareprovidedwithacarbat ter
y,aswit
chandt wo
headl
ight
sofacar .Draw apossibleci
rcui
tdiagr
am
1. Theyar
ever
yexpensi
ve. forthe arrangementt hatwillall
ow the dr
iverto
swit
chont het wol
ight
ssi mul
taneousl
y.
2. Theyhav
eal
owere.
m.fpercel
l
.
2. (a)Draw awel
l-
label
leddi
agr
am ofadr
ycel
land
UsesofAccumul
ator
s expl
ainhowi
tworks.
Theyareusedinships,hospi
tal
sandbuil
dingswher
elar
ge (b)Whataret
hedef
ect
sandt
her
emedi
esi
nthe
cur
rent
smightbeneededforemergency
. wor
kingofadr
ycel
l?
Di
ff
erencesbet
weenpr
imar
yandsecondar
ycel
ls (
c)Howar
edr
ycel
lsmai
ntai
ned?
Pr
imar
ycel
l
s Secondar
ycel
l
s 3. Ei
ghtdrycel
lscanbear rangedtopr
oduceat
otal
e.
m.fof12V,
justl
ikeacarbatt
ery.
Cannotber
echar
gedaf
ter Ar
erechar
geabl
e
use a. Whati
se.
m.fofani
ndi
vi
dualcel
l?
Smal
l cur
rent can be Largecurr
entcanbedr
awn b. Whyi sitpossi
bletostar
tthecarwit
ht hel
ead-
aci
daccumul at
or,butnotwit
heightdrycel
lsin
dr
awnfr
om them fr
om them
ser
ies?
4. (a)Draw twoseparat
ediagr
ams showi
ng al
ead-
acidaccumul
atorwheniti
s:
Revi
sionExer
cise
Updat
edhi
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,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
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ces 0701184913 109
9. In terms of el ect
rons, di
sti
nguish between good a) Char
ging
conductor
s,poorconductor
sofelect
rici
tyandi
nsul
ator
s.
b) Di
schar
ging.
10.(
a)Def
inecur
rentandst
atei
tsSIuni
t.
(b)Descr i
bet hechangest hatcanobser veddur i
ngt he
(b)(i
)Achar geof180coul ombsf lowt hroughal amp t wopr ocessesabove.
everymi nute.Cal culat
et hecur r
entf l
owingt hrough
thelamp. (c)Why i si tdanger ous t olighta cigarette neara
chargingcarbat t
ery?
(i
i)Cal cul at
et he numberofel ectr
ons involved
(chargeofel ect
roni s1.6x10-19C) 5. (a)Whatdoyouunder standbyt heterm capacit
yofa
l
ead-acidaccumul ator?
11.Abat terycirculateschar geroundaci rcuitfor1.5mi nutes.
I
ft hecur renti shel dat2. 5A,whatquant it
yofchar ge ( b)
Whyi siteffectivetochar geacarbat teryoveral ong
passest hewi r
e? ti
mew i
thav erys mallcurrentratherthanab i
gc urr
ent
withi
nashor tti
me?
12.Define el ectromot ive f or
ce and di sti
nguish itf r
om
potent i
aldifferenceofacel l
. (c)A carbat teryi srated40Ahandi tisexpect edt o
supplyaconst antcur r
entf or120mi nut
es.Whati st he
13.(a)Dr awaci rcuitdiagram oft hree-cel
lt orch. str
engt hofcurr entdeli
vered?
(
b)Whatdoyouunder
standby? 6. St
ateatleastf
iveprecaut
ionst
hatyouwoul
dtaket
o
maint
ainaccumulat
orsinyourl
abor
ator
y.
(
i)Openci
rcui
t?
7. Stat
etheadvant
ageanddisadvant
ageoflead-
aci
d
(
ii
)Cl
osedci
rcui
t? accumul
ator
sovert
heal
kal
ineaccumul
ator
s.
14.Expl
ainwhyl
ight
sinahousear
ewi
redi
npar
alelandnot 8. Thef
l igur
ebel
owshowst
hesetupf
orasi
mpl
ecel
l.
i
nseries.
15.(a)Givet
hreedi
ff
erencesbet
weenpr
imar
yandsecondar
y
cell
s.
(b)I
nmaki ngasi
mpl
ecel l
,thetwoel
ect
rodesused
arenotoft
hesameki
nd.Explai
n.
Updat
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a)Namet
heEl
ect
rodeAandt
hesol
uti
onB
b)St
atet
wor
easonswhyt
hebul
bgoesof
faf
terashor
tti
me
16.Stateoneadvantageofalead-
acidaccumulat
oroveradr
y
cell
17.Stateonedefectofasimplecel
landexplai
nhowitcanbe
corr
ected.
18.Thediagram bel
owshowsasi mplecell
:-
a. Namezandsol
uti
ony
b. Nameandexpl
aint
hedef
ectt
hatoccur
satpl
atez
c. Give one met

hod ofprevent
ing t
he def
ectt
hat
occursatt
hecopperpl
ate
19.Expl
ainwhyeight1.
5Vcell
sarrangedi
nser i
estogivea
tot
alof12Vcannotbeusedtostar
tacar.Butcarbatt
ery
of12Vstar
tsacar
20.Define t
he ter
m toppi
ng as used i
n si
mple cel
ls and
cir
cuit
s.
21.I)A gi r
lopenedupausedupdr ycellandfoundt he
fol
lowing:
a. Thezi
nccasi
ngwasdepleted
b. Thecel
lwaswat
ery
I
I)Namet
hecel
ldef
ect
I
II
)Threei
dent
icalbulbsareconnect
edi nseri
eswit
habatt
ery
ofdrycell
s.Atf i
rstthebulbsshinebr ight
lybutgr
adual
ly
becomedimmer.Usingthesamecells,explai
nhowyouwould
i
ncreaset
hebri
ll
ianceofthebulbs
22.A carbat teryrequir

es toppi
ng up wi
th di
sti
ll
ed wat
er
occasionall
y.Explainwhyt hi
sis necessar yandwhy
dist
il
ledwat eri
sused
23.Stat
eoneadvant ageof:
a. Alead-aci
daccumul at
iveoveradr
ycell
b. Adr
ycel
loverl
ead-
aci
daccumul
ator
Updat
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Updat
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Chapt
erTen RECTI
LINEARPROPAGATI
ONOFLI
GHT
AND
REFLECTI
ONATPLANESURFACES
I
ntr
oduct
ion  Makeasmal lholeineachoft hethr eecardboards
ensuri
ngt hatall
theholesareatt hesamehei ght
.
 Opt icsisabr anchofphy sicswhi chstudiest
hebehaviour  Thelampsposi t
ionedinsuchawayt hatarayofli
ght
oflightasittraversesvariousmedi a. passest hr
oughal lt
heholes.
 Opt ical instrument s such as camer as,mi cr
oscopes,  Whent hecar dboardisdispl
acedbymov i
ngitsli
ghtl
y
periscopesandl awsgov erni ngtheirworki
ngfor
m amaj or totheonesi de,theey ewillnotseet helamp.This
partofthisbr anchofphy sics. showst hatli
ghttravel
sinast r
aightl
ine.
 Li ghtisaf orm ofener gy .Li ghtregul
atesyourdai
lylif
e.
Youneedl ighttoseet hesi ze,shapeandcolourofthi
ngs RaysofLightandBeam ofLi ght
aroundy ou.  Ar ay is a nar row stream ofl i
ghtofnegl i
gibl
e
thi
cknesswhi leabeam ofl i
ghti sacol l
ect
ionofrays
SourcesofLi ght ofli
ght.
 Ther
e ar
etwo :l
umi
nous (
incandescent
) and non-
l
umi
nous Ty
pesofbeams
 Luminousobject
sarethosewhichproducet
hei
rownl i
ght  A beam i
nwhi chray
sar
epar
all
elt
oeachot
heri
s
e.
g.sun,candl
es,el
ect
ri
clamps,gl
owingwormsetc. cal
ledpar
all
elbeam.
 Non-l
uminousobject
sarethosewhichdon’
tgi
vethei
rown
l
ightbutref
lectli
ghtthatcomesf rom aluminousobj
ect.
Theseareobject
s.Examplesare:t
hemoon, paper,
youetc.
 Youcanseeanobj ectclear
lyifl
ightfr
om itentersyour
eyes.
Tr
anspar
ent,Tr
ansl
ucentandOpaqueObject
s
 Transpar
entobj
ectsarethosewhichall
ow l
i
ghtt
opass
 Abeam i
nwhichtheray
sconv
ergeatapoi
nti
scal
l
ed
throught hem e.g.agl asswi ndow,clearwat er
,t heair
aconv
ergentbeam.
aroundy ou.Allt hesesubst ancesletlightpasst hrough
them.
 Opaqueobj ectsar ethosewhi chcannotallowl
ighttopass
throughthem e.g.wool ,steel
, Br
ick.
 Translucentbodiesar et hosewhi chletli
ghtpasst hrough
them, butscat
terinal ldirect
ionse.g.lampshades,frosted
glass,someplasticet c.
Rect
ili
nearPropagat
ionofLi ght
 Thi sisthepropertyoflighttotravelinast rai
ghtli
neina
medium ofhomogeneouspr opagationdensity.
 Li ghtdoesnott ravelar oundcor ner
s.Thef ormati
onof  Abeam i
nwhicht
her
aysspr
eadsoutf
rom apoi
nti
sa
shadowsshowst hatli
ghtt rav
elsi nastraightli
ne.When di
ver
gentbeam
anopaquebodyi spl acedi nabeam ofl ight,ashadow i
s
formed.
Demonstrat
ingRectil
inearPropagat i
onofLight
Updat
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Updat
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ThePi
nhol
eCamer
a
 Api n-holecamer ai smadeusi ngasmal lrectangul

arbox
withapi nhol eatoneend,al argerectangularholeatone
end,al argerect
angul arholeattheotherend.
 Ther ectangularholeatt hebacki scov eredwithascreen
ofspeci alpaperlikegr easeproofpaperwhi chlet
ssome
l
ightpasst hroughi t(i
.e.i
tistr
anslucent).
ho=objecthei
ght
hi=i
magehei ght
Adv
antage
u=objectdist
ance
 Itisabletoformfocusedimagesont
hef
il
m ofobj
ect
s
v=imagedi st
ancefr
om pi
nhole
bot
hnearandfarf
rom t
hecamera.
Giventhatmagnifi
cati
oni
sm, then
hi v hi=v
I
mageFormationbyaPinholeCamera m = or m = andso
ho u ho u
Examples
1. Api nholecameraofl
ength15cm for
msani mage
3cm hi gh ofa man st
andi
ng 9m i
nf r
ontofthe
camer awhatist
hehei
ghtoft
heman?
hi v
=
ho u
0.03m 0. 15m
=
ho 9m
0.03m ×9m
TheLengt
h(Si
ze)OfI
mage ho = =1.
8m
 Thelengt
hoft hei
magef or
meddependson: 0.15m
a) Thedistanceoftheobj
ectf
rom t
hepi
nhol
e 2. LampAofhei ght6cm standsi
nfrontofapinhol
e
b) Thelengthofthecamerabox cameraatadistanceof24cm.Thecamerascr
eenis
8cm from t
he pinhole.Whatisthe hei
ghtofthe
MAGNIFI
CATION image?
 Thisi
stherati
ooftheimagesizetotheobjectsi
zeort
he hi v
rat
iooft
heimagedistancetot
heobjectdist
ance. =
ho u
I
magesi ze hi 0.
08m
Magni
fi
cation= =
obj
ectsize 0.06m 0. 24m
0.08m
i
magedistance hi = ×0.
06m
Magni
fi
cat
ion= 0.24m
obj
ectdi
stance hi =2m
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 115
Exer
cise ShadowFor
medbyaPoi
ntSour
ce
1. Ani mage100mm l ongofaman2m t al
lispinnedontop
ofapi n-hol
ecamer a.Thedist
anceofpi nholefrom t
he
screenifthemanisstandi
ng6cm from thepi
nhole.
2. Anobj ect1m t al
lformsani mage5cm t allfrom t
he
screen ofa pinholecamera.Find t
hedi st
anceoft he
objectfr
om thepinholeoftheobjectifthel
engthofthe
camer aboxis40cm.
Eff
ectontheI
mageFor
medbyt
hePi
nhol
eCamer
aOn:
(a) Manypi
nhol
es
 Eachpi nholewi llformi t
simager esul
ti
ngi ntobri
ghterbut  Apoi ntsourceofli
ghtisonewhichi ssmallenough
bl
urredi mage. forallt
her aysofli
ghtt ocomeef f
ectiv
elyfrom a
(
b)Largepi nhole singl
epoint
.
 Alargehol ei sequi v
alenttoseveralhol
esandwi l
lproduce  Theshadowi suni
for
ml yandtot
all
ydarkalloverand
bri
ghterbutbl urredimage. iscaledumbr
l a.Theumbr el
lashapeedgesont he
 Howev er ,ashar pi magecanbepr oducedwher eawi de shadowshowst hatl
ighttr
avel
sonast rai
ghtli
ne.
hol
eorsev eralholeshav ebeenusedbysi mpl
ypl aci
nga
convergingl ensi nfrontofthemanyhol esandi ncontact ShadowsFormedbyanExt endedSourceofLight.
wit
ht hebox.Theconv exlensbri
ngsal lraysfrom apoint
onobjectt ouni quepoi ntonthescreen.
Thepin-holecamer acanbemodi
fi
edasf
oll
owsi
nor
dert
o
takephotographs:
 Shoul d be pai nted bl ack on t he i
nside to el
i
minat
e
refl
ectionoflight .
 Tr anslucentscr eent ober epl
acedbyl ight
-t
ightl
idwit
h
photogr aphi
cf il
mf i
tt
edont heinside.
 Shoul dbecov eredwi t
hat hinblackcardwhichactsasa
shutter.
Theexposur etimeofapi n-holecamer adependson:  Anextendedsourceofl i
ghti
slar
geenoughf orrays
tobeseentocomef r
om manypoint
s.
 Si zeoft hepin-hole
 Theshadow islar
gerandhasacent raldarkregion
 Li ghti
ngcondi tions
cal
led umbr
asur roundedar i
ngofpar t
ialshadow
 Sensi ti
v i
tyofthef i
lm cal
ledpenumbra.
 Lengt hoft hecamer a
Appl
icat
ionofext
endedl
ightsour
ces
Advant
ageoft
hePi
nhol
eCamer
aovert
heLensCamer
a a) Lampshadesar eusedathomet oprovi
deamor e
 The pi nhole camerais prefer
red tothe l
ens camera pleasantkindofli
ght
ning.
becauseitdoesnotproducedist
orti
on. b) Fl
uor escenttubes are usual
l
y surr
ounded by a
Thedisadvantagesofusi
ngapi nholecamera: fr
osteddi ff
usetoscattert
heli
ght&reduceshadow
a) Ittakesal ongt i
mef orimaget obef ormedsincethe sharpness.
amountofl i
ghtpassi
ngthroughtheholei
ssmall
.
b) Itcannotbeusedtotakephotographsofmovi
ngobject
s. Ecli
pses
Anecl
ipseisthet
otalorpar
ti
aldi
sappear
anceofsun
Shadows ray
sasseenfr
om t
heeart
h.
 Ashadowi sashadecastbyanobj ectbl
ockingdir
ectr
ays
oflight.Thef ormati
onofshadowsdependsont hef
act TheSol
arEcl
ipseorEcl
ipseoft
heSun
thatli
ghttravelsi
nastraightli
ne
Thesizeoft heshadowf or
meddependson:
a) Sizeofsour cesofli
ght.
b) Sizeofopaqueobj ect.
c) Distancebet weentheobjectandsourceofl
ight.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 116
 Ther
ayf
rom t
hesour
ceAOi
scal
l hei
edt nci
dentr
ay.
 Thesolarecl
ipseoccur
swhent
hemooncomesbet
ween Ther aythatbouncesof ffrom t
heMi r
rorOiscall
ed
thesunandtheeart
h therefl
ectedray.ONi sthenor mal
.
 Theangl ebet ween incidentrayand thenormalis
TheAnnul
arEcl
ipseoft
heSun caledAngl
l eofi nci
dentangl e,Ibet
weenthenormal
andtheRef l
ectedrayiscalledangleofr
efl
ect
ion.
TheLawsofRef
lect
ion
1. The angl e ofincidence i
s equaltothe angl
e of
ref
lection.
2. Thei ncidentr
ay,normalandrefl
ect
edrayatthepoi
nt
ofincidencealll
i
eont hesameplane.
TypesofRef
lect
ion
 I
toccur
swhent
hedi
stanceofsepar
ati
onbet
weent
he a) Regul
arorSpecul
arRef
lect
ion
eart
handt hemoonisgr
eat.Theumbraofthemoondoes I
toccur
swhenpar al
leli
ncidentr
aysareref
lect
edpar
all
el
nottot
all
ycovert
hesunedgeofthedar
kdiskoft
hemoon. t
oeachotherwhenrefl
ect
ingsurf
aceissmooth.
LunarEcl
ipseorEcl
ipseoft
heMoon
b) I
rr
egul
arorDi
ff
useRef
lect
ion
Paral
l
eli
nci
dentr
aysar
eref
lect
edi
ndi
ff
erentdi
rect
ions
for
 Theecl ipseoft hemoonoccur swhent heear thcomes

betweent hesunandt hemoon.
 Whent hel unarecl i
pseoccurs,itlastslonger(about1hr)
thanthesol areclipsebecauset hemooni smuchsmal l
er
thantheear t
h.
 Dur i
ngat otallunarecl i
psesomel ightreachest hemoon
duetor efractionbyt heeart
h’satmospher e&makei tlook
acopper ycol our. I
mageFormationbyaPlaneMi rror.
 Thei mageofan obj ectseen i n a planemi r
roris
REFLECTIONBYPLANEMI RRORS. for
medbyr ay
sofl
ighttrav
elli
nginstraightl
ineswhich
 Whenar ayofl ightmeet saplanemi rr
oritisrefl
ecti
on. areref
lect
edaccor
dingtot helawsofr efl
ect
ion.
 Anor dinarymi rr
ori smadebydeposi t
ingat hinlayerof
metal,oftensi l
verpai ntatt
hebackoft hegl asswhichacts
asther efl
ect i
ngsur face.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 117
Exer
cise
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 118
Fr
om t
heabov
edi
agr hatt
am onecanseet hei
magef
ormedi
n 1. Fi
ndt
henumberofi
magesf
ormedwhenmi
rr
orsar
e
aplanemi rr
orisalways: i
ncl nedat20o
i
a)Erect(Upri
ght)
b)Asf arbehi
ndt hemirr
orasobjecti
sinfrontofi
t. 2. Findt heanglebetweentwomi rr
orsif35imagesare
c)Virt
ual. formed
Avirt
ualimagei sone:
 whi chcannotberecei
vedont hescreen 3. Atwhatangl ewouldt womirrorsbei ncl
inedi
fthe
 whi chisformedbyt heinter
secti
onofvi r
tual nu mbe rofi
ma gesfor
me dar
e(i)17 (
ii
)29 ?
rays.
c)Lateral
lyi
nvertedi.
e.l
eftappear
sonther i
ght&viceversa Rot
ationofaMi r
ror
d)Thesamesi zeastheobject
.  When a mi r
rorisrotat
ed t
hrough an angleθ the
r
efl
ect
edr
ayt
urnst
hrough2θ.
I
mageFor
mat
ioni
nPar
all
eli
nMi
rr
ors
 Hence,t
her
efl
ect
edr
ayal
way
stur
nst
hrought
wice
t
heangl
ethr
oughwhi
cht
hemi
rr
ori
srot
ated.
Exer
cise
1. Ami r
rori
srotat
edthr eof15o t
oughanangl hrough
whatangl
edoesther
eflect
edr
aytur
n?
2. Ami r
rorisrotat
edthroughacertai
nangleandt
he
r
efl
ectedrayturnedt
hrough40o whatangl
ehadt
he
mir
rorbeentur
ned?
 Whenanobj ectisplacedbet weentwoparall

elmi rr
orsas 3. An i ncidentr aymakes an angl e of25o wi t
ht he
shownabov eaninf
init
enumberofi magesareformed. normal.I ft he mi r
rorist urned through 9o i
nt he
 Eachi mageseeni nonemi r
roractsasav i
rt
ualobj ect anti
clockwi sedirecti
onf r
om t hehor i
zontal
,through
whichintur
nformsani magei ntheothermir
ror. whatangl ei stherefl
ectedrayrotated?
 The image becomes f aint
er because l
i
ghtener gy is
absorbedbythemirrorateachsuccessiver
efl
ection. Appl
icat
ionofPl aneMi r
rors
 Thenumberofi magesf ormedbyt womi r
rorsincli
nedat
anangleisgiv
enbyt heformula.
(a)ThePer iscope
360
n= –1
ϴ
 Aper
iscopeconsi
stsofapl
anemi
rr
orspar
all
elt
oone
anot
herandi
ncl
i eof45ot
nedatangl othehor
izont
al.
 Theyar
eusedt
ohel
poneseeov
eranobst
acl
e.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 119
 Per
iscopesin submar
inesusepr
ismsi
nst
ead ofpl
ane b) Thel
engt
hoft
hecamer
aismadel
onger
.
mir
rorsbecause.
c) Thesingl
ehol
eisr
epl
acedbyf
ourpi
nhol
escl
ose
1. Thesi
l
verpar
toft
hemi
rr
oreasi
l
yget
sdamaged toget
her.
2. Thi
ckmi
rr
orspr
oducemul
ti
pler
efr
act
ions 5. Def
inet
het
ermr
efl
ect
ionofl
ight
.
3. Ther
eisnol
ater
ali
nver
sionwi
thpr
isms. 6. St
atet
heLawsofr
efl
ect
ionofl
ight
.
7. Themi r
rorAB andCD ar
eatr
ightangl
est
oeach
other
.
(
b)Useofpl
anemi
rr
orsi
ninst
rumentscal
es
 Pl
ane mir
ror
s are of
ten used behi
nd poi
nter
s as
i
nstr
ument
stoimpr
ovet
hereadi
ngaccur
acy
.
 Whenthepointeri
sviewedatanangl
eit
simagewi
l
lbe
seent
hroughthepl
anemirr
or.
 Theimageseenwi l
lenabl
ethereadertoknowt hatr
eading
bei
ngt akenwil
lhaveaner r
orduet oparal
lax.Thereader
wil
ltherefor
eposi
ti
ont heeyevert
ical
l
ysot hattheimage
ofthepointeri
snotseenandhenceacor r
ectreadi
ngwi l
l
betaken. a) Whati st hevalueoftheangleofinci
dence
ofther ayPQont hemi r
rorAB?
 Thesportsgal
vanomet
erusesar
ayofl
i
ghtasapoi
nter b) Compl etet he di
agr
am t o show the pat
h
i
nstead. takenbyt herayPQaf t
errefl
ect
ionatboth
mirror
s.
(
c)Thekal
eidoscope
c) Det
ermi
ne:
 I
tappl
i
est
hepr
inci
pleofmi
rr
orsi
ncl
i
nedatanangl
e.
I
. Angl
eofr
efl
ect
iononAB.
 Itconsi
stsoftwomi r
rorsM1 andM2 pl
acedt
oeachot
her
at600toeachotheri
nsideat
ube. I
I. Angl
einci
denceonCD.
 Theinst
rumentisusedbydesi
gner
stoobt
aini
deason I
II
. Angl
eofr
efl
ect
iononCD.
syst
emati
cpatt
erns.
8. I
fagi r
lwalksawayf
rom apl
anemi
rr
orataspeedof
Revi
sionExer
cise 2m persecond,
1. ( a)Sallywentt oMar ysalont ohaveherhairdressed.The I. In what di

recti
on does her i
mage
salonhadt wopar allelmirrorsplacedonthewal l
swhich move?
are3met ersapar t.Whi lewai t
ingtobeattendedt o,she
satatadi stanceof1met erfrom oneoft hewal lsand I
I. With what speed does her i
mage
noticedt hatt herewer emul t
ipleofherineachmi rr
or. move ?
Determi net hedi stancebet weent hetwonear estimages
formedi nt het womi rr
ors. 9. Thefigur
ebelow showsmir
rorsABandCDi ncli
ned
atr
ightangl
es.Ar ayPOmakesanangleof30o wit
h
(b)Twopl anemi r
rorsar eplacedatanangl eof600asshown mir
rorABhasasshown.
below.Ar ayofl i
ghtmakesanangl eof400 withmi rr
orm1
andgoest ost rikemi rrorM2.Fi ndt heangl
eofr eflecti
onof
MirrorM2
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 120
2. Whati
srect
il
inearpr
opagat
ionofl
ight
?
(
i) Showthepathofther
ayaft
erref
lecti
onf
rom
3. Drawaraydi
agr
am t
oshowhowapi
nhol
ecamer
afor
ms bothmir
ror
s.
animage. (
ii
) Whatistheangl
eofinci
denceont hemir
ror
CD?
4. St
atet he changes t
hatwould occuri
nthe si
ze and
br
ight
nessoft heimagef
ormedif
a) Theobj
ectdi
stancei
smadel
arge.
Updat
edhi
ghschool
,
KASNEB&ot
herl
ear
ningr
esour
ces 0701184913 121

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5. Waves  Acareerr efer

Examples of courses offered at univer

Examples ofcourses off

13.Hands must be washed bef

3) The diameterofthe bor

o 300mm x200mm x50mm

 When using a measuring v

=6cm ×4cm ×3cm

=0. cm3 ×40cm3 =31.

=10×60 +22 +34×0.

=600 +22 +0.

8) A Eur ekacanofmass60gandcr osssectionalareaof

 Whenablockofwoodi splacedonat abl

 Amol eculedeepi ntheli

Mass weight c) Ener

Measured using a Measur

160 =100 ×g  Thisisthesum oft woormorevector

3. Amassof7.5kghasawei ghtof30N onacertai

1. A pickup car ryi

5. A bl ock of copper of densi

b) Suggesta reason whypailmanuf

To reduce the heightoft he pailbutmai nt

 Whenasmal lf orcei sappl i

 The return spr

o hρg +Pg =Pa

c) The end ofthe tube mustremai

When one sucks pressur

 Whent hepistoni spull

 Whent heplungermov esupduri

 This suggests that t he part

 Whent hecardboardi sremov edandt het wojarspr essed

T =10 +273 =283K

o When t he met albarisheat ed i

when heat ed.Dif

8) Givear easonwhyaconcr etebeam r einfor

11.The t emper ature ofwat erin a measuring cyl

 Vacuum prevent heat l

 Mov esphereB awaysoast obr eakthecontact

 Whenthechar gedrod( -)i

 Examples arethe Lead-

c. Give one met

22.A carbat teryrequir

 Api n-holecamer ai smadeusi ngasmal lrectangul

 Theecl ipseoft hemoonoccur swhent heear thcomes

 Whenanobj ectisplacedbet weentwoparall

1. ( a)Sallywentt oMar ysalont ohaveherhairdressed.The I. In what di

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