Process Heat Transfer

Chapter one
Introduction

Lidya D.(M.Sc.)

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 Outline
• Thermodynamics and heat transfer.
• Understand the basic mechanisms of heat transfer, which
are conduction, convection, and radiation, and Fourier's
law of heat conduction, Newton's law of cooling, and the
Stefan–Boltzmann law of radiation.
• Identify the mechanisms of heat transfer that occur
simultaneously in practice.

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Introduction

• What does the subject of heat transfer deal with?

• What is it all about?

• Why is it important?

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 HEAT TRANSFER AND THERMODYNAMICS
• Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a system
undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another and it gives no
indication about how long the process will take.
• A thermodynamic analysis simply tells us how much heat must be transferred
to realize a specified change of state to satisfy the conservation of energy
principle.
• Thermodynamics deals with the end states of the process during which an
interaction occurs and provides no information concerning the nature of the
interaction or the time rate at which it occurs

We are normally interested in how long

it takes for the hot coffee in a thermos
to cool to a certain temperature, which
cannot be determined from a
thermodynamic analysis alone.

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HEAT TRANSFER
• Determining the rates of heat transfer to or from a system and
times of cooling or heating as well as the heating, variation of the
temperature, is the subject of heat transfer
• Heat transfer is energy transfer due to a temperature difference in
a medium or between two or more media.
• The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-
temperature medium to the lower-temperature one.
• Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same
temperature.
• Different types of heat transfer processes are called different
modes of heat transfer

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HEAT TRANSFER

• Heat can be transferred in three different modes:

conduction, convection, radiation

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 Modes of heat transfer
• when a T gradient exists in a stationary medium, (a solid or fluid), we use the term
CONDUCTION to refer to the HT that will occur across the medium.
• If the HT occurs between a surface and a moving fluid when they are at diff. T....
CONVECTION
• THERMAL RADIATION: all surfaces of finite T emit energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves. Hence in the absence of an intervening medium, there is net
heat transfer by radiation between two surfaces at diff. T.

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 CONDUCTION
• Is the flow of heat in a substance due to exchange of energy
between molecules having more energy and molecules having
less energy.
• In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and
diffusion of the molecules during their random motion.
• In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the
molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free
electrons.
• The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is
proportional to the temperature difference across the layer and
the heat transfer area, but is inversely proportional to the
thickness of the layer. Heat conduction
through a large
plane wall of
thickness x and
area A.

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 CONDUCTION
• 1st mechanism-molecular interaction: is the transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles(atoms, molecules) of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones
as a result of interactions between the particles .
• 2nd mechanism- by the motion of free electrons: (e.g. solid)

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 Fourier’s law of
heat conduction
Thermal conductivity, k: A measure of the ability of a material
to conduct heat.
Temperature gradient dT/dx: The slope of the temperature
curve on a T-x diagram.
Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature,
and the temperature gradient becomes negative when
temperature decreases with increasing x. The negative sign in
the equation ensures that heat transfer in the positive x
direction is a positive quantity.

In heat conduction
The rate of heat conduction
analysis, A represents
through a solid is directly
the area normal to the
proportional to its thermal
direction of heat
conductivity.
transfer.

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 Range of Thermal conductivity

• A high value for thermal conductivity

indicates that the material is a good heat
conductor, and a low value indicates that
the material is a poor heat conductor or
insulator
• The thermal conductivities of gases such
as air vary by a factor of 104 from those
of pure metals such as copper.
• Note that pure crystals and metals have
the highest thermal conductivities, and
gases and insulating materials the lowest

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The range of thermal
conductivity of various
materials at room
temperature.

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 The mechanisms of heat
• The thermal conductivity of a substance is conduction in different
normally highest in the solid phase and lowest phases of a substance
in the gas phase

• Unlike gases, the thermal conductivities of

most liquids decrease with increasing
temperature, with water being a notable
exception.

• In solids, heat conduction is due to two

effects: the lattice vibrational waves induced
by the vibrational motions of the molecules
positioned at relatively fixed positions in a
periodic manner called a lattice, and the
energy transported via the free flow of
electrons in the solid .

The thermal conductivity of a solid is obtained by adding the lattice

electronic components. The relative high thermal conductivity of pure metals are
primarily due to the electronic component. 13
The variation of the thermal
conductivity of various solids,
liquids, and gases with
temperature.

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 Thermal Diffusivity
• The product ρCp, which is frequently encountered in heat transfer analysis, is called the
heat capacity of a material. Both the specific heat Cp and the heat capacity ρCp
represent the heat storage capability of a material.
• But Cp expresses it per unit mass whereas ρCp expresses it per unit volume, as can be
noticed from their units J/kg·°C and J/m3·°C, respectively.
• Another material property that appears in the transient heat conduction analysis is the
thermal diffusivity, which represents how fast heat diffuses through a material and is
defined as:
• The larger the thermal diffusivity, the
faster the propagation of heat into the
medium.
• A small value of thermal diffusivity
means that heat is mostly absorbed by
the material and a small amount of
heat will be conducted further

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• Note that the thermal diffusivity
ranges from 0.14 x 10-6 m2/s for
water to 149 x 10-6 m2/s for silver,
which is a difference of more than a
thousand times.

• Also note that the thermal

diffusivities of beef and water are the
same. This is not surprising, since
meat as well as fresh vegetables and
fruits are mostly water, and thus they
possess the thermal properties of
water.

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 CONVECTION

• The transfer of energy from one

region to another due to
macroscopic motion in a fluid,
added on to the energy transfer
by conduction is called heat
transfer by convection
• The faster the fluid motion, the
greater the convection heat
transfer.
• In the absence of any bulk fluid
Heat transfer from a hot surface
motion, heat transfer between a to air by convection.
solid surface and the adjacent
fluid is by pure conduction.
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 Types of Convection

Forced convection: If the fluid is forced

to flow over the surface by external means
such as a fan, pump, or the wind.
Natural (or free) convection: If the fluid
motion is caused by buoyancy forces that
are induced by density differences due to
the variation of temperature in the fluid.

The cooling of a boiled egg by forced

and natural convection.

Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are also
considered to be convection because of the fluid motion induced during
the process, such as the rise of the vapor bubbles during boiling or the
fall of the liquid droplets during condensation.

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 Newton’s law of cooling
h convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2·°C
As the surface area through which convection heat
transfer takes place.
Ts the surface temperature
T the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the
surface.
• The convection heat transfer coefficient h is not
a property of the fluid.
• It is an experimentally determined parameter
whose value depends on all the variables
influencing convection such as
 the surface geometry
 the nature of fluid motion
 the properties of the fluid
 the bulk fluid velocity

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20
 RADIATION
• Radiation: The energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic
waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic
configurations of the atoms or molecules.
• Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation does
not require the presence of an intervening medium.
• In fact, heat transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it
suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun
reaches the earth.
• In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the
form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature.
• All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.
• Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and gases
emit, absorb, or transmit radiation to varying degrees.

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 Stefan–Boltzmann
law
 = 5.670  108 W/m2 · K4 Stefan–Boltzmann
constant
Emissivity  : A measure of how closely a surface
approximates a blackbody for which  = 1 of the
surface. 0   1.
Blackbody: The idealized surface that emits radiation
at the maximum rate.

Radiation emitted
by real surfaces

Blackbody radiation represents the maximum amount of

radiation that can be emitted from a surface at a specified
temperature.

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Absorptivity : The fraction of the
radiation energy incident on a surface
that is absorbed by the surface.
0   1
A blackbody absorbs the entire
radiation incident on it ( = 1).
Kirchhoff’s law: The emissivity and The absorption of radiation
the absorptivity of a surface at a incident on an opaque surface
given temperature and wavelength of absorptivity,  .
are equal.

The rate at which a surface absorbs radiation is determined from the

figure:

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Net Radiation Heat Transfer

Net radiation heat transfer: The difference between the rates of

radiation emitted by the surface and the radiation absorbed.
The determination of the net rate of heat transfer by radiation
between two surfaces is a complicated matter since it depends on
 the properties of the surfaces
 their orientation relative to each other
 the interaction of the medium between the surfaces with
radiation

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 Net Radiation Heat Transfer
• When a surface is completely enclosed by a much
larger (or black) surface at temperature Tsurr
separated by a gas (such as air) that does not
intervene with radiation, the net rate of radiation
heat transfer between these two surfaces is given
by

Radiation heat transfer

between a surface and the
surfaces surrounding it.

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Simultaneous Convection and Radiation

• When radiation and convection occur

simultaneously between a surface and a gas:

Combined heat transfer coefficient, hcombined :

includes the effects of both convection and
radiation

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 SIMULTANEOUS HEAT TRANSFER
MECHANISMS
• Heat transfer is only by conduction in opaque solids, but
by conduction and radiation in semitransparent solids.
• A solid may involve conduction and radiation but not
convection. A solid may involve convection and/or
radiation on its surfaces exposed to a fluid or other
surfaces.
• Heat transfer is by conduction and possibly by radiation
in a still fluid (no bulk fluid motion) and by convection and
radiation in a flowing fluid.
Convection = Conduction + Fluid motion
• Heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation.
• Most gases between two solid surfaces do not interfere
with radiation.
• Liquids are usually strong absorbers of radiation.
• Although there are three mechanisms of heat
transfer, a medium may involve only two of them
simultaneously. 27
PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE

• Step 1: Problem Statement

• Step 2: Schematic
• Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
• Step 4: Physical Laws
• Step 5: Properties
• Step 6: Calculations
• Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion

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Coordinate Systems
• Three prime coordinate systems:
rectangular T(x, y, z, t)
cylindrical T(r, , z, t)
spherical T(r, , , t).

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Cylindrical Coordinates

• Relations between the coordinates of a point in

rectangular and cylindrical coordinate systems:
 Spherical Coordinates
• Relations between the coordinates of a point in
rectangular and spherical coordinate systems
EXAMPLE 1: The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed
from 0.15-m-thick fireclay brick having a thermal conductivity
of 1.7 W/m K. Measurements made during steady-state
operation reveal temperatures of 1400 and 1150 K at the
inner and outer surfaces, respectively. What is the rate of
heat loss through a wall that is 0.5 m by 1.2 m on a side?

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EXAMPLE 2: An uninsulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air
and walls are at 25°C. The outside diameter of the pipe is 70 mm, and its surface
temperature and emissivity are 200°C and 0.8, respectively. What are the surface
emissive power and irradiation? If the coefficient associated with free convection
heat transfer from the surface to the air is 15 W/m2 K, what is the rate of heat
loss from the surface per unit length of pipe?

Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions.
2. Radiation exchange between the pipe and the room is between a small
surface and a much larger enclosure.
3. The surface emissivity and absorptivity are equal.

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