Uniti Introduction 180219070051

Introduction to Cryogenics
Unit I
Mr.S.A.Wani
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon
UNIT I - INTRODUCTION
• Cryogenics – Science &Technology of
producing low temperatures
• Coined from Greek word – Kryo – Frost
Genics – to produce
• Deals with temp.below -150°C or 123 K
• Encompasses Liquified Natural Gas, Liquid
oxygen, Liquid Nitrogen, Liquid Argon, Liquid
Hydrogen and Liquid Helium
CRYOGENICS
Caters a variety of disciplines like
• Basic sciences, biological and medical sciences
• Food processing
• Metallurgy
• Space studies
• Rocketry
• Electronics and manufacturing practices
S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

CRYOGENICS
Relates to
• Production and utilization of low temp
• Production of Cryogens and their storage
• Transport and consumption

CRYOGENIC ENGINEERING
Relates to
• Production of related devices
• Equipments and plants for safe, sustained and
energy efficient performance of cryogenic
processes

CRYOGENIC TEMPERATURE SCALE

DEVELOPMENTAL HISTORY
• First ever liquefaction of cryogenic gas in 1877
by French Mining engineer Cailletet
• Succeded in precooling a container filled with
oxygen at 300 atm. and then expanding it
• Swiss physicists, succeded in liquefying oxygen
and nitrogen.
• After a year later, the succeded in liquefying
hydrogen at 100 atm.

• James Dewar developed vacuum jacketed
double walled containers in 1892
• Kammerling Onnes developed low temp
physics laboratory in Holland in 1908
• French Engineer Claude established air
liquefaction system in 1902
• Linde installed first air liquefaction plant in
1907.

• In 1933, magnetic cooling was successfully
used to attain below 1 K
• Kapitza, in 1934, built first expansion engine
for large scale liquefaction of helium
• Collins, in 1947, developed an efficient
cryostat for liquefaction of helium
• A liquid hydrogen fueled rocket engine was
developed in 1956.

BRIEF HISTORICAL DEVELOPEMENT
Year Event
1877 Cailletet and Pictet liquefied Oxygen

1879 Linde founded the Linde Eismaschinen AG
1892 Dewar developed a vacuum insulated vessel for
cryogenic fluid storage
1895 Onnes established Leiden Laboratory
1902 Claude established l’Air Liquide and
developed air-liquefaction system
1908 Onnes liquefied helium
1911 Onnes discovered superconductivity

BRIEF HISTORICAL DEVELOPEMENT
Year Event
1926 Goddard test fired the first cryogenically propelled

rocket
1934 Kapitza designed the first expansion engine
1952 National Institute of Standards & Technology (NIST),
USA, Cryogenic Engineering Laboratory established
1966 Development of Dilution refrigerator
1975 Record high superconducting transition
temperature (23 K) achieved
1994 Matsubara developed a 4 K cryocooler

APPLICATIONS AREAS OF CRYOGENICS
• Cryogenics in Space Industry
• Exploration of Space in solar system
• Current space launching systems make use of
cryogenic chemical propellants such as liquid
hydrogen and liquid oxygen as rocket fuel.
• This energy is used to move in the space orbit and
escape the bounds of Earth’s gravity.
• Imperative to have a proper design for propulsion
systems in addition for efficient liquefaction system
fro cryogenic propellants
• Used in Miniaturisation, Physical robustness,
effciency and effectiveness of system.
• Cryogenics in Aviation and Aerospace Industry
• Used in production and reconditioning of
static storage tanks and some bearing metal
components.
• Military aircraft uses argon in space over fuel
in tanks and fill aircraft tyres with nitrogen
• Liquid oxygen is stored as lightweight source
of breathing gas for pilot.
• Helium gas is used in large volumes for filling
balloons and airships.
• Cryo-Metallurgy
• Cryo processsing has emerged to increase wear
resistance and life of all the metals.
• The retained stresses cause uneven expansion,
increased dimensional stability etc
• Cryogenic tempering transforms structure into more
durable, stronger and stable.
• Cryogenic processes has been proved for improving
performance, reliability, durability of racing engines.
• Also used for improving the strength of drive lines,
machine parts, punching dies.

• Cryobiology
• Cryobiology is the study of effects of freezing and low
temperatures on living organisms.
• Cryobiology is known to have the potential for
improving the quality of lives in future.
• Practice of freezing humans who are not curable by
current medical technology in future to bring them
to life. It is known as suspended animation.
• Ways of repairing the damage caused by freezing
process are developed, as well as when cures of
diseases.

• Cryosurgery
• Cryosurgery are for treatment of certain types of skin
lesions, for benign and dysplastic mucosal lesions.
• Involves different techniques to achieve selective
necrosis of tissues, by freezing at extremely low
temperatures through precise cooling.
• Each technique involves specific procedure in order to
cater requirement of surgery for specific purpose.
• Uses a pre-cooled metal acessory that is directly applied
to lesion.
• Has added more benefits which includes lack of need of
general anesthesia, Optional need for local
anesthesia,Simplicity and Safety
• Cryopreservation of tissue and blood

• Cryopreservation of foods
• Cryo transport

CRYOGEN
• Fluid with normal boiling less than 123 K

CRYOGEN
• Fluid with normal boiling less than 123 K

CRYOGENIC FLUIDS
• Hydrogen
• Helium
• Liquid Methane
• Liquid Neon
• Liquid Nitrogen
• Liquid Oxygen
• Liquid Argon
• Liquid Air
PROPERTIES OF CRYOGENIC FLUIDS
• Hydrogen
• Exists in Diatomic form as H2
• Normal Boiling Point = 20.27 K
• Normal Freezing Point = 13.95 K
• Critical Pressure = 1.315 Mpa
• Critical Temperature = 33.19 K
• Liquid Hydrogen Density = 70.79 kg/m3
• Latent Heat = 443 KJ/kg
• Hydrogen – Uses
• Cryogenic engines are powered by propellants
like liquid hydrogen.
• It is being considered as fuel for automobiles.
• Cryocoolers working on a closed cycle use
hydrogen as working fluid
• Hydrogen codes and standards should be
followed to ensure safety while handling liquid
hydrogen.
• Helium
• Helium is an inert gas and exists in
monoatomic state
• Normal Boiling Point = 4.25 K
• Critical Pressure = 0.277 Mpa
• Critical Temperature = 5.25 K
• Liquid Helium Density = 124.8 kg/m3
• Latent Heat = 20.28 KJ/kg
• Liquid Methane
• It boils at 111.7 K
• Can be used as a rocket fuel
• It’s a form of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)

• Liquid Neon
• It is a clear, colorless liquid with boiling point
at 27.1 K
• Liquid neon is commercially used as a
cryogenic refrigerant
• It is compact, inert and less expensive as
compared to liquid helium

• Liquid Nitrogen
• It boils at 77.36 K and freezes at 63.2 K
• Resembles water in appearance
• Density = 807 kg/m3
• Latent Heat of vaporisation = 199.3KJ/kg

• Liquid Nitrogen - Uses
• Used as a liquid for providing refrigeration
• For Food preservation, Blood, cells
preservation
• High temperature Superconductivity
• Use for providing an inert atmosphere in
chemical and metallurgical industries

• Liquid Oxygen
• Blue in Colour
• Boils at 90.18 K
• Freezes at 54.4 K
• Slightly magnetic

• Liquid Oxygen - Uses
• Widely used in industries and for medical
purposes
• Largely used in iron and steel manufacturing
industry
• Oxidizer propellant for spacecraft rocket
applications

• Liquid Argon
• Colorless, Inert and Toxic Gas
• Boils at 87.3 K
• Freezes at 83.8 K

• Liquid Argon - Uses
• Used to purge molds in casting industry
• Argon – oxygen decarburization (AOD) process
in stainless steel industry
• Offers inert atmosphere for welding stainless
steel, aluminium, titanium etc

• Liquid Air
• Considered as a mixture 78% Nitrogen, 21%
Oxygen, 1% Argon and others
• Boiling point = 78.9 K
• Was earlier used as pre-coolant for low
temperature application
• Primarily used for production of Pure
nitrogen, oxygen and rare gases
Behaviour of Structural Materials
at Cryogenic Temperatures
• Mechanical Properties
• Ultimate and Yield Strength
• Fatigue Strength
• Impact Strength
• Hardness and Ductility
• Elastic Moduli

• Cryogenic Engineer should have knowledge of
all the mechanical and thermophysical
properties of material of construction.
• Essential to have the sound knowledge of
behaviour of properties of materials at
cryogenic temperatures for reliable and safe
design of cryogenic equipment

• Stress-Strain relationship of any material exhibits its
uniqueness.
• Ultimate Strength of a material - It is the maximum
nominal stress attained by a test specimen during a
simple tensile test.
• Yield Strength of a material - It is the stress at which
the strain of a material shows a rapid increase with
an increase in stress, when subjected to a simple
tensile test.
• Alloys are always stronger than the basic materials.
• The Ultimate and Yield strengths of the material
largely depend on the movement of dislocations.
• At low temperatures, the internal energy of atoms
is low.
• Due to this, atoms have less vibrations
• When vibrations are less, movement of dislocations
is hampered
• It requires a very large stress to tear the
dislocations from their equilibrium positions
• So, materials exhibit high yield and ultimate
strength at low temperatures.

• Fatigue strength is defined as the stress required
for failure after a number of repeated cycles.
• Materials exhibit fatigue failure when they are
subjected to fluctuating loads.
• These failures can happen even if the stress
applied is much lower than the ultimate stress
values.

• Fatigue failure begins with a microcrack initiation.
• At low temperatures, a large stress is required to
stretch the crack due to increase in ultimate
strength.
• Therefore, like ultimate strength, the fatigue
strength increases as the temperature decreases.

• To avoid Fatigue failure, when a specimen is
subjected to fluctuating loads, working stress
is maintained below a certain value called as
Endurance Limit.
• Beryllium – Copper alloy is used in
manufacturing

• Impact Strength
• It indicates the energy needed for a fracture by
an impact or a suddenly applied force.
• Impact behaviour is usually decided by lattice
structure
• At low temperatures, the materials with Body
Centered Cubic (BCC) lattice, break easily.
• The materials with Face Centered Cubic (FCC) or
Hexagonal lattice have more slip planes.
• Impact Strength
• These slip planes assist in plastic deformation
(rather than breaking) and hence increase the
impact strength of material even at low
temperatures.
• The materials with FCC and HCP lattices are
preferred for cryogenic applications.

• Ductility and Hardness
• Ductility is the measure of the capacity to
elongate by a simple tensile force and is indicated
by % elongation.
• A material which elongates more than 5% of the
original length before failure is called as ductile
material.
• It is measure of % elongation in length or %
reduction in cross sectional area of specimen
• Ductility and Hardness
• Hardness is the measure of depth of the
standard indentation made on the surface of
the specimen by a standard indenter.
• Hardness is directly proportional to the
ultimate stress of a material. Hence, it follows
the same trend, i.e. increases as the
temperature is decreased.
• Elastic Moduli
• There are three types of elastic moduli –
• Young’s Modulus – Ratio of change of tensile
stress with respect to strain
• Shear Modulus – Ratio of change of shear
stress to shear strain
• Bulk Modulus – Ratio of rate of change in
pressure to the volumetric strain
• Thermal Properties
• Thermal Expansion / Contraction
• Specific heat of Solids
• Thermal Conductivity

• Thermal Expansion
• Reduction (contraction) in the dimensions of a
material occur when cooled to low
temperatures.

• Thermal Expansion
• Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
• Similarly, the volumetric coefficient of thermal

expansion (β) is the fractional change in
volume per unit change in temperature while
the pressure is constant.
• Specific Heat of Solids
• It is the energy required to change the
temperature of a unit mass of substance by
1°C, holding the volume or pressure as
constant.

• Specific Heat of Solids – Einstein and Debye
Theory
• Einstein treated the solid as a system of simple harmonic
oscillators. It was assumed that, all the oscillators are of same
frequency.
• However, Debye treated solid as an infinite elastic continuum
and considered all the possible standing waves in the
material.
• He presented a model to compute lattice heat capacity per
mole, which accounts for all the vibration frequencies of all
the lattice points.
• Specific Heat of Solids – Debye Theory
• The Debye model gives the following expression for the lattice
heat capacity per mole.
• x is a dimensionless variable.
• In the equation, only the value of θD changes from material to
material.
• θD is called as Debye Characteristic Temperature.
DEBYE CHARACTERISTIC TEMP.

• Thermal Conductivity in Solids
• In a cryostat, the solid members made of a metal or a
non metal conduct heat from high temperature to low
temperature.
• For these members, the thermal conductivity K, should
be as low as possible to minimize the heat loss
• On the other hand, for achieving best heat transfer of
cold generated, copper can be used as a medium due
to its very high thermal conductivity.

• Electric and Magnetic Properties
• Electrical Conductivity
• Defined as the electric current per unit cross sectional area
divided by the voltage gradient in the direction of the current
flow.
• Electrical Resistivity
• Reciprocal of Electrical Conductivity
• Decreasing the temperature decreases the vibration energy of
the ions. This results in smaller interference with electron
motion.
• Therefore, electrical conductivity of the metallic conductors
increases at low temperature.
TEST
1. _____
123K is the temperature below which the
cryogenic range begins.

2. Convert 400 K into Celsius scale - ________ 127°C
3. Boiling point of LN2 and LO2 are _____ 77.36K &
______ respectively.
90.19K
4. NIST stands for ____________________

National Institute of Standards & Technology
5. An inert gas with boiling point of 87.3 K is

Liquid Argon
_____________

TEST
20.3K
6. Boiling point of Hydrogen is ___________
7. Non –metals are classified into Glasses
____ and
______.
Plastics
8. The Ultimate Strength of materials _____ Increases with
decrease in temperature.
9.Stainless
______ Steel
metal is mostly preferred in cryogenic
applications.
directly
10. Thermal agitation in molecules is _______
proportional to temperature.
TEST
11. ______
Fatigue failure occurs when materials are
subjected to fluctuating loads.
Beryllium-copper alloy
12. ________ is used in manufacturing of flexure
bearings.
13. ________
Lattice Structure
governs the impact strength of a
material.
14. ________
% elongation
property of the material decreases
with decrease in temperature
15. ________
Carbon Steel
material cannot be used at low temp
TEST
16. Coefficient of thermal expansion is the
change in length to original length per
__________.
Unit rise in temp.
decreases
17. Coefficient of thermal expansion ______
with the decrease in temperature.
18.Metals undergo most of the contraction upto
___.
80 K
19. Debye characteristic temperature is denoted

by ____.
θD

TEST
Decrease
20. K decreases with the _________ in the
temperature for impure metals.
21. Specific heat of the material __________
Decrease
with decrease in temperature.

22. Electrical conductivity of the metallic
conductors __________
Increase at low temperature.

THANK YOU

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Introduction to Cryogenics

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

1877 Cailletet and Pictet liquefied Oxygen

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

1926 Goddard test fired the first cryogenically propelled

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

• Cryopreservation of tissue and blood

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

• Similarly, the volumetric coefficient of thermal

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

cryogenic range begins.

3. Boiling point of LN2 and LO2 are _____ 77.36K &

4. NIST stands for ____________________

5. An inert gas with boiling point of 87.3 K is

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

8. The Ultimate Strength of materials _____ Increases with

19. Debye characteristic temperature is denoted

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

with decrease in temperature.

S.A.Wani, Department of Mechanical Engg., P.V.P.I.T.Budhgaon

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