INDEX

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1Suspension model
1.2Contact over view
1.3Quality and work man ship of leaf spring
1.4Suspension performance measurement
1.5The making of a good leaf spring suspension

Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

Chapter 3: PROBLEM DEFINITION

Chapter 4: CONVENTIONAL DESIGN & ANALYSIS OF THE LEAF SPRINGS

4.1 Consider standard design data

4.2 Design for laminated leaf spring
4.3 Material for leaf spring
4.4Determine width and thickness of leaf spring
4.5Determine length of leaf spring

Chapter 5: DESIGN BY USING CATIA

5.1 Modules in CATIA

5.2 Options used to create solids
5.3 Reference elements
5.4 Views
5.5 Dimensioning
 5.6 Introduction to surfaces
5.7 Types of assemblies
5.8 leaf spring in catia software

Chapter 6: Testing & Validation

6.1 Procedure for leaf spring analyzing using ansys work bench
6.2 Comparison
6.3 graph

Chapter 7: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

7.1 Project Conclusion

7.2 Future enhancement

Reference

DETAILED SKETCH OF
LEAF SPRING
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
A spring is defined as an elastic body, whose function is to distort when the load is removed
its original shape when the load is removed. Springs are unlike other structure components
in that they undergo significant deformation when loaded their compliance enables them to
store readily recoverable mechanical energy. In a vehicle suspension, when the wheel meets
an obstacle, the springing allows movement of wheel over the obstacle and thereafter
returns the wheel to its normal position.
The simplest spring is the tension bar. This is an efficient energy store since all its
elements are stressed identically, but its deformation is small if it is made of metal. Unlike
the constant cross-section beam the leaf spring is stressed almost constantly along its length
because the linear increase of bending movement either simple support is matched by the
beam’s widening.
Semi-elliptical leaf springs are almost universally used for suspension. The laminated
spring consists of number of leaves called blades. The blades are varying in length curvature
so that they will tend to straighten under the load. The leaf spring is design is based upon
the theory of beams of uniforms strength.
Leaf springs are essential elements in the suspension systems of vehicles. Accurate
modelling of leaf springs is necessary in evaluating ride comfort, braking performance,
vibration characteristics and stability. Through simple in appearance, a leaf spring
suspension causes many problems in modelling. For dynamic simulation the vehicles are
usually modelled by multi-body-systems (MBS).For realistic ride and handling, simulations of
the leaf springs must be taken into account. The objective of this study has been to find an
efficient FE method for the analysis of the laminated leaf springs, which allows for fast
analyses and easy implementation.

Fig 1.1
1.1Suspension Model
All suspension systems contain two main ingredients, a spring component and a damper
component. The suspension’s main purpose is to filter out axle excitation before these
disturbances reach the chassis. There is a verity of different suspensions used on vehicles.
However, some types of suspensions have grown more pop lour than others .In the truck
/car industry the overwhelming majority are leaf springs.

Leaf springs are less expensive, simpler and more reliable than any other common
suspension. In addition they act as both spring and damper simultaneously, thus, reducing
or eliminating the need for independent shock absorbers.
1.1.1Leaf Spring Suspension.
a) Single axle leaf spring.
b) Tandem leaf spring/short rocker.
c) Tridem leaf spring/short rocker.

1.1.2Leaf Spring Model

Leaves are made up laminated strips of curved steel. The chassis supports the two ends and
middle of the spring is connected to the axle as the leaf spring is compressed, the steel
leaves bend acting as springs, and leaves slide across each other dissipating energy through
coulomb friction. The mathematical leaf-spring model used in this study is the semi-analytic
model based on the Euler beam theory.

Fig 1.2
 SINGLE AXLE LEAF SPRING

1.1.3 LEAF SPRING RATE

The rate of spring is the change of load per unit of deflection (N/mm). This is not the same
amount at all positions of spring, and is different for the spring as installed Static deflection
of a spring equals the static load divided by the rate at static load; it determines the stiffness
of the suspension and the ride frequency of the vehicle. In the most cases the static
deflection differs from the actual deflection of the spring between zero and static load, due
to influences of spring camber and shackle effect.
1.1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SUSPENSION INCLUDE

 Maximum deflection consistent with required stability

 Compatible with other vehicle components in terms of over all ride

 Minimum weight

 Low maintenances and operating costs

 Minimize tire wear

 Minimize wheel hop

 Low initial cost

1.1.5 FUNCTIONS OF LEAF SPRINGS IN DESIGN PERFORMS

 Support the weight of the vehicle.

 Provide adequate stability and resistance to side away and rollover.

 Resist cornering effects when negotiating a curve.

 Provide cushioning
 POSITION OF LEAF SPRING IN THE VECHILE

The stress and deflection as determined by the usual spring equations are to be slightly
enhanced to meet the best conditioned of the spring design, Before the final adoption of
the design for quality production, the spring performance should be checked under
expected working conditions. Choosing too light of a spring rate will the spring to be in a
higher stress situation, thus losing ride height. Furthermore, the spring will absorb all the
weight transfer, and not plant the tire securely on the track. Too light of a spring rate will
also cause the rear end to lose an excessive amount pinion angle under acceleration, leading
to a loss of forward bite. Thus various parameters like width, length; thickness plays a vital
role in the design enhancement of the leaf springs.

1.2 CONTACT OVERVEIW

Contact problems are highly nonlinear and require significant computer resources to solve.
It is important to understand the physics of the problem and take the time to set up the
model to run as efficiently as possible. Contact problems present two significant difficulties.
First, we generally do not know the regions of contact until we run the problem. Depending
on loads, materials, boundary conditions, and other factors, surfaces come into and go out
of contact with each other in largely unpredictable and abrupt manner. Second, most
contact problems need to account for friction. There are several friction laws and models to
choose from. And all are nonlinear. Frictional response can be chaotic, making solution
convergence difficult.

1.2.1 General contact classification:

Contact problems fall into two general classes: rigid-to-flexible and flexible-to-flexible
contact problems, one or more of the contacting surfaces are treated as rigid (i.e., it has a
much higher stiffness relative to the deformable body it contacts). In general, any time a soft
material comes in contact with a hard material, the problem may be assumed to rigid-to-
flexible. Many metal forming problems fall into this category. The other class, flexible-to-
flexible, is the more common type. In this case, both (or all) contacting bodies are
deformable (i.e., have similar stiffness). An example of a flexible-to-flexible contact is bolted
flanges.

Fig 1.3
Representation of the bi-dimensional contact problem
1.3 Quality and Workmanship of Leaf Springs:
 1.Centerhole:

If made with good dies, it will be clean-cut. A poor center hole may set up additional
stresses in the steel, which may cause premature breakage .

2.Trim points:
Must be done with good equipment, to avoid cracking, chipping and rough edges.

3. Clips:
Must be right size and shape to fit properly.

4.Eyes:
Must be tight accurately sized; must be parallel and straight, to avoid setting up excess
stresses in the main leaf. If the eye is too small, the bushing may be crushed when forced in.
If the eye is too large, the bushing will be loose.

5. Fitting of leaves:
Must be accurate, to avoid setting up excess stresses in steel and causing premature
breakage.

6. Leaves:
Must be fitted side to side, as well as surface to surface.
Advantages of leaf springs:
1. Compatible with other vehicle components in terms of overall ride
2.Minimum weight
3.Low maintenance and operating costs
4. Minimize tire wear
5.Minimize wheel hop
6. Low initial cost

LEAF SPRINGS ADDITIONALLY ARE DESIGNED TO:

Connect the axle to the vehicle
* Transfer driving and braking forces between frame and axle
* Resist drive and brake torque, know as wrap up
* On drive axles provide minimum changes in drive axle pinion and limit movement of drive
axle slip splices
* On steering axles, they maintain the proper wheel caster and camber.

1.4 SPRING PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT:

RATE simply put, rate is the amount of weight required to deflect the spring 1-inch. The
lower the rate, the softer the spring. Rate can be figured mathematically by using a formula
that calculates the strength of the size steel used the length of the spring and the number of
leaves for leaf springs, or the number of coils for coil springs.

LOAD is the amount of weight the spring is designed to carry at a certain height.
This is also called Design Load or Load Rate.
Let’s say a spring has a rate of 200 lbs. per inch and designed for a 3-inch deflection, when
deflected 3 inches the spring is supporting 600 lbs.
Therefore, the spring has a Design Load or Load Rate of 600 lbs., not a Rate of 600 lbs.

FREE ARCH is how much arch is in a leaf spring when there is no load on the spring. (C)
On the diagram above.
LOADED HEIGHT is measured the same as Free Arch except the spring is under load.
(C) On the diagram above.

DIVISION LENGTH is what the (A) and (B) dimensions on the diagram above are
called. Typically the front (A) is the Short End (SE) and the rear (B) is called the Long End
(LE).

STEPPING is the distance from the end of one leaf to the end of the adjoining leaf.
Stepping is very important. Stepping controls the shape and strength of a spring when under
load. Too short of distance between the ends of the leaves will cause the upper leaves to
bend downward at the ends and upwards toward the center, too long will give the spring a
wavy look. Both conditions produce an ineffective spring. Stepping is critical; a correctly
stepped spring can support nearly double the amount of weight than incorrectly stepped
springs

1.5 THE MAKING OF A GOOD LEAF SPRING SUSPENSION :

Achieving a smooth, nice riding and handling leaf spring suspended vehicle is very simple,
provided some basic rules are followed. Just four areas make the difference between a good
leaf spring suspension and a bad one.

1) Multi-leaf springs. Only with multi-leaf springs can the correct spring design be
achieved. Springs support weight, absorb road shock and set vehicle height. With multi-leaf
springs, critical design factors such as stepping, rate, load and spring height can be fine-
tuned.
Mono-leaf springs seem to be the fad among street rudders, however, due to production
methods; mono-leafs must be made in high volumes. Therefore, they are made with only
one rate. Because no two cars are built the same, vehicle weights vary and consistent ride
qualities cannot be achieved. Equally important is ride height. Again, due to production
methods, monos are built with the same free height. The only way to adjust ride height is by
the use of blocks. Safety is another factor, should a multi-leaf spring breaks a leaf, including
the main plate, and there are other leaves to support the vehicle. Monos do not offer this
protection.
2) End type Square ends, or constant thickness ends are great for trucks. Diamond
pointed or trimmed ends are great for better riding trucks. However, for the smoothest
riding spring, the ends must be tapered. Tapered leaf ends moves the friction area away
from the leaf ends and spreads it over a much larger area, resulting in less force needed to
flex the spring.

3) Blocks. The use of blocks to either lower or raise a vehicle is the leading cause of axle
windup and poor vehicle handling. The most secure suspension is one where an imaginary
line drawn between the spring eyes is as close to the axle seat as possible. The use of blocks
takes this line away from the axle seat resulting in a fulcrum point. This leverage point
allows the axle to pivot around the spring seat causing axle windup and handling problems.

4) Shackle angle. As a spring flexes, it grows in length. The purpose of a shackle is to

allow for this growth. Although spring rates are fixed by its makeup, the amount of force
required to move a spring can be greatly increased by incorrect shackle angle. Any shackle
angle exceeding 15 degrees is too great. Installing a Pan hard Bar on straight axle street rods
with a transverse spring will allow the spring to be lengthened so the shackle angle can be at
15 degrees or less. The resulting improvement in ride can be dramatic.
 CHAPTER -2
LITERATURE REVIEW

Leaf springs are essential elements in the suspension systems of vehicles. Though simple in
appearance, a leaf spring suspension causes many problems in modelling, thus we find
many people working in different ways in the development of leaf springs.
Influences of leaf shapes on performance of progressive multi-leaf springs by
Taehong Kim, Wonky Moon, Sungsoo Kim [1] had presented there work in International
Journal of Vehicle Design-2004, the influences of the shapes of spring leaves in a progressive
multi-leaf spring were investigated using the semi-analytic model based on the Euler beam
theory and the FEM.
Prof. George Rill [2], Germany in, Japan 2003 developed a “Leaf Spring Modelling for
Real Time Applications”. For dynamic simulation the vehicles are usually modelled by multi-
body-system (MBS), most wheel/axle suspension systems are modelled by typical multi-
body-system elements like rigid bodies, links, joints and force elements.
Aki Mikkola [3] in year 2002, Tow finite-element methods that take into account the
effect of the distributed intertie and elasticity are discussed in this investigation to model
the dynamics of leaf springs. The first is based on a floating frame of reference formulation
allows for using a reduced-order model by employing component mode synthesis
techniques, while the absolute nodal coordinate formulation enables more detailed finite-
element models for deformation of very flexible leaf springs.
Taehong Kim, and Sungsoo kin [4], influences of the shapes of spring leaves in
progressive multi-leaf spring were investigated using the semi-analytic model based on the
Euler beam theory and the FEM model using ABAQUS. The trends in shifting of the locations
of the contact point are found to change in the spring leaves.
The effect of alternative heavy truck suspensions on flexible pavement response
J.K.Hedrick and K.Yi[8] In this paper the dynamic effects of heavy vehicle suspensions are
investigated by analyzing parametric studies performed using previously developed
simulation package, VESYS, are used to look at the influence of alternative suspension types,
e.g., wailing beam, leaf spring/short rocker, air spring and semi-active shock absorbers on
pavement response .The intent of the study is to determine differences between the
suspension types as well as to look at the sensitivity to parameter changes and optimization
within a particular suspension type . The simulation results indicate that substantial
improvements in pavement longevity may be possible by careful suspension and
optimization. The automotive industry, computer simulations of vehicle durability early on
in the design process are becoming more and more important in order to decrease
development cost and product time to market.
[9] Dr.M.A.Pendlebury, 1998 had developed a leafs spring model in one of the
commercial fem package like ADAMS, and formulated the emphases the importance of
multi-body approach to finite element approach. [10] Kim, H.S., “Dynamic stress analysis of
a flexible body in multi-body systems for Fatigue life prediction” Ph.D.Thesis, Inha
University, Inchon, Korea, 1999.
 CHAPTER-3

PROBLEM DEFINITION

Even though leaf springs are the oldest type of automotive suspension, it continues to be a
popular choice for solid axles. Though simple in appearance, a leaf spring suspension causes
many problems in modelling.
The establishment and evolution of the finite element method (FEM) has
contributed greatly to the solution of many engineering problems, particularly in situations
where analytical methods become too complex, and experimental techniques appear
inappropriate because of either difficulty in application or instrumentation, or of the high
costs which may be involved. One pronounced advantages of FEM lies in the fact that it can
be used to solve a class of problems with only minor modifications once the model,
boundary conditions, and accuracy have been tested and proven. The increasing computing
power associated with faster processor speed and greater data storage capacity has also
been a catalyst in developing FE applications.
Problem Statement:-
There is currently much interest in deformation analysis of multiple bodies in contact. One
such case is the design and analysis of the automobile leaf springs. In order to accurately
model the deformations and vibrations of the leaf springs nonlinear finite-element
procedures are need to be employed with the advent of development of the contact
analysis it is appropriate to apply the contact analysis technique in the analysis of the leaf
springs. Methods for modelling the contact and friction between leaves of the spring are to
be developed. Thus it is appropriate to have perfect non-linear finite element method to
analyze the leaf springs. Effect of varying different parameters life width, length and
thickness of the leaf spring are to be investigated with the help of the commercial FEM
package ANSYS.
Element Analysis of leaf springs:

Finite element analysis of the leaf springs the following conditions are to be satisfied:
1) Each leaf should be capable of holding both tensile and compressive stress
successively.
2) Stress and deflection should be within the permissible limits.
3) Perfect contact pair should be formulated between leaves.
4) Leaves should always be bounded to each other.
5) The results demonstrating the important of having the contact pairs at the
difference levels of the leaves.
6) The effect of varying parameters by changing Material of the leaves on the stress
and stiffness are to be investigated.
 CHAPTER-4

CONVENTIONAL DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF THE

LEAFSPRINGS

4.1 Consider the standard design data:

In work the standard design specifications of rear leaf spring of “LORRY” is considered for
the study. Table 1 lists the design implications that we considered from our parametric
study. The leaf consists of seventeen leaves of which two full length and fifteen gradient
leaves are considered the leaf spring is designed to with stand a maximum load of 10000N.

GEOMETRIC VARIABLE DESIGN IMPLICATIONS

Leaf length 2L ( 1065.91mm )
nf = full length = 2
Number of leaves (n) ng = gradient = 15
t = use small “t” that will provide an
acceptable value for stress.
Leaf width (w) W = use small “w” that will provide an
acceptable value for stress.

Table 4.1 Leaf spring standard design data

4.2 Design for laminated leaf springs:-

Semi-elliptical leaf springs are almost universally used for suspension in light and heavy
commercial vehicles. The mathematical leaf-spring model is based on Euler beam theory.
Leaf springs are designed on the basis of the following considerations:
(a) Strength of the leaves
(b) Rigidity of the assembly and
(c) Comfort during by avoiding “hard” ride
Design for strength:
A diamond shaped uniform strength beam is imagined to be split and the strips places side
to form a laminated leaf spring. In order to utilize the spring material in the best possible
manner, all the leaves should be stressed to the same extent. In practice this condition is
realized by giving a greater radius of curvature to the main (on master) leaf and other full
length leaf that given in any other short leaves before the assembly of the leaves to form
the spring. This leaves a gap (a), the final assembly, between the leaves, after the assembly
the initial stress (developed due to assembly of leaves of different curvature) in full length
(top) leaves will consume a portion of the normal load, the pre-stressing of the leaves has an
opposite effect, on the shorter leaves which are usually graduated with cut edges.
Stress (σ) MPa = Equalized stress in the leaves
= 18P * L / (b * t2 (3nf + 2ng))
Spring deflection (δ) = 12 * P * L3/ (b * t3 * E (3nf + 2ng))
Spring stiffness = Load/deflection
Where,
P = total static load on the spring
E = young’s modules of the leaf material
Leaf springs are made out of flat plates. The advantage of leaf spring over helical
springs is that the end of the spring may be a guide along a definite path as it deflects to act
as a structural member in addition to energy absorbing device. Thus leaf springs may carry
lateral loads, brake torque, driving torque etc in addition to shocks. This chapter involves
the determination of bending stress by using mathematical formula. And determination of
length of leaf spring leaves, the rotation angle and radius of curvatures of each leaf.
4.2.1 Length of the leaf spring leaves:
The length of the leaf spring leaves are obtained as discussed below
Let
2Ll = length of span or overall of the spring.
l = Distance between centres of U-bolt. It is the ineffective length (E.L) of the spring
nf = Number of full length leaves
ng = Number of gradient leaves
n = Total number of leaves (nf +ng)
E.L = Effective length of the spring = 2L1-(2/3) I
Leaf spring has two full-length leaves, and then the length of each leaf is obtained as
follows:
Length of smallest leaf = (Effective length * 1 / n-1) + Ineffective length
Length of the next leaf = (Effective length * 1 / n-2) + Ineffective length
Similarly,
Length of (n-1) th leaf = (Effective length * 1 / n-2) + Ineffective length
Where d = inside diameter of eye
t = thickness of leaf
The nth leaf will be the master leaf and it is of full length, and the relation between
radius of curvature (R) and chamber (Y) of spring is given as,
Y (2R + Y) = L 12
L1 = Half span of spring
Half angle = hl*360/(R*2π).
4.3 Material for leaf spring:
4.3.1 STEEL:
The material used for leaf spring is usually a plain steel carbon having 0.90 to 1.0%
carbon. The leaves are heat treated after the forming process. The heat treatment of spring
steel products has greater strength and therefore greater load capacity, greater range of
deflection and better fatigue properties.
4.3.2 E-GLASS/EPOXY:
 The main advantages of glass fibre over others are its low cost. It has high strength , high
chemical resistance and good insulating properties.
4.3.3 EPOXY CARBON:
The advantages of Epoxy carbon include high specific strength and modulus, low coefficient
of thermal expansion and high fatigue strength.
4.3.4 TITANIUM ALLOY:
Titanium‘s material is a combination of high strength stiffness, toughness, low density and
good corrosion resistance provided by various titanium alloys. It is the most useful strongest
metal available.
4.4 Determining the thickness and width of the leaf spring:
In order to determine the optimal combinations of leaf width and thickness for semi-elliptic
leaf springs, a parametric study is performed. As started above that the rare leaf spring is
expected to a carry load of W = 10,000 N and the length of the leaf is fixed 1065.91mm.
Taking into the consideration of the standard SAE leaf thickness given in table below, we
considered three leaf spring widths 63, 75 and 90mm and the corresponding thickness 8.5,
9, 9.5, 10mm.

Table 4.2 Width Thickness to find out

thickness of (mm) (mm) leaf spring for
various widths
With 60 5.00 7.10 10.0 14.00 20.00 28.00 the standard
conventional 65 5.30 7.50 10.60 15.00 21.20 30.00 design process,
we calculated 70 5.60 8.00 11.20 16.00 22.40 31.50 the stress
values to the 75 6.00 8.50 11.80 17.00 23.60 33.50 different
combinations 80 6.30 9.00 12.50 18.00 25.00 35.50 of width and
thickness given 90 6.70 9.50 13.20 19.00 26.50 37.50 in the table
below. A graph is obtained
against the stress vs. width
and thickness combinations are given in graph below
Stress (MPa) Width 65 mm Width 75 mm Width 90 mm
Stress 8.5 mm 460.00MPa 386.408MPa 322.006MPa
Stress 9.0 mm 410.31Mpa 344.66MPa 287.22MPa
 Stress 9.5 mm 368.26MPa 309.34MPa 257.78MPa
Stress 10 mm 332.35MPa 279.18MPa 232.65MPa
Table 4.3 to find stresses based on thickness and width

5
045
040
0
Leaf 35
0
Width 30
0
(mm) 0
25
20
0
8. 9 9. 1 0
5 5 0

Leaf Thickness
(mm) Fig 4.1
Stress as a function of leaf width and thickness
It is clear from the graph some combinations are experiencing more stress, than the working
stress of 377.5MPa, and other combinations are experiencing less stress than the working
stress, than means these are the combinations, which we can consider to have the optimal
combinations of width and thickness. Now we arrive at best combination, which have
minimum cross-section area, from the Table below, we have 63mm width and 9.5 mm
thickness is the best combination, satisfying all constrains.

Thickness Cross-section area (mm2) for width of

(mm) 65mm 75mm Table
4.4 to 8 Above the mean 600 find
8.5 Above the mean 630
9 Above the mean 675.5
9.5 598.5 712.5
10 630 750

thickness based on width.

4.5 Determining the length of each leaf:
Considering the effective length of 620.4 mm and the ineffective length of 80 mm, length of
each leaf is calculated by using the conventional design process.
Length of smallest leaf
Length of 2nd leaf
Length of 3th leaf
Length of 4th leaf
Length of 5th leaf
Length of 6th leaf
Length of 7th leaf
Length of 8th leaf
Length of 9th leaf
Length of 10th leaf
= (effective length * 1/n-1) + ineffective length
= (1031.6 * 1/17) + 95
= 155.64 mm
= (effective length * (n-1)/n-1) + ineffective length
= (1031.6 * 2/17) + 95
= 216.36 mm
= (effective length * (n-1)/n-1) + ineffective length
= (1031.6 * 3/17) + 95
= 277.04 mm
= (effective length * (n-1)/n-1) + ineffective length
= (1031.6 * 4/17) + 95
= 337.72 mm
= (effective length * (n-1)/n-1) + ineffective length
= (1031.6 * 5/17) + 95
= 398.41 mm
= (effective length * (n-1)/n-1) + ineffective length
= (1031.6 * 6/17) + 95
= 458.88 mm
= (effective length * (n-1)/n-1) + ineffective length
= (1031.6 * 7/17) + 95
= 519.77 mm
= (effective length * (n-1)/n-1) + ineffective length
= (1031.6 * 8/17) + 95
= 580.45 mm
= (effective length * (n-1)/n-1) + ineffective length
= (1031.6 * 9/17) + 95
= 641.14 mm
= (effective length * (n-1)/n-1) + ineffective length
= (1031.6 * 10/17) + 95
 = 701.82 mm
Length of 11th leaf = (effective length * (n-1)/n-1) + ineffective length
= (1031.6 * 11/17) + 95
= 762.5 mm
Length of 12th leaf = (effective length * (n-1)/n-1) + ineffective length
= (1031.6 * 12/17) + 95
= 823.18 mm
Length of 13th leaf = (effective length * (n-1)/n-1) + ineffective length
= (1031.6 * 13/17) + 95
= 883.87 mm

Length of 14th leaf = (effective length * (n-1)/n-1) + ineffective length

= (1031.6 * 14/17) + 95
= 944.55 mm
Length of 15th leaf = (effective length * (n-1)/n-1) + ineffective length
= (1031.6 * 15/17) + 95
= 1005.23 mm

Length of 16th leaf = (effective length * (n-1)/n-1) + ineffective length

= (1031.6 * 16/17) + 95
= 1065.91 mm
Length of 17th leaf = (effective length * (n-1)/n-1) + ineffective length
= 1065.91 mm
Relation between Radius of curvature (R) and chamber (Y) of the spring is given by
Y (2R + Y) = L12
L1 = Half span of spring
Half angle = hl * 360/ (R * 2)
Leaf data Full length (mm) Half length (mm) Half angle (θ)

Mean leaf 1065.91 532.955 30.005

Second main leaf 1065.91 532.955 28.175

1st gradient leaf 1005.23 502.615 27.123

2nd gradient leaf 944.55 472.275 27.128

3rd gradient leaf 883.87 441.93 23.588

4th gradient leaf 823.18 411.59 22.566

5th gradient leaf 762.5 381.25 21.888

6th gradient leaf 701.82 350.91 20.761

7th gradient leaf 641.14 320.57 19.442

8th gradient leaf 580.45 290.225 17.322

9th gradient leaf 519.77 259.885 15.425

10th gradient leaf 458.88 229.44 14.728

11th gradient leaf 398.41 199.205 12.518

12th gradient leaf 337.72 168.86 12.302

13th gradient leaf 277.04 138.52 11.536

14th gradient leaf 216.36 108.18 10.629

15th gradient leaf 155.64 77.82 7.368

Table 4.5 to indicate full length half length and half angle
4.6 Validate the conventional design:
Leaf springs are designed to with stand maximum load of (W) 10,000N and length of
leaf (L) is 1065.91 mm, the effective length is 515.8mm, width of leaf (b) 65mm, thickness of
7.5mm and number of leaves n (ng=15, nf=2) = 17, the material data is young modules of
21e9 N/mm, position ratio of .3 and density of 7250 kg/cc for extracting mode shapes. We
determine safe stress and the deflection that the spring’s width stands from the
conventional formulation.

Stress (σ) MPa = Equalized stress in the leaves

= (18 *P*l)/ (b * t2 (3nf+2ng))
= 18 * 5000 *515.8/(65 *7.52(3 * 2+2 *15))
= 352.68N/mm²
Spring deflection = 12 * P L³ / (b * t³ * E (3nf + 2ng))
= (12*500*515.83) / (65*7.53*21e9*36)
= 48.81 mm
Stiffness (K) = load/deflection
= 5000/48.81
= 102.04 N/mm
Discussion:

The stress obtained by considering the thickness of 7.5mm and width of 65mm is 352.68

MPa, which is less than the design stress of 377.5MPa, with considering the factor-of-safety

as 4 (1510/4 MPa), the stiffness of the spring is102.04 N/mm which gives more comfort,

thus the design of the laminated leaf spring is safe.

 CHAPTER-5

DESIGN BY USING CATIA

There are different modules in CATIA using which different tasks can be performed.
The main window and modules of CATIA shown in figure:

FIG 5.1.CATIA V5R19

5.1 Modules in CATIA

The main modules are:

1. Part Design

2. Drafting

3. Wireframe and Surface Design

4. Assembly

5. Core & Cavity Design

1. PART DESIGN

The Version 5 Part Design application makes it possible to design precise 3D mechanical
parts with an Intuitive and flexible user interface, from sketching in an assembly context to
iterative detailed design.
Version 5 Part Design application will enable you to accommodate design requirements for
parts of various complexities, from simple to advanced.
This application, which combines the power of feature-based design with the flexibility of a
Boolean approach, offers a highly productive and intuitive design environment with multiple
design methodologies, such as post-design and local 3D parameterization.

Select Start -> Mechanical Design -> Part Design from the menu bar

SKETCHER

Sketcher application makes it possible for designers to sketch precise and rapid 2D profiles

Select the Sketcher icon and click the desired reference plane either in the geometry
area or in the specification tree, or select a planar surface. This creates a "non-positioned"
sketch (i.e. a sketch for which you do not specify the origin and orientation of the absolute
axis, which are not associative with the 3D geometry). The sketch absolute axis may "slide"
on the reference plane when the part is updated.

Select one plane of the local axis. h and v are aligned to the main axes of this selected plane.
Associatively is kept between both the plane and the sketch.
Sketching Simple Profiles

Create a profile
Use the Sketch tools toolbar or click to define lines and arcs which the profile
may be made of
Create a rectangle
Use the Sketch tools toolbar or click the rectangle extremity points one after
the other.

Create a circle
Use the Sketch tools toolbar or click to define the circle center and then one
point on the circle.

Create a three point circle

Use the Sketch tools toolbar or click to define the circle start point, second
point and end point one after the other.

Create a circle using coordinates

Use the Circle Definition dialog box to define the circle center point and
radius.

Create a tri-tangent circle

Click three elements one after the other to create a circle made of three
tangent
constraints.

Create an arc
Use the Sketch tools toolbar or click to define the arc center and then the arc
start point and end point.

Create a three point arc

Use the Sketch tools toolbar or click to define the arc start point, second point
and endpoint one after the other.

Create a three point arc (using limits)

Use the Sketch tools toolbar or click to define the arc start point, end point
and second point one after the other.

Create a spline
Click the points through which the spline will go.

Connect elements
Click the points through which the spline will go.
Create an ellipse
Use the Sketch tools toolbar or click to define the ellipse center, major semi-
axis and minor semi-axis endpoints one after the other.

Create a parabola
Click the focus, apex and then the parabola two extremity points.

Create a hyperbola
Click the focus, center and apex, and then the hyperbola two extremity points.

Create a conic
Click the desired points and eccentricity for creating an ellipse, a circle, a
parabola or a hyperbola, using tangents, if needed.

Create a line
Use the Sketch tools toolbar or click the line first and second points.

Create an infinite line

Use the Sketch tools toolbar or click the infinite line first and second points.

Create a bi-tangent line

Click two elements one after the other to create a line that is tangent to these
two elements.

Create a bisecting line

Click two lines.

Create a symmetrical extension

Use the Sketch tools toolbar or click the center point and then the extremity
point of a line that is a symmetrical extension to an existing one.

Create a point
Use the Sketch tools toolbar or click the point horizontal and vertical
coordinates.

Create a point using coordinates

Enter in the Point Definition dialog box Cartesian or polar coordinates.

Create an equidistant point

 Enter in the Equidistant Point Definition dialog box the number and spacing of
the points to be equidistantly created on a line or a curve-type element.
Create a point using intersection
Create one or more points by intersecting curve type elements via selection.
Create a point using projection
Create one or more points by projecting points onto curve type elements.

Sketching Pre-Defined Profiles

Create oriented rectangles:

Use the Sketch tools toolbar or click to define a first side for the rectangle
and then a point corresponding to the rectangle length.

Create parallelograms:
Use the Sketch tools toolbar or click to define a first side for the
parallelogram and then a point corresponding to the parallelogram length.

Create elongated hole:

Use the Sketch tools toolbar or click to define the center to center axis and
then a point corresponding to the elongated hole length and angle.

Create cylindrical elongated hole:

Use the Sketch tools toolbar or click to define the center to center circular
axis and then a point corresponding to the cylindrical elongated hole length
and angle.

Create keyhole profiles:

Use the Sketch tools toolbar or click to define the center to center axis and
then both points corresponding to both radii.

Create hexagons:
Use the Sketch tools toolbar or click to define the hexagon center and
dimension.
Performing Operations on Profiles
Create corners
Create a rounded corner (arc tangent to two curves)
between two lines
using trimming operation.

Create chamfers
Create a chamfer between two lines using trimming
operation.

Trim elements
Trim two lines (either one element or all the elements)

Trim multiple elements

Trim a few elements using a curve type element.

Break and trim

Quickly delete elements intersected by other Sketcher
elements using breaking and trimming operation.

Close elements
Close circles, ellipses or splines using relimiting operation.

Complement an arc (circle or ellipse)

Create a complementary arc.

Break elements
Break a line using a point on the line and then a point that
does not belong to the line.

Create symmetrical elements

Repeat existing Sketcher elements using a line, a
construction line oran axis.
Translate elements
Perform a translation on 2D elements by defining the
duplicate mode and then selecting the element to be
duplicated. Multi-selection is not available.

Translate elements
Perform a translation on 2D elements by defining the duplicate
mode and then selecting the element to be duplicated. Multi-
selection is not available.

Rotate elements
Rotate elements by defining the duplicate mode and then
selecting the element to be duplicated.

Scale Elements
Scale an entire profile. In other words, you are going to resize a
profile to the dimension you specify
.
Offset Elements
Duplicate a line, arc or circle type element.

Project 3D elements onto the sketch plane

Project edges (elements you select in the Part Design
workbench) onto the sketch plane.
Creating Silhouette Edges
Create silhouette edges to be used in sketches as geometry or
referenceelements.
Intersect 3D elements with the sketch plane
Intersect a face and the sketch plane.
 Setting Constraints :

Create quick dimensional/geometrical constraints

Set constraints on elements or between two or three elements. The
constraints are in priority dimensional. Use the contextual menu to get
other types of constraints and to position this constraint as desired.

Define constraint measure direction

Define the measure direction as you create a dimensional constraint.

Modify constraint definition

Double-click a constraint a modify the definition using the Constraint
Definition dialog box.

Create constraints using a dialog box

Set various geometrical constraints between one or more elements
using a dialog box and if needed, multi-selection.

5.2 OPTIONS USED TO CREATE SOLIDS:

Pad - Pad is a method of defining three-dimensional geometry by projecting a two-

dimensional section at a specified distance normal to the sketching plane.

Pocket - Pocket is a method of extruding a profile or a surface and removing the material
resulting from the extrusion

Shaft - The Shaft tool creates a feature by revolving a sketched section around a centerline.

Fillet - A fillet is a curved face of a constant or variable radius that is tangent to, and that
joins, two surfaces. Together, these three surfaces form either an inside corner or an
outside corner

Chamfer - Chamfering consists in removing or adding a flat section from a selected edge to
create a bevelled surface between the two original faces common to that edge.

Draft - Drafts are defined on moulded parts to make them easier to remove from moulds.

Thickness – Adds or removes to the faces.

Translation – Moving a body.

Mirror - Mirroring a body or a list of features consists in duplicating these elements using a
symmetry by selecting a face or plane as reference.

Pattern - To duplicate the whole geometry of one or more features and to position this
geometry on a part.

5.3REFERENCE ELEMENTS:

Reference elements are used as references for constructing the model. They are not
geometry features, but they aid in geometry construction by acting as references for
sketching a feature, orienting the model, assembles, components, and so on. Because of
their versatility references are frequently used.

i.Reference plane

ii.Reference line

iii.Reference points

i.Reference plane

Datum planes are used as reference to construct feature. Datum planes are considered
Feature, but they are not considered model geometry. Datum planes can be created and
used as a sketch plane where no suitable exists.

Reference plane options used are: Through plane, Offset plane, offset coordinate system,
Blend section, Through axis, Through Point/Vertex, Normal to axis, Tangent to cylinder,
Angle to the plane etc.
ii.Reference line

Reference lines are used to create surfaces and other features, or as a sweep trajectories.
User sketch reference line in the same manner as any other features. Sketched curves can
consist of one or more sketched segment and of one or more open or closed loop.

Reference lines option used are: Sketch, Intersection surface, Thru point, Form file,
Composite, Projected, Formed, Split, Offset from surface, from curve, from curve, from
boundary, Offset curve, Form equation etc.

iii.Reference points

Points are used to specify point loads for mesh generation, attach datum targets and notes
in drawings, and create coordinate systems and pipe feature trajectories. User can also
place axis, planes, holes and shafts at a point.

Point options used are: On surface, Offset surface, Curve coordinate surface, on vertex,
Offset coordinate system, Three surface, at center, on curve, on surface, Offset point etc.

2. GENERATIVE DRAFTING

Generative Drafting is a new generation product that provides users with powerful
functionalities to
generate drawings from 3D parts and assembly definitions.

The Generative Drafting has been designed to show you how to generate drawings of varying
levels of complexity, as well as apply dimensions, annotations and dress-up elements to these
drawing.

Start – Mechanical Design – Drafting

5.4 Views

Front View - A front view is a projection view obtained by drawing perpendiculars from all
points on the edges of the part to the plane of projection. The plane of projection upon
which the front view is projected is called the frontal plane.

Projection View – Projection views are views conceived to be drawn or projected onto
planes known as projection planes. A transparent plane or pane of glass representing a
projection plane is located parallel to the front surfaces of the part.

Isometric View – The Isometric View command enables to create a 2D view with any
orientation, this orientation being the same as the one in the 3D viewer. Among other
results, and depending on how the 3D viewer is oriented when created the view, can obtain
a regular X-Y-Z isometric view.

5.5 Dimensioning

Generate Dimensions - To generate dimensions in one shot from the constraints of a 3D

part. Only the following constraints can be generated: distance, length, angle, radius and
diameter.

Dimensions - To create and modify dimensions. These dimensions will be associative to the
elements created from a part or an assembly. When created, these elements are associated
with a view.

Generate Balloons – To generate balloons automatically to the components of an assembly

which are previously generated in assembly.

Text - To create a text, with possible line wrapping.

3.WIREFRAME & SURFACE DESIGN

The Wireframe and Surface DESIGN allows you to create wireframe construction elements
during preliminary design and enrich existing 3D mechanical part design with wireframe and
basic surface features. As a complement to Part Design, this product meets the
requirements of solids-based hybrid modeling.

5.6 INTRODUCTION TO SURFACES:

 A surface is a geometric feature with no defined thickness. The wall of surface
feature does not have a defined thickness. Surface tools are used to create geometric
shapes with complex contours and relations. A quilt is a combination of one or more surface
features.

Start – Mechanical Design – Wireframe and Surface Design

SURFACEOPTIONS IN WIRE FRAME and SURFACES:

In surface modeling most of the options available are similar to options found under
the solid options menu. Wireframe and Surface creation options are Point Repetition,

Polyline, Circle, Spline, Helix, Extrude, Revolve, Cylinder, Sphere, Sweep, Multi-
section surface, Offset.

The wireframe options are used to create lines, circles and splines in 3D itself. Helix
command is used to create helical 3d curves.

SURFACE OPERATIONS:

The surface operations are: Join, Healing, Disassemble, Split, Trim, Boundary, Extract, and
Extrapolate.

Join – To join surfaces or curves

Healing – To join surfaces with some gap.

Disassemble - To unjoin single surfaces.

Split – To cut a curve by using a point, curve, surface and plane. To cut a surface by using a
curve or a surface or a plane.

Trim – To cut two surfaces.

4. ASSEMBLY

CATIA’s assembly module allows parts to be grouped into assemblies or subassemblies to

model a complete part. Assembly Design allows the design of assemblies with an intuitive
and
flexible user interface.
 Start  Mechanical design  Assembly design

5.7 TYPES OF ASSEMBLIES

BOTTOM UP ASSEMBLY
Parts of the assembly are created in respective part files and assembled in assembly file.
Used for components having lesser parts.

TOP DOWN ASSEMBLY

Parts are created in the assembly file itself. Used for components having more parts.

Assembly Procedure
To assemble the already created components, select Product name in specification tree –
right click – select Components – select Existing components
OR
To create parts in the assembly itself, select Product name in specification tree – right click –
select Components – select New part or select New Component or New Product to create a
sub assembly.
Apply constraints to the components to assemble.

CONSTRAINT TYPES
Coincidence, Contact, Offset, Angle, Fix, Fix Together, Quick Constraint

3.5 Bill of Material [BOM]

The Bill of Materials (BOM) provides a listing of all parts and parameters in the current
assembly.
BOM is a table to display the number and name of the components belonging to the active
component as well as the properties of these components.

Generate Numbering – Generates numbers to all parts.

Manipulation - A freehand translation or rotation of a component with the mouse by

specifying directions.
ASSEMBLING A COMPONENT INTO A PATTERN:
Assemble it to the leader of an existing component or feature pattern; then pattern using
Reuse pattern. A pattern must exit in ordered to use this option.

CATALOG: In catalog standard we can get standard nuts, bolts , keys , pins , screw ,
washers, by selecting the required standard size and pitch by clicking ok we can get to
assembly and we can use it.

5.8 DESIGN OF LEAFSPRING IN CATIA SOFTWARE

Open the CATIA Software

↓
Start
↓
Mechanical Design
↓
Part Design
↓
OK
1. (Enter part name as: Leaf 1)→OK
↓
Select plane click on sketch
 ↓
Click on exit work bench
↓
click on insert
↓
click on sketch based features
↓
click on pad
↓
Specify length 38.1mm

↓
select plane click on sketch icon
↓
Create a sketch

↓
Click on exit work bench

↓
click on insert
↓
click on sketch based features
↓
click on pocket
↓
Specify upto next
 ↓
Create the 13 parts as same process
↓
Assemble the 13 parts
↓
 CHAPTER – 6

TESTING & VALIDATION

6.1Procedure for leaf spring analysing using ANSYS work bench

6.1.1 Basics of Finite Element Analysis

The Finite Element Method is firmly established as a powerful and popular

analysis tool. It is a numerical procedure for analyzing structures and continua. Usually when
the problem addressed is too complicated to be solved satisfactorily by classical analytical
methods. The Finite Element procedure produces many simultaneous algebraic equations,
which are generated and solved on a digital computer. The Finite Element Method
originated as a method of stress analysis. Today Finite Element Methods are also used to
analyze problems of heat transfer, fluid flow, lubrication, electric and magnetic fields. Finite
element procedures are used in design of buildings, electric motors, heat engines, ships,
airframes and spacecrafts.
The process of subdividing all systems into their individual components or
elements whose behavior is readily understood and then rebuilding the original system from
such components to study its behavior is a natural way in which the engineer, the scientist
or even the economist proceeds.
The Finite Element Method, in general, models a structure as an
assemblage of small elements. Each element is of simple geometry and therefore is much
easier to analyze than the actual structure.
In many situations an adequate model is obtained using a finite number of
well-defined components. Such problems are termed as Discrete. In others the subdivision
is continued indefinitely and the problem can only be defined using the mathematical fiction
of an infinitesimal. This leads to differential equations or equivalent statements that imply
an infinite number of elements. Such systems are termed as Continuous.
FEA has become a solution to the task of predicting failure due to unknown stresses
by showing problem areas in a material and allowing designers to see all of the theoretical
stresses within. This method of product design and testing is far superior to the
manufacturing costs, which would accrue if each sample was actually built and tested.
Many FEA programs also are equipped with the capability to use multiple materials within
the structure such as Isotropic, identical throughout Orthotropic, identical at 90 degrees
General anisotropic, different throughout FEA consists of a computer model of a material or
design that is stressed and analyzed for specific results. It is used in new product design, and
existing product refinement. A company is able to verify a proposed design will be able to
perform to the client's specifications prior to manufacturing or construction. Modifying an
existing product or structure is utilized to qualify the product or structure for a new service
condition. In case of structural failure, FEA may be used to help determine the design
modifications to meet the new condition.
FEA uses a complex system of points called nodes, which make a grid
called a mesh. This mesh is programmed to contain the material and structural properties,
which define how the structure will react to certain loading conditions. Nodes are assigned
at a certain density throughout the material depending on the anticipated stress levels of a
particular area. Regions, which will receive large amounts of stress usually, have a higher
node density than those, which experience little or no stress. Points of interest may consist
of: fracture point of previously tested material, fillets, corners, complex detail, and high
stress areas. The mesh acts like a spider web in that from each node, there extends a mesh
element to each of the adjacent nodes. This web of vectors is what carries the material
properties to the object, creating many elements.

6.1.2 General Description of F.E.M.

The finite element method is a method of piecewise approximation in which the

actual body of matter is considered as an integrated part of small elements known as finite
elements. These elements are connected with one another at the joints called nodes or
nodal points. Since the actual variation of the field variable like displacement, stress,
temperature, pressure or velocity inside the continuum is not known the variation of the
field variable inside the finite element can be approximated by a simple function called
interpolation model which is defined in terms of field variables at nodes. Field equations can
be written in the form of matrix equations and are solved for the nodal values of the field
variables. The approximating functions define the variable through out the assemblage of
finite elements.
 The solution of a general continuum problem by the finite element method always
follows an orderly step-by-step process. With reference to static structural problems the
step-by-step procedure can be stated as follows:

Step 1 Discretization of the structure

The first step in the finite element method is to divide the structure or solution
region into elements. Hence the structure is to be modelled with suitable finite elements.
The number, size and arrangement of the elements are the input parameters.
Step 2 Selection of proper interpolation or Displacement model since the
displacement solution of a complex structure under any specified load conditions cannot be
predicted exactly, some suitable solution with in an element is assumed to approximate the
unknown solution. The assumed solution must be simple from computational point of view,
but should satisfy certain convergence requirements. In general the solution or the
interpolation model is taken in the form of a polynomial.

Step 3 Derivation of element stiffness matrix and load vectors

The stiffness matrix [K(e)] and the load vector {F(e)} of element ‘e’ are derived from the
assumed displacement model by using either equilibrium conditions or a suitable variation
principle.

Step 4 Assemblage of element equations to detain the overall equilibrium equations.

The individual element stiffness matrices and load vectors are assembled in a
suitable manner, as the structure is an assemblage of these elements. The overall
equilibrium equations are formulated as [K] {q} = {F} Where [K] is called the assembled
stiffness matrix, {q} is the vector of nodal displacements and F is the vector of nodal forces
for the complete structure.

Step 5 Solution for the unknown nodal displacements

The overall equilibrium equations are modified to account for the boundary
conditions. After the incorporation of the boundary conditions the equilibrium equations
can be expressed as
[K] {q} = {F} For liner problems, the vector q can be solved very easily. But for non liner
problems the solution obtained in a sequence of steps, each step involving the modification
of the stiffness matrix [K] and/or the load vector {F}.

Step 6: Computation of element stresses and strains

From the know displacements {q} the element stresses & strains can be computed by
using the necessary equations of solution or structural mechanics. The finite element
method is used to solve physical problems in engineering analysis and design. The physical
problem involves an actual structure or structural component subjected to certain loads.
The idealization of physical problem to a mathematical model requires certain
assumptions that together lead to differential equations governing the mathematical model.
The finite element analysis solves this mathematical model. Since the finite element solution
technique is a numerical procedure, it is necessary to assess the solution accuracy. If the
accuracy criteria are not met, the numerical solution has to be repeated with refined
solution parameters such as finer mesh element until a sufficient accuracy is reached.
6.1.3 Application
FEM was developed originally for the analysis of aircraft structures however,
the general nature of its concept makes it applicable to a wide variety of boundary value
problems in engineering. Specific applications of the finite element method in three major
categories of boundary value problems namely (1) Equilibrium or steady state or time
independent problems (2) Eigen value problems (3) Propagation or transient problems. In
equilibrium problem steady state displacement or stress distribution is found for a solid
mechanics problem, temperature or heat flux distribution in the case of a heat transfer
problem. Referring to Eigen value problems in solid mechanics or structural problem natural
frequencies and buckling loads and mode shapes are found, stability of laminar flows in fluid
mechanics problem, resonance characteristics if it is an electrical circuit problem. While for
the propagation or transient problems the response of the body under time varying force is
found in the area of solid mechanics. FEM finds its application in the field of civil engineering
in carrying out the static analysis of trusses, frames and bridges. The dynamic behaviour of
the structures is for obtaining natural frequencies, modes and response of structures to
periodic loads. FEM is the best tool in investigation of aircraft structures involving static
analysis of wings, structures of rockets and missiles, dynamic analysis, response to random
loads and a periodic load.
 In solving heat conduction problems, the steady state temperature distribution in
solids, fluids, transient heat flow in flow systems, FEM is the better method. It can be
applied for the analysis of excavations, underground openings, dynamics analysis of dam
reservoir systems, which come under geo-mechanics. For carrying out the analysis of
potential flows, boundary layer flows and transient aerodynamic problems in the field of
hydraulic and water resource engineering including the analysis of unsteady fluid flow and
water propagation problems.

A Problem Anticipate Plan an initial Pre-process:

Must be solved physical FE model prepare the FE
behaviour plan model
how FE results
will be checked
to see if they are
reasonable. Plan a revised
Is FE analysis FE model using
required? insight
provided by Solve equations
Yes the current FE of the FE model
model

Analytical or
experimental Yes
solution

Post process:
display FE results
Stop Are results reasonable?
Are error estimates small?
Does model revision do little
To alter computed results?
Computer
software
FIG 6.1
Nuclear engineering also uses the concept, FEM in static and dynamic characterization of
its systems viz., nuclear pressure vessels, containment structures and dynamic response of
reactor containment structures. In mechanical design, stress concentration problems, stress
analysis of pressure vessels, dynamic analysis of mechanical linkages and gears can be
effectively dealt using FEM. Even the Bio-medical engineering applies FEM, for impact
analysis of skills. The transient behaviour of electro mechanical devices comes under other f
6.1.4 Governing Equation in FEM
 Large size problems handled by modern digital computers connected
with the static and dynamic linear analysis of complicated machines or structures are
generally of the form.

[M]{Ü}+[C] { U̇ } + [K] {U} = {f (t)}

Where [M] represents the global mass matrix,
[C] represents the global damping matrix,
[K] represents the global stiffness matrix,
f(t) represents force function vector in time,
{U} represents the nodal displacement vector respectively.
Case (i): When [M] and [C] are absent, [K] and f(t) is constants, the result is a static linear
problem.
Case (ii): When [M] and [C] are absent, [K] is a function of U and f(t) is constant, the result is
a non-linear problem.
Case (iii): When f(t) and [C] are absent, [M] and [K] are constants, one gets an eigen value
problem.
Case (iv): When [M], [C], [K] are constants and {f (t)} is a periodic forcing function, the result
is multi degrees of freedom steady state vibration problem.
Case (v): When [M], [C], [K] are constants and {f (t)} is a transient function of time, the result
is a transient vibration problem.

6.1.5 Advantages of FEM over other Approximate Methods

 The material properties in the adjacent materials need not be the same. The FEM
can be applied to bodies composed of different materials.
 Irregular shaped boundaries can be approximated using elements with straight
boundaries or matched exactly using with curved boundaries only.
 The size of the elements can be varied. This property allows the element grid to be
expanded or redefined, as the need exists.
 Boundary condition such as discontinuous surface loading presents no difficulties for
the method. Moreover, mixed boundary conditions can be easily handled.
 A general computer program for a particular set of related problems could be
developed.
6.1.6 Disadvantages of FEM

 A specific numeric result is obtained for a specific problem.

 A lot of experience, skill and judgment are needed in order to construct a good finite
element model.
 Input data may be large and tedious to prepare and interact.

6.1.7 Analysis in ANSYS

The accurate prediction of the temperature distribution as well as the maximum
temperature attained during braking will enable the engineer to design against undesirable
effects like disc warping. Furthermore, the using of FEA software to simulate deformations,
equivalent stress developed (von- misses’ stress) and temperature distribution can greatly
reduce testing time and improve efficiency in the future designing of brake discs. This
project presents the systematic clarification of the static structural analysis and transient
thermal analysis of disc brake by ANSYS software. ANSYS will analyze the stress distribution
on the disc rotor during operation and prediction of failure regions can be made. This
analysis is done in ANSYS work bench environment.

6.1.8 ANSYS Workbench

The ANSYS Workbench interface consists primarily of a Toolbox region, the Project
Schematic, the Toolbar, and the Menu bar. Depending on the analysis type and/or
application or workspace, you may also see other windows, tables, charts, etc. One way to
work in ANSYS Workbench is to drag an item such as a component or analysis system from
the Toolbox to the Project Schematic or to double-click on an item to initiate the default
action. You can also use the context menus, accessible from a right-mouse click, for
additional options. You will view your analysis systems in the components that make up
your analysis in the Project Schematic, including all connections and links between the
systems. The individual applications in which you work will display separately from the
ANSYS Workbench GUI, but the results of the actions you take in the applications may be
reflected in the Project Schematic. The ANSYS Workbench interface is arranged into two
primary areas: The Toolbox and the Project Schematic.
The Toolbox contains the system templates that you can use to build a project. The Project
Schematic is the area of the interface where you will manage your project. In addition, you
will see a toolbar and a menu bar with frequently used functions. To start a new analysis,
select a system from the Toolbox and double-click or drag it onto the Project Schematic. An
analysis system block appears in the Project Schematic. It will contain the components,
called cells, required to complete the analysis, as well as optional components such as
Resources. Items that must be completed before you can continue are indicated with an
Attention required state indicator.

Fig 6.2 Steady State Coupled Field Analysis

After you add an analysis system, you can load an existing geometry by right-clicking on the
Geometry cell of the analysis system and choosing Import Geometry from the context
menu. After you import geometry, you can edit it in Design Modeler by selecting Edit from
the context menu. Once your geometry is complete to your satisfaction, right-click on the
Setup cell and select Edit. Your model will open the appropriate application (CFX, ANSYS,
FLUENT, etc.). From there, you can set up your model and solve your analysis using the tools
and features of that application. To open Design Modeler and create a new geometry, right
click on the Geometry cell and choose New Geometry.
You can then build your new geometry in the Design Modeller window that opens.
Alternatively, you can add a Design Modeler system to the Project Schematic. The use of
Finite Element Analysis for the structural engineering is an important advantage. The design
of the structural not only benefits, but may require the use of this advanced analysis
approach. The nature of structural components involves several concerns and requirements.
Safety, reliability, strength, stiffness, and low cost all come into the picture. Coupled with
this, are the additional design requirements of interference, manufacturability, and over all
function. By using finite element modeling as a primary analysis tool, the constraints of
creativity are removed. It provides a powerful procedure to mathematically model physical
phenomenon

6.1.9 The Basic Procedure in ANSYS Work Bench

1. Select your desired analysis system from the Toolbox (at left), drag it into the Project
Schematic (at right), and drop it inside the highlighted rectangle.
2. Right-click on the Geometry cell to create a new geometry or import existing geometry.
3. Continue working through the system from top to bottom. Right-click and selected ton a
cell to start the appropriate application and define the details for that part of the analysis.
As you complete each task, a green check mark appears in the cell, indicating that you can
proceed to the next cell. ANSYS Workbench automatically transfers your data between cells.
When you select Save (either from the ANSYS Workbench window Orin an application), the
entire project is saved. You can connect systems to build more complex projects.
 Task Procedure Project Schematic

Access Engineering 1. Double-click the Engineering Data cell or right-click the

In the Engineering Data cell and select Edit..
Data.

Import data into a 1. Access Engineering Data.

Data source. 2. Select a data source in the Outline Filter pane.
3. Check the Edit library box to the right of the data source
Title.
4. Choose File> Import Engineering Data....
5. Select a file and choose Open.
Note: Only recognized data will be imported into the data
Source.

Export a Data 1. Access Engineering Data.

Source 2. Select a data source in the Outline Filter pane.
3. Choose File> Export Engineering Data....
4.In the Save As dialog, select the folder, provide a
Filename, and choose Save.

Export Individual 1. Access Engineering Data.

Data 2. Select a data source in the Outline Filter pane.
3. Select one or more items in the Outline pane.
4. Choose File> Export Engineering Data....
5. In the Save As dialog, select the folder, provide a
Filename and choose save.
PROJECT SCHEMATIC
 Combine Data 1. Perform the "Import Data as a data source" task for each
Sources Of the data sources you want to combine.
2. Perform the "Edit a data source" task to combine into an
existing data source, or perform the "Create a library"
task to combine into a new library.
3. Select a data source.
4. From the Outline pane drag the item of interest into the
Outline Filter pan.

Tab 6.1

6.1.10 Analysis procedure for an propeller blade

Step 1:Start → programs → ANSYS work bench 12.0 → Open

Then below fig will be open

STEP-2 In the left hand said below the window select the analysis systems For
getting static analysis click two times on a static structural
 Then the above window will appear

1. Static Structural : It indicates the type of analysis what we should carried out.
2. Engineering data : It indicates the material properties adding from the library
3. Geometry : Here the geometry will be imported from the files.
4. Model: Here model will be generated
5. Setup: Here process will be performed
6. Solutions: Here solutions will carried out
7. Results: Finally results will be generated

STEP-3 For any modification select the engineering data and click two
times then below window will appear after selecting the material
/modifying the material physical properties In that window select the
window update project and return project. It generates the data as
shown in below fig

STEP-4 Then right click on the geometry it displays new

geometry / import geometry For importing Select the import
geometry then browse thee model in .igs /stp format .igs means (initial graphics exchange
specification

As shown below

STEP-5 For mixing of two fields go to setup and right click transfer data from
new /Transfer data to new

 Transfer data from new

 Transfer data to new
 STEP-6 Set the boundary conditions (forces and fixing degree of freedom). For
applying boundary conditions like loading and fixing
Go to analysis settings…then…go to insert..
 For fixed support and forces select the surfaces, edges, volumes..etc
 For thermal analysis thermal conditions select the temp, heat flux..etc
 For free vibration (modal analysis)analysis only fixing conditions No load
can Carried out .

STEP-7:Then go to mesh and right click on generate mesh meshing will be performed
STEP-8 After the above settings go to solution ..in right window
Insert the stress, deformation etc Then solve as shown below
STEP -9 After solving the results can capture in Microsoft Office Word Go to print review
select …and send to Microsoft word…..

FOR MATERIAL 1: [TITANIUM ALLOY]

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF TITANIUM ALLOY

Mechanical properties Units Value

Young's modulus Gpa 113.8
Shear modulus Gpa 44
Poission ratio - 0.342
Density Kg/m3 4.443x10*3
Yield strength Mpa 880
Tab 6.2
Loads
 Mesh

Equivalent Elastic stress

 Total Deformation

Maximum Principal Stress

For material 2 [EPOXY GLASS]:

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF EPOXY GLASS

Mechanical properties Units Value

Young's modulus Gpa

Shear modulus Gpa

Poission ratio -

Density Kg/m3

Yield strength Mpa

Tab 6.3.
Material 3 [EPOXY CARBON]:
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF EPOXY CARBON

Mechanical properties Units Value

Young's modulus Gpa

Shear modulus Gpa

Poission ratio  -

Density Kg/m3

Yield strength Mpa

Tab 6.4
MATERIAL4[STEEL]:

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL

Mechanical properties Units Value

Young's modulus Gpa 207

Shear modulus Gpa 80

Poission ratio - 0.3

Density Kg/m3 7600

Yield strength Mpa 370

Tab 6.5
 CHAPTER-7

CONCLUSION
The composite leaf is designed, fabricated, tested experimentally and
numerically using static and fatigue analysis.The leaf spring made of glass fiber
reinforcement polymer material shows higher strength and life when
compared to conventional leaf spring. The leaf spring is tested for Goodman’s
Curve, Soderberg’s Curve, and Gerber’s Curve. The result shows Gerber’s curve
as best suitable parameter for selecting the life of composite leaf spring. The
achievement of the tests and analysis on composite leaf spring indicates that
the composite leaf spring is significantly better alternate to conventional leaf
spring. Based on the studies of literature survey and the on going work we
have come across to various ideas which can be explored in several methods to
fabricate the composite leaf spring, by using different hybrid materials like
carbon/glass fiber, carbon/aramid fiber, glass/nylon fiber…. etc. and it has
been observed that fatigue testing has not been done experimentally in any of
the previous work and it should be done in future work. The leaf springs can
also replace the rear shock absorbers in light weight vehicles.