Advanced Structural Engineering: P B Z, M J S M A A

Adv Structural Engineering
(MHH223204/MHH225189)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING
PROFESSOR BEN ZHANG, MS JILL SUTCLIFFE

AND MR ATHANASIOS ANTYRAS
School of Computing, Engineering and Built Environment
Glasgow Caledonian University
1. EUROCODES AND EN 1992

1.1 Introduction of Eurocodes
1.2 EN 1992 Design of Concrete Structures
1.3 Design of Reinforced Concrete Flat Slabs
2. DESIGN OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE TO EN 1992
2.1 Introduction of Prestressed Concrete
2.2 Design of Prestressed Concrete to EN 1992
3. DESIGN OF COMPOSITE PC-RC STRUCTURES
4. STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS
4.1 Basic Concepts
4.2 Equation of Motion and Natural Frequency
4.3 Undamped Free Vibration
4.4 Damped Free Vibration
5. YIELD LINE ANALYSIS
5.1 Introduction to Yield Line Analysis
5.2 The Work Method of Analysis
5.3 Standard Formulae for RC Slabs
6. EARTHQUAKE DESIGN TO EN 1998
(MHH223204/MHH225189)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1. EUROCODES AND EN 1992
1.1 Introduction of Eurocodes

1.2 EN 1992 Design of Concrete Structures
1.3 Design of Reinforced Concrete Flat Slabs
1. EUROCODES AND EN 1992 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES
MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering
 1.1 Introduction to Eurocodes

 1.1.1 General of Eurocodes
What are the Eurocodes?
 Eurocodes (also ENs or ECs) are a set of European
Standards that contain common rules for the structural
design of buildings and other civil engineering works,
developed by the Comité Européen de Normalisation
1.1 INTRODUCTION OF EUROCODES (CEN) – the European Committee for Standardisation.
 Eurocodes embody National experience and research
output, together with the expertise of CEN Technical 250
Professor Ben Zhang (CEN/250) and other international organisations.
Professor Ben Zhang 2 1. EUROCODES AND EN 1992
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES
Initial aims of the Eurocodes programme Essential requirements of Eurocodes

 to eliminate technical obstacles to trade between the Member
 Mechanical resistance and stability (ultimate limit state)
States
 to harmonise technical specifications.  Safety in case of a fire (ultimate limit state)
 Hygiene, health and environment
Main objective of Eurocodes  Safety in use (serviceability limit state)
 to establish a set of common technical rules for the design of  Protection against noise
buildings and civil engineering works which will ultimately  Energy economy and heat retention.
replace the differing rules in the various Member States.
MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering

Professor Ben Zhang 3 Professor Ben Zhang 4
1. EUROCODES AND EN 1992 1. EUROCODES AND EN 1992
EN 1990 Eurocode 0 Structural safety,
Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design serviceability and
durability Eurocode or EC (EN 1990)
EN 1991 Eurocode 1
Actions on Structures Actions on
structures
 EC is the head document in the Eurocode suite and
EN 1992 Eurocode 2 EN 1993 Eurocode 3
establishes for all the structural Eurocodes the principles
Design of Concrete Structures Design of Steel Structures
and requirements for safety, serviceability and durability of
Structure EN 1994 Eurocode 4 EN 1995 Eurocode 5 structures.
and links Design of Composite Steel and
Concrete Structures
Design of Timber Structures Design and
detailing
 EC further describes the basis of design and verification and
between EN 1996 Eurocode 6 EN 1999 Eurocode 9
Design of Aluminium Structures provides guidelines for related aspects of structural
Eurocodes
Design of Masonry Structures
reliability.
EN 1997 Eurocode 7 EN 1998 Eurocode 8 Geotechnical and

Geotechnical Design Design of Structures for Earthquake seismic design
Resistance Structural Design

Eurocode or EC (EN 1990) Eurocode 1 or EC1 (EN 1991)

 EC provides the basis and general principles for structural  EC1 is the second only to EN 1990 and provides
design of buildings and civil engineering works, including comprehensive information on all actions that should
geotechnical aspects, structural fire design and situations normally be considered in the design of building and civil
involving earthquakes, execution and temporary structures, engineering works.
and must be used in conjunction with EN 1991 to EN 1999.
 It consists of four parts with:
 EC gives all the operative material independent rules, e.g.
─ Part 1 covering self and imposed loads and actions due to
partial factors for actions, load combination expressions for
fire, snow, wind, heat, construction and accidents.
ultimate and serviceability limit states. EN 1992 to EN 1999
do not provide material independent guidance so they ─ Parts 2 to 4 cover traffic loads on bridges, actions by
cannot be used without EN 1990. cranes and machinery and actions in silos and tanks.

Eurocodes 2-6 & 9 or EC2-6 & 9 Eurocodes 7 & 8 or EC7 & 8

 EC2, EC3, EC4, EC5, EC6 and EC9 give specific rules for  EC7 and EC8 cover the basic performance requirements
the design of buildings and civil engineering works in and compliance criteria applicable to buildings and civil
different construction materials (concrete, steel, composite engineering works in geotechnical and seismic design, and
steel and concrete, timber, masonry and aluminium). Theses apply to all construction materials.
codes, however, have to comply with the principles and
requirements for safety and serviceability of structures and
basis of design and verification given in EC and various
types of actions defined in EC1.


National Annex for Eurocodes
National Standard implementing a Eurocode
 The National Annex to a Eurocode may only contain National Title Page
information on those parameters which are left open in the National Forward
Eurocodes for national choice, the Nationally Determined
EN Title Page
Parameters (NDPs), to be used for the design of buildings
and civil engineering works to be constructed in the country EN text
concerned: EN Annexes
─ values and/or classes where alternatives are given in the Eurocode National
Annexes
─ values to be used where only a symbol is given in the Eurocode
─ country-specific data (geographical, climate, etc.), e.g. wind map,
snow map, etc.
─ procedures to be used where alternative procedures are given in the
Eurocode.
 It may also contain:
─ decisions on the application of informative annexes
─ references to non-contradictory complementary information.
 1.1.2 EN 1990 Eurocode: Basis of structural Basis of Eurocode 1990 (EC)

design (EC)
 Limit state concept
Information about EC
 As the head document in the Eurocode suite, EN 1990 is used in conjunction with
introduced for assessing other actions and their combinations,
modelling materials and structural behaviour and assessing  Partial factor method
numerical values of the reliability format. This will benefit the
following users: standard drafting committees, clients,
designers, contractors and relevant authorities. The latest
version of EN 1990 was approved in 2002.

Objectives of EN 1990 Requirements for design working life

Design working Notional design Examples
 EN 1990 describes the principles and requirements for life category working life (years)
1 10 (10) Temporary structures, e.g. scaffolding
̶ Safety
2 10 to 30 Replaceable structural parts, e.g. gantry girders,
̶ Serviceability (10 to 25) bearings
̶ Durability 3 15 to 25 Agricultural and similar structures

(15 to 30)
of structures. 4
50 (50)
Building structures and other common
structures, e.g. hospitals, schools
5 Monumental building structures, bridges and other
120 (100)
civil engineering structures, e.g. churches

Design situations Two types of limit states

 Design situations can be classified as  Ultimate Limit States (ULS) concern
̶ Persistent: “normal” use, e.g. occupancy ̶ Safety of people
̶ Transient: temporary conditions, e.g. execution ̶ Safety of the structure and its contents
̶ Accidental: exceptional conditions, e.g. fire, explosion,  Serviceability Limit States (SLS) concern
impact or the local failure
̶ Functioning of the structure under normal use
̶ Seismic: seismic events, e.g. earthquake
̶ Comfort of people
̶ Appearance of the construction works
 Information on specific design situations is given in EN 1991
– EN 1999

Ultimate limit states (ULS) Serviceability limit states (SLS)

 Concern  Concern
̶ Safety of people ̶ Functioning of the structure under normal use
̶ Safety of the structure and its contents. ̶ Comfort of people
̶ Appearance of the construction works.
 May take the forms
̶ Loss of equilibrium of the structure or part as a rigid body  May take the forms
̶ Failure by rupture, fatigue or excessive deformation ̶ Deformations
̶ Instability of the structure or its part ̶ Vibrations
̶ Transformation of the structure or its part ̶ Damage adversely effecting durability.
̶ Sudden change of the structural system to a new system.

Classification of actions Characteristic values of actions
 Actions are often classified by their variation in time as:  In addition to the characteristic values of variable actions,
three representative coefficient are specified here:
̶ Permanent actions (G): self-weight of structures, fittings,
ancillaries and fixed equipment, ̶ combination value 0 Qk
prestressing force ̶ frequent value 1 Qk
̶ Variable actions (Q): imposed loads, wind loads or snow ̶ quasi-permanent value 2 Qk
loads
̶ Accidental actions (A): explosions or impact from
vehicles

Recommended values of  for buildings

Design values of actions, Fd
Action 0 1 2
Imposed loads in buildings, category (EN1991-1-1)
Category A: domestic, residential areas
Category B: office areas
0.7
0.7
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.3
Fd = f Frep = f  Fk (6.1a/b)
Category C: congregation areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category D: shopping areas 0.7 0.7 0.6 where
Category E: storage areas 1.0 0.9 0.8
Category F: traffic areas, vehicle weight  30 kN 0.7 0.7 0.6 Note: The figures Frep is the relevant representative value of the action and
Category G: traffic areas, 0.7 0.5 0.3 are quoted from Frep =  Fk
30 kN < vehicle weight  160 kN Table NA.1.1 of
Category E: roofs 0.7(0.0) 0.0 0.0 the UK National Fk is the characteristic value of the action
Snow loads on buildings in UK, for sites located 0.7 0.5 0.2 Annex to EN 1990  is a modification factor for actions and  = 1.0, or 0, 1 or 2
at altitude H > 1000 m a.s.l. (EN1991-1-3)
and those in the f is a partial factor for the action that takes into account the
Snow loads on buildings in UK, for sites located 0.5 0.2 0.0
at altitude H  1000 m a.s.l. (EN1991-1-3) brackets are possibility of unfavourable deviations of the action values from
Wind loads on buildings (EN1991-1-5) 0.5(0.6) 0.2 0.0 quoted from Table the representative values.
Temperature in buildings (EN1991-1-5) 0.6 0.5 0.0 1.1 of EN 1990.

Design values of the effects of actions, Ed Design values of material or product properties, Xd
Ed = Sd Ef,i Frep,i; ad = Sd Ef,i  Fk,i; ad i  1
(6.2a) Xd =  Xk / m (6.3)
Ed = EF,i Frep,i; ad = EF,i  Fk,i; adi  1 where
(6.2b) Xk is the characteristic value of the material or product property
where  is the mean value of the conversion factor which takes into
Fk,i is the characteristic value of action i
account volume and scale effects, moisture and temperature
Frep,i is the relevant representative value of action i and Frep,i =  Fk,i
ad is the design value of the geometric data effects and effects of any other relevant parameters such as
Sd is a partial factor that takes account of uncertainties in modelling the effects load duration
of actions and in some cases modelling actions m is a partial factor for the material or product property which
f,i is a partial factor for action i taking into account the possibility of takes into account the probability of an unfavourable deviation
unfavourable deviations of the action values from the representative values
F,i is a global or system partial factor for action i and F,i = Sd f,i. of a material or a product property from its characteristic value.
Design values of geometrical data, ad Design values of resistance, Rd

Rd = RXd,i; ad/Rd = Ri Xk,i/m,i; ad/Rd i  1
ad = anom (6.4) (6.6a)
or Rd = Ri Xk,i / M,i ; ad i  1 (6.6b)
or ad = anom + a for significant a (6.5)
or Rd = Rk / M (6.6c)
where where
anom is the nominal value of geometrical data Xk,i is the characteristic value of material or product property i
a is the deviation in geometrical data which takes into Xd,i is the design value of material or product property i
i is the mean value of the conversion factor for material or product property i
account the possibility of unfavourable deviations from
Rd is a partial factor for resistance which takes into account uncertainties
the characteristic or nominal values and the cumulative in modelling the resistance and geometric deviations
effect of a simultaneous occurrence of several m,i is a partial factor for the material or product property i
geometrical deviations. M,i is a global partial factor for material or product property i and M,i = Rd m,i
M is a global partial factor for the material or product property.
General definitions of ultimate limit states
Verification of static equilibrium and resistance
Loss of static equilibrium of the structure or any part of it
EQU
considered as a rigid body, where
(ULS)
(equilibrium) (i) minor variations in the value or the spatial distribution of
actions from a single source are significant  For ultimate limit states EQU, the following equation should
(ii) the strengths of construction materials or ground are be verified:
generally not governing.
Internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure or
STR structural members, including footings, piles, basement walls, Ed,dst  Ed,stb (6.7)
(structural) etc. (local failure of structural members), where the strength of
construction materials governs.
where
Failure or excessive deformation of the ground where the
GEO strengths of soil or rock are significant in providing resistance. Ed,dst is the design value of the effect of destabilising actions
(geotechnical)
Ed,stb is the design value of the effect of stabilising actions.
FAT Fatigue failure of the structure or structural members.
(fatigue)


Combinations of actions for persistent
Verification of static equilibrium and resistance or transient design situation - ULS
(ULS) (fundamental combinations)
 For ultimate limit states STR and/or GEO, the following  If Sd is independent of the function for the effect to a
equation should be verified: structural system, the above equation can be simplified as:
Ed  Rd (6.8) Ed = EG,j Gk,j; P P; Q,1 Qk,1; Q,i 0,i Qk,i j  1; i > 1
where (6.9b)
Ed is the design value of the effect of actions such as where
internal force, moment or a vector representing several G,j is a global partial factor for permanent action j
internal forces or moments P is a global partial factor for the prestressing action
Q,1 is a global partial factor for the leading variable action
Rd is the design value of the corresponding resistance.
Q,i is a global partial factor for variable action i and i > 1.
Combinations of actions for EQU (ULS) Design values of actions for EQU (ULS)
(fundamental combinations) (fundamental combinations)
 Eq.(6.9b) can be rewritten for EQU as:
Design values of actions for EQU

j 1
G,j Gk,j " "  P P " "  Q,1 Qk,1 " " 
i 1
Q,i  0,i Qk,i Persistent and
transient design
Permanent actions Leading
variable action
Accompanying variable
actions
(6.10) situations Unfavourable Favourable Main Others
Eq.(6.10) Gj,sup Gkj,sup Gj,inf Gkj,inf Q,1 Qk,1 Q,i 0,i Qk,i
where Recommended 1.10 Gkj,sup 0.90 Gkj,inf 1.50 Qk,1 1.50 0,i Qk,i
“+” donates “to be combined with” Alternative 1.35 Gkj,sup 1.15 Gkj,inf 1.50 Qk,1 1.50 0,i Qk,i
Σ donates “the combined effect of”. Note: Q,1 and Q,i can be taken as 0 where favourable.
Eq.(6.10) is the most classical expression in

EN 1990!!!
Combinations of actions for STR and/or GEO (ULS) Design values of actions for STR with no GEO (ULS)
(fundamental combinations) (fundamental combinations)
 Eq.(6.9b) can be rewritten for STR and GEO as: Design values of actions for STR limit states with no geotechnical actions:



j 1
G,jGk,j " "  P P " "  Q,1  0,1 Qk,1 " " 
i 1
Q,i  0,i Qk,i (6.10a) Persistent and
transient design
Permanent actions Leading
variable
Accompanying variable
actions

  j  G,jGk,j " "  P P " "  Q,1 Qk,1 " "   Q,i  0,i Qk,i (6.10b)
situations Unfavourable Favourable action Main Others
 j 1 i 1 Eq.(6.10) Gj,sup Gkj,sup Gj,inf Gkj,inf Q,1 Qk,1 Q,i 0,i Qk,i
where Recommended 1.35 Gkj,sup 1.00 Gkj,inf 1.50 Qk,1 1.50 0,i Qk,i
 is a reduction factor for unfavourable permanent actions and ranges from Eq.(6.10a) Gj,sup Gkj,sup Gj,inf Gkj,inf Q,1 0,1 Qk,1 Q,i 0,i Qk,i
0.75 to 1.00. A value of 0.925 is recommended in the UK for  . Recommended 1.35 Gkj,sup 1.00 Gkj,inf 1.50 0,1 Qk,1 1.50 0,i Qk,i
 The recommended values of F for STR limit states with Eq.(6.10b)  Gj,sup Gkj,sup Gj,inf Gkj,inf Q,1 Qk,1 Q,i 0,i Qk,i
Recommended 1.25 Gkj,sup 1.00 Gkj,inf 1.50 Qk,1 1.50 0,i Qk,i
no geotechnical actions and for STR/GEO limit states
Note: Q,1 and Q,i can be taken as 0 where favourable.
with geotechnical actions can be chosen from the
following tables.
Design values of actions for STR/GEO with GEO (ULS) Combinations of actions for accidental design
(fundamental combinations) situations – ULS (no partial load factors)
 The general format of effects of actions proposed by EN 1990
Design values of actions for STR/GEO limit states with geotechnical actions:
is:
Persistent and Permanent actions Leading Accompanying variable
transient design variable actions Ed = EGk,j; P; Ad; (1,1 or 2,1) Qk,1; 2,i Qk,i j  1; i > 1
situations Unfavourable Favourable action Main Others
Eq.(6.10) Gj,sup Gkj,sup Gj,inf Gkj,inf Q,1 Qk,1 Q,i 0,i Qk,i (6.11a)
Recommended 1.00 Gkj,sup 1.00 Gkj,inf
Note: Q,1 and Q,i can be taken as 0 where favourable.
1.30 Qk,1 1.30 0,i Qk,i
or G
j 1
k,j " " P " " Ad " " ( 1,1 or  2,1 ) Qk,1 " " 
i 1
2,i Qk,i
(6.11b)
where
1,1 and 2,1 are factors for combination value of the leading
variable action
2,i is a factor for combination value of variable action i.
Combinations of actions for seismic design Verification of serviceability (SLS)

situations – ULS (no partial load factors)  For serviceability limit states, the following equation should
be verified:
 The general format of effects of actions proposed by EN 1990
is:
Ed  Cd (6.13)
Ed = EGk,j; P; AEd; 2,i Qk,i j  1; i > 1 (6.12a)
where
or G
j 1
k,j " " P " " AEd " " i 1
2,i Qk,i (6.12b) Ed is the design value of the effect of actions specified in
the serviceability criterion, determined on the basis of
 The values of material and product factor m can be chosen the relevant combinations
from EN 1992 to EN 1999, depending on the construction Cd is the limiting design value of the relevant serviceability
material to be used. criterion.

Combinations of actions for SLS Combinations of actions for SLS

(no partial load factors) (non-partial load factors)
 There are three types of combinations of serviceability limit (ii) Frequent combination
state:
Ed = EGk,j ; P ; 1,1 Qk,1 ; 2,i Qk,ij  1; i > 1 (6.15a)
(i) Characteristic combination
Ed = EGk,j ; P ; Qk,1 ; 0,i Qk,ij  1; i > 1 (6.14a)
or  Gk,j " " P " " 1,1 Qk,1 " "  2,i Qk,i (6.15b)
j 1 i 1
or G k,j " " P " " Qk,1 " "  0,i Qk,i (6.14b) (iii) Quasi-permanent combination
j 1 i 1
Ed = EGk,j ; P ; 2,i Qk,ij  1; i > 1 (6.16a)
or G
j 1
k,j " " P " " 
i 1
2,i Qk,i (6.16b)

Serviceability criteria for building design Vertical deflection for serviceability criteria
 Floor stiffness (vertical deflection) wc
w1
 Differential floor levels w2 wtot
wmax
 Storey sway (horizontal deflection) w3
 Building sway (horizontal deflection)
where
 Roof stiffness (vertical deflection) wc is precamber in the unloaded structural member
w1 is the initial part of the deflection under permanent loads of the
relevant combination of actions
w2 is the long-term part of the deflection under permanent loads
w3 is the additional part of the deflection due to the variable actions of the
relevant combination of actions
wtot is the total deflection and wtot = w1 + w2 + w3
wmax is the remaining total deflection taking into account the precamber.

 1.1.3 EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on Contents of EC1

structures  Part 1
General information about EN 1991 (EC1) ̶ Part 1-1 Densities, self-weight and imposed loads
̶ Part 1-2 Actions on structures exposed to fire
 EC1 is in an advanced state of development and forms one of ̶ Part 1-3 Snow loads
the key documents in the suite of 10 structural Eurocodes. ̶ Part 1-4 Wind actions
̶ Part 1-5 Thermal actions
 EC1, only second to EC, provides comprehensive information
̶ Part 1-6 Actions during execution
on all actions that should normally be considered in the
design of building and civil engineering works. ̶ Part 1-7 Accidental actions due to impact and explosions
 Part 2 Traffic loads on bridges
 Part 3 Actions induced by cranes and machinery
 Part 4 Actions in silos and tanks

 1.1.4 EC1-1-1: General actions — Densities of construction and stored materials –

Densities, self-weights and imposed loads Section 4 and Annex A
for buildings  Tables A1 to A5 - construction materials
concrete 24 kN/m3 + RC 1 kN/m3 + wet concrete 1 kN/m3
Scope of EC1-1-1  Table A6 – bridge materials
 EC1-1-1 gives design guidance and actions for the structural  Table A7 – stored materials – building & construction
design of buildings and civil engineering works including  Table A8 – stored products – agricultural
some geotechnical aspects for the following subjects: manure min 60% solids 7.8 kN/m3
̶ Densities of construction materials and stored materials  Table A9 – stored products – foodstuffs
(Section 4 & Annex A)  BS 648; strawberries in trays 6.8 kN/m3
̶ Self-weight of construction works (Section 5);  Table A10 – stored products – liquids
 Table A11 – stored products – solid fuels
̶ Imposed loads for buildings including roof and barriers
(Section 6 & Annex B)  BS 6399-1 & 2.  Table A12 – stored products – industrial & general
Representation of actions and self weight – Section 5 Imposed loads on buildings – Section 6
 Self weight to be represented by a single characteristic value  Imposed loads are those arising from occupancy
calculated using nominal dimensions and the characteristic ‒ Normal use by persons
values of densities.
‒ Furniture and moveable objects, e.g. movable partitions, storage, the
 Self weight includes structural and non-structural elements contents of the containers
plus fixed services. ‒ Vehicles (EN 1991-1-1 covers vehicles of not more than 160 kN
 Non-structural elements include: gross weight)
roofing // surfacing & coverings // partitions & linings // ‒ Rare events, e.g. concentration of people or objects being moved
hand rails, safety barriers, parapets and kerbs // wall cladding // during reorganisation or redecoration
suspended ceilings // thermal insulation // bridge furniture // ‒ Heavy and special loads to be assessed separately.
fixed services.
 Imposed loads are represented by
 Moveable partitions to be considered as imposed loads.
‒ Uniformly distributed loads (UDL), line loads or concentrated loads
 Use manufacturers data where relevant.
‒ Unless stated otherwise concentrated loads are to be considered
 Characteristic self weight to be determined in accordance with separately from UDLs.
Clause 4.1.2 in EN 1990.
Reduction factor for imposed loads for floors Reduction factors for imposed loads from
and accessible roofs, A several storeys, n
 Imposed loads for floors and accessible roofs may be  Imposed loads from several storeys may be reduced using the
reduced using the reduction factor A defined by Eq.(NA.1) reduction factor n defined by Eq.(NA.2) in NA.2.6 of the UK
in NA.2.5 of the UK NA to EC1-1-1 instead of Eq.(6.1) of NA to EC1-1-1 instead of Eq.(6.2) of EC1-1-1
EC1-1-1 n = 1.1 – n/10 for 1  n  5
A = 1.0 – A/1000  0.75 (NA.1) n = 0.6 for 5  n  10 (NA.2)
n = 0.5 for n  10
where A is the area supported in m2.
where n is the number of storeys with loads qualifying for reduction.
 Load reductions based on area in NA.2.5 may be applied if
A < n .
Load categories – Section 6 Load category C – Section 6

 A domestic and residential  C1 areas with tables, e.g. schools, restaurants, reading
 B offices rooms, etc.
 C areas where people may congregate  C2 areas with fixed seats, e.g. churches, theatres, lecture
 D shopping areas halls, etc.
 E storage and industrial areas  C3 areas without obstacles for moving people, e.g. exhibition
 FL fork lift trucks rooms, access areas in hotels, hospitals, etc.
 F vehicles
 C4 areas with possible physical activity, e.g. dance halls,
 G more vehicles
gymnasia, stages, etc.
 H roofs - maintenance and repair
 I roofs - access  C5 areas susceptible to large crowds, e.g. sports stadia, etc.
 K roofs – special conditions, e.g. helicopter pads.
Load category D – Section 6 Load categories

A to D in the UK
 D1 areas in general retail shops
– NA.2.6 and
 D2 areas in department stores Table NA.2

Imposed loads for categories A to D – NA.2.6 Load category E in the UK – NA.2.7
Imposed loads for category E – Section 6

Imposed loads for category E in the UK – NA.2.8 Imposed loads for categories in EC1-1-1 & UK NA
EN 1991-1-1 UK NA
Load category
Tables Table number
Categories for residential, social,
Table 6.1 Table NA.2
commercial and administrative areas.
Imposed loads on floors, balconies and
stairs in buildings.
Categories for storage and industrial areas Table 6.3 Table NA.4
Imposed load on floors due to storage Table 6.4 Table NA. 5
Imposed loads on garage and vehicle traffic

Table 6.7/6.8 Table NA.6
areas.
Imposed loads on roofs not accessible
Table 6.9/10 Table NA. 7
except for normal maintenance and repair.
Horizontal loads on partition walls and
parapets.

1. EUROCODES AND EN 1992 1.2 EN 1992 DESIGN OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES
1.2 EN 1992 DESIGN OF CONCRETE

STRUCTURES
1.2.1 INTRODUCTION OF EN 1992
Information about EN 1992 (EC2)
 EN 1992 (EC2) gives specific rules for the design of
buildings and civil engineering works in plain, reinforced and
1.2 EN 1992 DESIGN OF CONCRETE prestressed concrete.
STRUCTURES  EC2 has to comply with the principles and requirements for
safety and serviceability of structures and basis of design
Professor Ben Zhang and verification given in EN 1990 and various types of
actions defined in EN 1991.
1.2 EN 1992 DESIGN OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES 1.2 EN 1992 DESIGN OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Parts of Eurocode 1992 (EC2) Eurocode 2, Part 1–1: General rules and rules
for buildings
 EN 1992-1-1: General rules and rules for buildings
 This part forms the principal part of EC2.
 EN 1992-1-2: Structural fire design
 It describes the principles and requirements for safety,
 EN 1992-2: Reinforced and prestressed concrete bridges serviceability and durability of concrete structures, together
 EN 1992-3: Liquid retaining and containing structures with specific provisions for buildings.
 It is based on the limit state concept used in conjunction with
a partial factor method.

Eurocode 2, Part 1–2: Structural fire design Eurocode 2, Part 2: Bridges

 This part gives guidance on design for fire resistance of  This part gives a basis for the design of bridges and parts of
concrete structures. bridges in plain, reinforced and prestressed concrete made
 It carries out the design for fire resistance still by referring to with normal and light weight aggregates.
tables for minimum covers and dimensions for various  It needs also Part 1–1 to carry out a design of a reinforced
elements. concrete bridge.
 This is not covered in this course.

Eurocode 2, Part 3: Liquid retaining Eurocode 2, Part 3: Liquid retaining

and containment structures
and containment structures
 But it does not cover the following
 This part covers additional rules to those in Part 1 for the ̶ Structures for the stored materials at very cold or hot
design of structures constructed from plain concrete or lightly ̶ Structures for the storage of hazardous materials whose
reinforced concrete, reinforced concrete or prestressed leakage could be a major health or safety risk
concrete for the containment of liquids or granular solids. ̶ The selection and design of liners or coatings and the
 It is valid for stored materials which are permanently at a corresponding consequences of the choice
temperature between -40°C and +200°C ̶ Pressurised vessels
̶ Floating structures
̶ Large dams
̶ Gas tightness.
 Also it is not covered in this course.
Relationship between EC2 and other ECs Eurocodes related to concrete design (cont.)
EN 1997-2
Ground investigation and testing

Intended users of EN 1992  1.2.2 MAIN FEATURES OF EC2 FOR

DESIGN OF CONCRETE
 Designers and Constructors
Main features of EC2
 Committees drafting other standards for structural design  EC2 is generally laid out to give advice on the basis of
and related product, testing and execution standards phenomena (e.g. bending, shear, etc) rather than by member
types like BS 8110 (e.g. beams, slabs, columns, etc).
 Public Authorities (e.g. to set safety criteria)
 Design is based on characteristic cylinder strengths not cube
 Clients (e.g. for the formulation of their specific requirements strengths but they can be converted to each other.
on reliability levels and durability)  The Eurocode does not provide derived formulae (e.g. for bending,
only the details of the stress block are expressed). This is the
traditional European approach, where the application of a
Eurocode is expected to be provided in a textbook or similar
publication. The Eurocodes allow for this type of detail to be
provided in ‘Non-contradictory complementary information’ (NCCI).
Main features of EC2 Main features of EC2

 Units for stress are Mega Pascals, MPa (1 MPa = 1 N/mm2).  The ‘variable strut inclination’ method is used in EC2 for assessing
 EC2 uses a comma for a decimal point. It is expected that UK the shear capacity of a section. In practice, design values for actual
designers will continue to use a decimal point. To avoid confusion, structures can be compared with tabulated values. The punching
however, the comma should not be used for separating multiples shear checks are carried at 2d from the face of the column and for
of a thousand. a rectangular column, the perimeter is rounded at the corners (1.5d
for the UK).
 One thousandth is represented by ‰.
 Serviceability checks can still be carried out using ‘deemed to
 There is no guidance on plain bar or mild steel reinforcement in
satisfy’ span to effective depth rules similar to BS 8110. If a more
the Eurocode, but guidance is given in the background paper to
detailed check is required, EC2 also provides the guidance.
the UK National Annex.
 EC2 covers higher strengths of concrete up to class C90/105.  The rules for determining the anchorage and lap lengths are more
Some expressions need to be adjusted for classes above C50/60. complex than the traditional UK practice.

 1.2.3 EXTRACTS FROM EN 1992-1-1 Eurocode 2, Part 1–1: Not cover

WITH THE UK NATIONAL ANNEX  the use of plain reinforcement
 resistance to fire
Eurocode 2, Part 1–1: Scope
 particular aspects of special types of building (such as tall
 This part gives a general basis for the design of structures in buildings)
plain, reinforced and prestressed concrete made with normal  particular aspects of special types of civil engineering works
and light weight aggregates together with specific rules for (such as viaducts, bridges, dams, pressure vessels, offshore
buildings. platforms or liquid-retaining structures)
 no-fines concrete and aerated concrete components, and
those made with heavy aggregate or containing structural
steel sections (see Eurocode 4 for composite steel-concrete
structures)
Contents of EN 1992 Part 1-1 Eurocode 2, Part 1–1: The UK NA

 Section 1:General
 Section 2:Basis of design  This UK NA presents the UK decisions for the Nationally
 Section 3:Materials Determined Parameters (NDPs) described in some clauses
 Section 4:Durability and cover to reinforcement of the UK NA to BS EN 1992-1-1 in Table NA.1;
 Section 5:Structural analysis
 Section 6:Ultimate limit states  It gives the UK decisions on the status of BS EN 1992-1-1
 Section 7:Serviceability limit states informative annexes;
 Section 8:Detailing of reinforcement and prestressing tendons  It provides references to non-contradictory complementary
- General
information (NCCI).
 Section 9: Detailing of members and particular rules
 Section 10: Additional rules for precast concrete elements and
structures
 Section 11: Lightweight aggregate concrete structures
 Section 12: Plain and lightly reinforced concrete structures
Eurocode 2, Part 1–2: Scope Eurocode 2, Part 1–2: The UK NA

 This part deals with the design of concrete structures for the
accidental situation of fire exposure and is intended to be used in  This UK NA presents the UK decisions for the Nationally
conjunction with EN 1992-1-1; Determined Parameters (NDPs) described in some clauses
 It deals only with passive methods of fire protection, but does not of the UK NA to BS EN 1992-1-2;
cover active methods;  It gives the UK decisions on the status of BS EN 1992-1-2
 It applies to concrete structures required to fulfil certain functions informative annexes;
when exposed to fire, in terms of
 It provides references to non-contradictory complementary
̶ avoiding premature collapse of the structure (load bearing function)
information (NCCI).
̶ limiting fire spread (flame, hot gases, excessive heat) beyond
designated areas (separating function);
 It gives principles and application rules for designing structures for
specified requirements in respect of the aforementioned functions
and the levels of performance.
 1.2.4 GENERAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE Design working life

STRUCTURES TO EN 1992 Design working Notional design Examples
life category working life (years)
Design process for concrete structures 1 10 Temporary structures, e.g. scaffolding
2 10-30 (10 to 25) Replaceable structural parts, e.g. gantry girders,
 design working life bearings
 actions on structures 3 15-25 (15 to 30) Agricultural and similar structures
 load arrangements 4 50 Building structures and other common
 combinations of actions structures, e.g. hospitals, schools
5 120 (100) Monumental building structures, bridges and other
 method of analysis civil engineering structures, e.g. churches
 material properties
 stability and imperfections Note: The figures in the brackets are quoted from Table 2.1 of EC.
 minimum concrete cover
 maximum crack widths.
Actions on structures Actions on structures

 Imposed loads for buildings (UK NA to EC1-1-1)
 Density of concrete materials (Table A.1 of EC1-1-1) Category Examples qk (kN/m2) Qk (kN)
A1 All uses within self-contained dwelling units 1,5 2,0
Concrete Materials Density (kN/m3) A2 Bedrooms and dormitories 1,5 2,0
A3 Bedrooms in hotels and motels, hospital wards and toilet areas 2,0 2,0
Plain normal weight concrete 24 A5 Balconies in single family dwelling units and communal areas in 2,5 2,0
blocks of flats
Reinforced normal weight concrete 25 A7 Balconies in hotels and motels min. 4,0 2,0
B1 General office use 2,5 2,7
Wet reinforced normal weight concrete 26 C11 Public, institutional and communal dining rooms and lounges, cafes
and restaurants
2,0 3,0
C21 Assembly areas with fixed seating 4,0 3,6

C37 Walkways for general duty 5,0 3,6
C41 Dance halls and studios, gymnasia, stages 5,0 3,6
C52 Stages in public assembly areas 7,5 4,5
D1/D2 Areas in general retail shops / Areas in department stores 4,0 3,6
E12 Reading rooms with book storage 4,0 4,5
E15 Stack rooms (books) min. 6,5 7,0
F Garages and vehicle traffic areas for gross vehicle weight ≤ 30 kN 2,5 10,0

Load arrangements Load Combination 1a: (Clause 5.1.3(1))

 Alternate spans loaded
 The load arrangements imply the arrangement of variable
actions, e.g. imposed, snow and wind loads, to give the most Q Qk Q Qk
onerous forces in a member or structure, see EC2 and the  G Gk
corresponding UK NAs.
 For building structures, the UK NA to EC2-1–1 allows any of
the following three sets of load arrangements to be used for Q Qk Q Qk
both the ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state.  G Gk
Note: The value of G should be the same throughout.

Load Combination 1b: (Clause 5.1.3(1)) Load Combination 2a: (UK NA)
 Adjacent spans loaded  All spans loaded
Q Qk
 G Gk  G Gk Q Qk
Q Qk
 G Gk

Q Qk
 G Gk

Load Combination 2b: (UK NA) Load Combination 3 for slabs: (UK NA)
 Alternate spans loaded  All spans loaded
Q Qk Q Qk
 G Gk Q Qk
 G Gk
Q Qk Q Qk
 G Gk
̶ In a one-way spanning slab the bay area > 30 m2.

̶ Qk / Gk  1.25.
̶ Qk (excluding partitions)  5 kN/m2.
Note 1: The value of G should be the same throughout.
Note 2: Load combination 2 is used for slabs and beams in UK.
Combination of actions: EN 1990 Combination of actions: EN 1990
 Eq.(6.10) for EQU (ULS)  For members subjected to only one variable action,
Eq.(6.10b) of EC is dominating the design, i.e.
  G,j Gk,j " "  P P " "  Q,1 Qk,1 " "   Q,i  0,i Qk,i
j 1 i 1 G Gk + Q Qk
= (0.925 × 1.35) Gk + 1.5 Qk
 Eqs.(6.10a) and (6.10b) for STR and/or GEO (ULS)
= 1.25 Gk + 1.5 Qk
   G,jGk,j " "  P P " "  Q,1  0,1 Qk,1 " "   Q,i  0,i Qk,i
 j 1 i 1
 provided Gk  4.5Qk (except for storage loads).
   j  G,jGk,j " "  P P " "  Q,1 Qk,1 " "   Q,i  0,i Qk,i
 j 1 i 1

Material properties: Concrete Material properties: Concrete

 The RC design is based on the characteristic cylinder
strength fck rather than cube strength fck,cube but they can
be converted to each other, e.g. C28/35, fck = 28 MPa and
fck,cube = 35 MPa. See Table 3.1 of EC2-1-1.
 Concrete up to class C90/105 can be designed using EC2.
For classes above C50/60, additional rules apply.
 RC30 still refers to the cube strength.

Material properties: Steel Partial safety factors materials

 Characteristic tensile properties of steel Design C S S
Class (BS 4449) and designation (BS 8666) A B C situations Concrete Reinforcing steel Prestressing steel
Charact. yield strength fyk or f0.2k (MPa) 500 500 500
Stress ratio k = ft / fyk ≥ 1.05 ≥ 1.08 1.05 - 1.35 Persistent
Charact. strain at maximum force uk (%) ≥ 2.5 ≥ 5.0 ≥ 7.5 & Transient 1.5 1.15 1.15
Notes: Accidental 1.2 1.0 1.0

1. Table derived from Annex C of EN 1992-1-1, BS 4449 and EN 10080.
2. The nomenclature used in BS 4449 differs from that used in Annex C of
EN 1992-1-1 and used here.
3. In accordance with BS 8666, class H may be specified, in which case
class A, B or C may be supplied.

Structural analysis Bending moment and shear coefficients for beams
 Linear elastic analysis (Section 5.4) Location Moment Shear

Outer support 25% of span moment 0.45 (G + Q)
 Linear elastic analysis with limited redistribution
Near middle of end span 0.090 G L + 0.100 Q L
(Section 5.5)
At first interior support  0.094 (G + Q) L 0.63 (G + Q)a
 Plastic analysis (Section 5.6) At middle of interior spans 0.066 G L + 0.086 Q L
 Non-linear analysis (Section 5.7) At interior supports  0.075 (G + Q) L 0.50 (G + Q)
Note: For ULS only, the moments derived from elastic analysis a 0.55 (G + Q) may be used adjacent to the interior span.
may be redistributed (up to 30%) provided that the resulting Notes:
distribution of moments remains in equilibrium with the applied 1. Redistribution of support moments by 15% has been included.
loads and subject to certain limits and design criteria. 2. Applicable to 3 or more spans only and where Qk ≤ Gk.
3. Minimum span ≥ 0.85 longest span.
4. G is the total of ULS permanent actions, Q is the total of ULS variable actions.
Bending moment and shear coefficients for Nominal concrete cover (4.4.1.1(2))
continuous slabs with three or more spans
 The nominal cover cnom is calculated as
End support/slab connection
cnom = cmin + cdev (4.1)
Pinned Continuous
End support End span End support End span
Minimum concrete cover (4.4.1.2(1))
Moment 0 0.086FL  0.04FL 0.075FL
Shear 0.40F 0.46F  The minimum nominal cover cmin should be set to satisfy
the requirements below
First interior support Interior spans Interior supports ─ safe transmission of bond forces
Moment  0.086FL 0.063FL 0.063FL ─ durability
Shear 0.60F 0.50F ─ fire resistance
Note: F is the total of design actions.
Minimum concrete cover (4.4.1.2(2)) Minimum cover for bond cmin,b (4.4.1.2(3))
 The minimum nominal cover cmin should be determined
from the following  Bar diameter s for normal steel bars
cmin = max{cmin,b; cmin,dur + Δcdur, ─ Δcdur,st ─ Δcdur,add; 10 mm}  Equivalent diameter for bundled bars
 Increase by 5 mm for maximum aggregate size dg > 32 mm.
(4.2)
where:
cmin,b is the minimum cover due to bond requirement, see 4.4.1.2 (3)
cmin,dur is the minimum cover due to environmental conditions, see
4.4.1.2(5)
Δcdur, is the additive safety element, see 4.4.1.2 (6)
Δcdur,st is the reduction of minimum cover for use of stainless steel, see
4.4.1.2(7)
Δcdur,add is the reduction of minimum cover for use of additional protection,
see 4.4.1.2(8)
Concrete cover – Exposure Classes (BS 8500-1) Concrete cover – Exposure Classes (BS 8500-1)

Concrete cover – Exposure Classes (BS 8500-1) Concrete cover – Exposure Classes (BS 8500-1)

Minimum cover for durability, cmin,dur (BS 8500-1)
Concrete cover – Exposure Classes (BS 8500-1)

Minimum cover for durability, cmin,dur (BS 8500-1) Minimum cover for durability, cmin,dur (BS 8500-1)

Minimum cover elements (Table NA.1) Deviation of nominal cover (Clause 4.4.1.3(3))
 The minimum cover elements Δcdur,, Δcdur,st and Δcdur,add  The deviation of nominal cover cdev can be determined
are given in Table NA.1 of the UK NA to EN 1992-1-1 as from
─ cdev = 10 mm normally,
Δcdur, = 0 mm
─ cdev = 5 mm for fabrication subjected to a quality
Δcdur,st = 0 mm assurance system,
─ cdev = 0 mm if an accurate measurement device is
Δcdur,add = 0 mm
used for monitoring.

Nominal cover for fire resistance cnom,fire Standard fire exposure conditions
(EC2-1-2): Nominal axial distance a
 R: Mechanical resistance for load bearing
 The distance from the centre of the main reinforcing bar to
 E: Integrity of separation
the surface of the member which is a nominal (not minimum)
dimension  I: Insulation
a ≥ cnom +  link +  bar /2

 Table 5.2a and Tables 5.8 to 5.11 of EC2-1-2 give the
minimum dimensions for columns and slabs with or without
ribs to meet the above conditions, more flexible in choosing
section sizes together with the axis distance than BS 8110.

Minimum column sizes and axial distances Minimum dimensions and axial distances
 For rectangular or circular section (** min. 8 bars)  For reinforced concrete solid flat slabs
Method A (Table 5.2a of EC2-1-2) (Tables 5.8 and 5.9 of EC2-1-2)
Standard fire Member size One-way Two-way spanning slab Flat slab
resistance (mm) spanning slab ly/lx ≤ 1,5 1,5 < ly/lx ≤ 2,0
hs 60 150
REI 30
10* 10* 10* 10*
μfi = NEd,fi/NRd a
hs 80 180
REI 60
a 20 10* 15* 15*
hs 100 200
REI 90
a 30 15* 20 25
hs 120 200
REI 120
a 40 20 25 35
hs 150 200
REI 180
a 55 30 40 45
hs 175 200
REI 240
a 65 40 50 50
Note:
hs is the slab thickness, and a is the axial distance in solid slabs.
lx and ly are the spans of a two-way slab (two directions at right angles) where ly is the longer span.
Minimum dimensions and axial distances Crack Control (Section 7.3): Crack width wk
 For reinforced concrete ribbed slabs
(Tables 5.10 and 5.11 of EC2-1-2)  wk = 0.3 mm for all exposure classes under the quasi-
(simply supported/one edge restrained) permanent combination, in the absence of specific durability
Standard fire
resistance
Dimensions for flanges
(mm)
Possible combinations of dimensions for ribs
(mm) requirements (e.g. water tightness)
hs 80 bmin 80 / /
REI 30
a 10* a 15 *
/ /  wk = 0.4 mm for exposure classes X0 and XC1, in the
REI 60
hs
a
80
10*
bmin
a
100
35/25
120
25/15
≥ 200
15* / 10*
absence of requirements for appearance
100 120 160 ≥ 250
 wk = 0.2 mm for prestressed members with bonded tendons
hs bmin
REI 90
a 15* a 45/35 40/25 30 / 15*
REI 120
hs 120 bmin 160 190 ≥ 300 under the frequent load combination.
a 20 a 60/45 55/40 40 / 30
hs 150 bmin 220/310 260/600 ≥ 410
REI 180
a 30 a 75/60 70/50 60
hs 175 bmin 280/450 350/700 ≥ 500
REI 240
a 40 a 90/70 75/60 70
Note:
hs is the flange thickness, a is the axial distance in the flange or web of ribbed slabs, bmin is the rib width.
*
Normally the cover required by EN 1992-1-1 will control.

Crack Control (Tables 7.2N & 7.3N of EC2-1-1) Steel stress s (Eq.(7.1) of EC2-1-1)
 Minimum bar size s,max or spacing sr,max to wk  s should be calculated using Eq.(7.1) of EC2-1-1, but s may
also be estimated as follows
 f  m  A  1   A  1 
Steel stress Crack width wk = 0,4 mm Crack width wk = 0,3 mm Crack width wk = 0,2 mm
s s,max *s,max *s,max f yk m As,req
sr,max sr,max sr,max
s    yk     s,req      su  s,req   
 ms n As,prov    ms   n   As,prov     A 
(MPa) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
160 40 300 32 300 26 200  s,prov    
200 32 300 25 250 16 150
240 20 250 16 200 12 100 where
280 16 or 200 12 or 150 8 or 50 fyk is the characteristic yield strength of reinforcement
320 12 150 10 100 6 /
360 10 100 8 50 5 /
ms is the partial factor for reinforcing steel
400 8 / 6 / 4 / m is the total load from quasi-permanent combination
450 6 / 5 / / / n is the total load from ULS combination
Notes:
s,max is the maximum bar diameter, and sr,max is the maximum bar spacing. As,req is the area of reinforcement at the ULS
The values in the table are based on the following assumptions As,prov is the area of reinforcement provided
c = 25mm; fct,eff = 2,9MPa; hcr = 0,5; (h-d) = 0,1h; k1 = 0,8; k2 = 0,5; kc = 0,4; k = 1,0; kt = 0,4 and k' = 1,0.
 is the ratio of redistributed moment to elastic moment
su is a characteristic stress and is defined as  su   f yk m  /   ms n 
Characteristic steel stress su Characteristic steel stress su
 For quasi-permanent combinations and Eq.(6.10b) of EC, su  For design of domestic buildings in the UK,
may be estimated as follows G = 1.35,  = 0.925, Q = 1.5, 2 = 0.3, then
m  Gk  2 Qk and n    G Gk   Q Qk 350
f yk  Gk / Qk   0.3
 su 
Then  ms 1.25  Gk / Qk   1.5 300
f yk  Gk   2 Qk  f yk  Gk / Qk    2 
250
 su (MPa)
f yk m
 su   
 ms n  ms   G Gk   Q Qk   ms   G  Gk / Qk    Q 
200


150


100
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
G k/Q k

1. EUROCODES AND EN 1992 1.3 DESIGN OF RC FLAT SLABS TO EN 1992
1.3 DESIGN OF RC FLAT SLABS TO EN 1992

Reinforced concrete flat slab floor systems
1.3 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

FLAT SLABS TO EUROCODE 1992
Professor Ben Zhang

1.3 DESIGN OF RC FLAT SLABS TO EN 1992 1.3 DESIGN OF RC FLAT SLABS TO EN 1992
Reinforced concrete flat slab buildings Reinforced concrete flat slab buildings

Reinforced concrete flat slab buildings Definition of flat slabs

 Flat slabs are defined as those supported on columns. They
can also be further defined as those with or without drops
and supported, generally without beams, by columns with or
without column heads. They may be solid or may have
recesses formed on the soffit so that the soffit comprises a
series of ribs in two directions (waffle or coffered slab).
 Column head implies the local enlargement of the top of a
column providing support to the slab over a larger area than
the column section alone.
 Drop is the thickening of a slab in the region of a column.

Flat slab construction  Floor plan Flat slab construction  Floor section A-A
A A

Column supports for the slabs without drop panels Column supports for the slabs with drop panel
and flared column head
Slab Slab
Slab
No column head Flared head

Applications of flat slabs Advantages of flat slabs

 Flat slabs are highly multi-functional structural elements and  Benefits of flat slabs include
are widely used in construction, including
 low cost, e.g. low overall floor depth, short lead time
 residential buildings  fast construction
 commercial buildings  flexible column grids
 hospitals  good acoustic insulation
 laboratories  high fire resistance
 hotels  robustness
 …  thermal mass, increasing energy efficiency
 durable finishes

Geometric dimensions of flat slabs Methods for structural analysis of flat slabs
 A flat slab has a ratio of the longer span to the shorter span  EC2 allows any of the following four proven methods of
less than 2. analysis for the design of flat slabs
 Normally flat slabs are suitable for spans ranging from 4.0 m  equivalent frame method
to 9.0 m for reinforced and pre-stressed concrete.
 finite element
 The thickness normally range from 200 mm to 450 mm.
 yield line analysis
 grillage analogy (in which the plate is idealised as a set of
interconnected discrete members)

Design procedure of flat slabs Design procedure of flat slabs (cont.)

1. Determine design life: Table NA.2.1 of NA to EN 1990 8. Analyse structure to obtain critical moments and shear forces:
Section 5 of EN 1992-1-1
2. Assess actions on the slab: EN 1991 (10 parts) and NAs
9. Design flexural reinforcement: Section 6.1 of EN 1992-1-1
3. Determine the combinations of actions applied:
Tables NA.A1.1 and NA.A1.2(B) of NA to EN 1990 10. Check deflection: Section 7.4 of EN 1992-1-1
4. Determine loading arrangements: NA to EN 1992-1-1 11. Check punching shear capacity: Section 6.4 of EN 1992-1-1
5. Assess durability requirements and determine concrete strength: 12. Check spacing of bars to crack control:
BS 8500 Section 7.3 of EN 1992-1-1
6. Check cover requirements for appropriate fire resistance period: 13. Check resistance to moment transfer from column to slab:
Section 5 of EN 1992-1-2 Annex I.1.2(5) of EN 1992-1-1
7. Calculate minimum cover for durability, fire and bond
requirements: Clause 4.4.1 of EN 1992-1-1
Fire resistance of flat slabs (5.7.4 of EC2-1-2) Equivalent Frame Analysis (I.1.2)
 Minimum dimensions and axis distances
 The structure is divided longitudinally and transversely into
Axial distance Axial distance
Standard fire Slab-thickness
a (mm) a (mm)
frames which consist of columns and sections of slabs
resistance hs (mm) contained between the centre lines of adjacent panels (area
for 1 –   0.15 for 1 –  > 0.15
REI 30 150 10* 10* bounded by four adjacent supports).
REI 60 180 15* 20
REI 90 200 25 30
REI 120 200 35 40
REI 180 200 45 55
REI 240 200 50 65 Panel
Note:
* Normally the cover required by EN 1992-1-1 will control.
Columns 2 and 3 are quoted from Table 5.9 of EN 1992-1-2.
Column 4 is quoted from Table 5.8 of EN 1992-1-2 where the moment redistribution is
greater than 15%.

Equivalent Frame Analysis (I.1.2) Division of panels on flat slabs (Figure I.1)
 The stiffness of members may be calculated from their gross
cross-sections. For vertical loading, the stiffness may be
based on the full width of the panels. For horizontal loading,
40% of this value should be used to reflect the increased
flexibility of the column-slab joints in flat slab structures
compared to that of column-beam joints.
 The total load on the panel is used for the analysis in each
direction.
 The total bending moments obtained from analysis are
distributed across the width of the slab. In elastic analysis,
negative moments tend to concentrate towards the centre
lines of the columns.
Simplified apportionment of bending moment Bending moment coefficients for flat slabs
for flat slabs (Table I.1)
Bending moment coefficients for continuous flat slabs of 3 or more spans
Strip type Negative moment Positive moment
End support/slab connection
First
Column strip 60 – 80% (75%*) 50 – 70% (55%*) Pinned Continuous Interior Interior
interior
spans supports
End End End End support
Middle strip 40 – 20% (25%*) 50 – 30% (45%*) support span support span
Note: Total negative and positive moment to be resisted by the column and middle Moment 0 0.086FL 0.04FL 0.075FL 0.086FL 0.063FL 0.063FL
strips should always be added up to 100%.
* The figures in the brackets are those used in the UK practice, see Table 3.18 of
Notes:
BS 8110-1:1997.
1. Redistribution of support moments by 15% has been included.
2. Applicable to 3 or more spans only and where Qk ≤ Gk.
 Unless there are perimeter beams designed for torsion, moments 3. Minimum span ≥ 0.85 longest span.
transferred to edge or corner columns should be limited to the moment 4. L is the effective span, F is the total of the ULS actions.
of resistance of a rectangular section equal to 0.17 be d2 fck. The positive
moment in the end span should be adjusted accordingly.
Simplified rectangular stress and strain diagrams Procedure for determining flexural reinforcement
 Rectangular stress-strain diagrams 1. Start the design process.
2. Determine the design moment M using the coefficients given on
cu3  fcd Slide 22.
fck Fsc
d2 sc x
 fcd x Asc (1)cu3
Fc 3. Check if concrete class > C50/60. If yes, outside scope of this
neutral course. Otherwise go to Step 4.
hd z
 
axis
4. Determine K from K  M / bd f ck .
2
As s
c Fst
(1)cu3 cu3 5. Determine K ' from K '  0.60δ  0.18δ 2  0.21 where   1.0. It is
Cross-section Strain Stress
often recommended in the UK that K ' should be limited to 0.168
 = 0.8 to ensure ductile failure.
for fck  50 fcd = cc fck /c
 = 1.0 6. Check if K > K '. If yes, compression reinforcement required but
not recommended for typical slabs. Otherwise no reinforcement
required and go to Step 7.
Procedure for determining flexural reinforcement Deflection control (7.4)

(cont.)  EC2 has two alternative methods of designing for deflection:

7. Calculate the lever arm z from z  0.5d 1  1  3.53K  0.95d .  either by limiting span-to-depth ratio or by assessing the
8. Calculate the tension reinforcement required from As  M / f yd z .   theoretical deflection using the expressions given in the
Eurocode. The former is adopted in this course because of
9. Check the minimum reinforcement requirements its simplicity.
As,min  0.26 f ctm bt d / f yk .
 The span-to-depth ratios should ensure that deflection is
10. Check the maximum reinforcement requirements As,max  0.04 Ac
limited to span/250.
for tension or compression reinforcement outside lap locations.
 The span-to-depth ratios are appropriate where the structure
remains propped during construction or until the concrete
attains sufficient strength to support the construction loads.

Procedure for assessing deflection Procedure for assessing deflection (cont.)

1. Start the check process. 5. Determine Factor 3 (F3)
2. Determine (l/d)basic : (7.16.a) or (7.16.b) where the slab span exceeds 7.0 m and supports brittle partitions
 F3 = 7/leff,
3. F1 = 310/s or F1 = 500/(fyk As,req / As,prov) (7.17)
 otherwise F3 = 1.0.
where s is the tensile steel stress at mid-span (at support for
cantilevers) under the design load at SLS, which allows for steel 6. Determine Factor 4 (F4)
strengths other than 500 MPa and where areas of tension where the slab span exceeds 8.5 m and supports brittle partitions,
reinforcement provided exceed that calculated at ULS. In the UK  F4 = 8.5/leff,
NA, (As,prov /As,req) is limited to 1.5.  otherwise F4 = 1.0.
4. Determine Factor 2 (F2): 7. Check if (l/d)limit = (l/d)basic F1 F2 F3 F4 < (l/d)actual:
 for ribbed or waffle slabs, F2 = 1.1 – 0.1 (bf /bw) ≥ 0.8  if yes, go back to Step 6 and increase As,prov;
(bf is flange breadth and bw is rib breadth);  otherwise finish the check.
 otherwise F2 = 1.0.
Verification model for punching shear at the Typical basic control perimeters around loaded
ultimate limit state (Figure 6.12) areas (Figure 6.13)
 If the concentrated force is opposed by a high pressure, e.g.

soil pressure on a base, or by the effects of a load or
reaction within a distance 2d of the periphery application
area of the force, control perimeters at a distance less than
2d should be considered.
Verification model for punching shear at the ULS Effective depth of flat slabs
 The shear resistance for flat slabs should be checked at the  The effective depth of the slab deff is assumed to be constant
face of the column and at the basic control perimeter u1. and is normally be taken as
 If shear reinforcement is required, a further perimeter uout,ef deff = (dy + dz) / 2 (6.32)
should be found where shear reinforcement is no longer
required. The perimeter uout,ef is calculated as
uout,ef =  VEd /(vRd,c d ) (6.54)

Basic control perimeters for loaded areas close Basic checks for punching shear (4.1.8.3(2))
to or at edge or corner (Figure 6.15)
 For a loaded area located near an edge or a corner, the (i) At the column perimeter, or the perimeter of the loaded
control perimeter should be taken from the figure below, if area, the maximum punching shear stress should not be
this gives a perimeter (excluding the unsupported edges) exceeded, i.e.
smaller than that obtained from the situations above. For vEd < vRd,max
loaded areas situated near an edge or corner, i.e. at a
distance smaller than d, special edge reinforcement should (ii) Punching shear reinforcement is not necessary if
always be provided, see 9.3.1.4 of EC2-1-1.
vEd < vRd,c
(iii) Where vEd exceeds the value vRd,c for the control section
considered, punching shear reinforcement should be
provided according to 6.4.5 of EC2-1-1.

Design shear resistances (4.1.8.3(1)) Design shear stress (4.1.8.3(3) to (6))

 A total of three design shear resistances in MPa along the  The maximum shear stress should be determined as
control sections are defined in the code. VEd
vEd  β (6.38)
 vRd,c is the design value of the punching shear resistance of ui d
a slab without punching shear reinforcement along the where
control section considered. d is the mean effective depth of the slab, which may be
 vRd,cs is the design value of the punching shear resistance of taken as (dy + dz)/2,
a slab with punching shear reinforcement along the control dy, dz are the effective depths in the y- and z- directions of
section considered. the control section,
ui is the length of the control perimeter being considered.
 vRd,max is the design value of the maximum (direct) punching
shear resistance along the control section considered.

Parameter  for eccentric support reaction Parameter W1

 For the support reaction which is eccentric to the control  The parameter W1 corresponds to a distribution of shear
perimeter, the parameter  is given by shown below (Figure 6.19) and is a function of u1 as
u1
M u
β  1+ k Ed  1 (6.39)
W   e dl (6.40)
0
VEd W1
dl is a length increment of the perimeter,
where e is the distance of dl from the axis about which the moment
u1 is the length of the basic control perimeter, MEd acts.
k is a coefficient dependent on the ratio between the column
dimensions c1 and c2, see Table 6.1 as follows.
c1/c2  0.5 1.0 2.0  3.0

k 0.45 0.60 0.70 0.80

Parameter W1 for rectangular columns Parameter  for internal circular columns

 For a rectangular column,  For internal circular columns,  is obtained from
2
c e
W1  1
+ c1 c2 + 4 c2 d  16 d 2  2 π d c1 (6.41) β  1  0.6 π (6.42)
2 D  4d
where
c1 is the column dimension parallel to the eccentricity of the load, where D is the diameter of the circular column.
c2 is the column dimension perpendicular to the eccentricity of
the load.

Parameter  for internal rectangular columns Reduced basic control perimeter u1 (Figure 6.20)
under eccentric loading
 For an internal rectangular column where the loading is
eccentric to both axes,  is approximately given as
2 2
e  e 
β  1  1.8  y    z  (6.43)

 bz   by 
where
ey, ez are the eccentricities MEd/VEd along y
and z axes, i.e. about the z and y axes,
by, bz are the dimensions of the control
perimeter.

Punch shear for edge columns Parameter  for edge columns

 For edge column connections, where the eccentricity  When there are eccentricities in both orthogonal directions for
perpendicular to the slab edge, due to a moment about an edge columns,  may be determined as
axis parallel to the slab edge, is toward the interior and there u1 u
is no eccentricity parallel to the edge, the punching force β  k 1 epar (6.44)
may be considered to be uniformly distributed along the u1* W1
control perimeter u1* as shown in Figure 6.20(a) of EC2-1-1. where
u1 is the basic control perimeter, see Figure 6.15,
u1* is the reduced basic control perimeter, see Figure 6.20(a),
epar is the eccentricity parallel to the slab edge resulting from a
moment about an axis perpendicular to the slab edge,
k may be determined from Table 6.1 with the ratio c1/c2
replaced by c1 /2 c2,
W1 is calculated for the basic control perimeter u1, see Figure 6.13.
Parameter W1 for rectangular edge columns Parameter  for corner columns

 For a rectangular edge column,  For corner column connections, where the eccentricity is
2 toward the interior of the slab, it is assumed that the punching
c
W1  2
+c1 c2 + 4 c1 d  8 d 2  π d c2 (6.45) force is uniformly distributed along the reduced control
2 perimeter u1*, as defined in Figure 6.20(b). The -value may
be obtained as
 If the eccentricity perpendicular to the slab edge is not
toward the interior, Eq.(6.39) of EC2-1-1 applies. When u1
β (6.46)
calculating W1 the eccentricity epar should be measured from u1*
the centroid of the control perimeter.
 If the eccentricity is toward the exterior,
Eq.(6.39) of EC2-1-1 applies.

Parameter  for internal, edge & corner columns Punching shear resistance of slabs and column
 For structures where the lateral stability does not depend on bases without shear reinforcement
frame action between the slabs and the columns, and where  The punching shear resistance of a slab or a column base
the adjacent spans do not differ in length by more than 25%, should be assessed for the basic control section according to
approximate values for  may be used. The UK National 6.4.2 of EC2-1-1. The design punching shear resistance vRd,c
Annex to EN 1992-1-1 recommends use of the values of  in MPa may be calculated as follows
which are given in Figure 6.21N as follows. vRd,c  CRd,c k (100  l f ck )1/ 3  k1  cp   vmin  k1  cp 
(6.47)
A - internal column
where
fck is the characteristic cylinder concrete strength in MPa;
B - edge column
k is a parameter considering size effect and
C - corner column k = min [ 1+ 200 / d ; 2.0] with d in mm;

Parameters for determining vRd,c Parameters for determining vRd,c (cont.)

1 is a tension reinforcement ratio and 1 = min  1y  1z ; 0.02  ; NEdy, NEdz are the longitudinal forces across the full bay for internal
1y, 1y are the tension reinforcement ratios relating to the bonded columns and the longitudinal force across the control section
tension steel in y- and z-directions; the values 1y and 1z for edge columns. The force may be from a load or
should be calculated as mean values taking into account a prestressing action;
slab width equal to the column width plus 3d each side; Ac is the area of concrete according to the definition of NEd;
cp is the mean nominal concrete stress in the critical section and CRd,c is a parameter and CRd,c = 0.18 / C = 0.18 / 1.5 = 0.12;
cp = (cy + cz)/2;
k1 is a parameter and k1 = 0.1 (Eq.(6.3N) of EC2-1-1).
cy, cz are the normal concrete stresses in the critical section in y-
and z-directions in MPa (positive if compression), calculated as
 cy  N Edy / Acy and  cz  N Edz / Acz ;

Punching shear resistance of slabs and column Design effective design strength of punching
bases with shear reinforcement shear reinforcement
 Where shear reinforcement is required, vRd,cs should be
calculated in accordance with Eq.(6.52) of EC2-1-1 as d (mm) 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350
vRd,cs = 0.75 vRd,c + 1.5 (d/sr) Asw fywd,ef [1/(u1 d)] sin  fywd,ef
288 294 300 306 313 319 325 331 338
(MPa)
(6.52)
where
Asw is the area of one perimeter of shear reinforcement around the column Ratio d/sr
in mm2,
sr is the radial spacing of perimeters of shear reinforcement in mm,  If a single line of bent-down bars is provided, then the ratio
fywd,ef is the effective design strength of the punching shear reinforcement, d/sr in Eq.(6.52) may be given the value 0.67. Clause 9.4.3
according to fywd,ef = 250 + 0.25 d ≤ fywd in MPa, of EC2-1-1 illustrates the detailing requirements for
d is the mean of the effective depths in the orthogonal directions in mm, punching shear reinforcement.
 is the angle between the shear reinforcement and the slab plane.
Maximum design punching shear resistance Design punching shear strength without
 The UK NA specifies use of the design value of the maximum punching shear steel
punching shear resistance value of vRd,max recommended in Shear resistance vRd,c = 0.12k 100 1 f ck 
1/ 3

  0.035k
1.5
f ck0.5  ( MPa) (where no axial force exists – C30/37)
EC2-1-1 as (see the table below using cc = 0.85) 1 Effective depth, d (mm)
 f  f  f 
=(As/(bwd)
 200 225 250 275 300 350 400 450 500 600 750
vRd,max  0.5 f cd  0.5  0.6 1  ck   cc ck  0.2  cc f ck 1  ck  0.25% 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.48 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.38 0.36
 250  C  250  0.50% 0.59 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.54 0.52 0.51 0.49 0.48 0.47 0.45
0.75% 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.63 0.62 0.59 0.58 0.56 0.55 0.53 0.51
where the strength reduction factor for concrete cracked in 1.00% 0.75 0.72 0.71 0.69 0.68 0.65 0.64 0.62 0.61 0.59 0.57
shear, v, is given in Eq.(6.6) of EC2-1-1 as 1.25% 0.80 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.66 0.63 0.61
  0.6 1  ( f ck / 250) 
1.50% 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.79 0.78 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.70 0.67 0.65
fck in MPa (6.6) 1.75% 0.90 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.82 0.79 0.77 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.68
 2.00% 0.94 0.91 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.77 0.74 0.71
fck (MPa) 20 25 28 30 32 35 40 45 50 k 2.000 1.943 1.894 1.853 1.816 1.756 1.707 1.667 1.632 1.577 1.516
Modification factor for other concrete strength classes where 1 > 0.4%
vRd,max (MPa) 3.13 3.83 4.23 4.49 4.74 5.12 5.71 6.27 6.80 Strength class C25/30 C35/45 C40/50 C45/55 C50/60
Factor 0.94 1.05 1.10 1.14 1.19

Control perimeters at internal columns (Figure 6.22) Arrangement of punching shear reinforcement
 The outermost perimeter of shear reinforcement should be  It is assumed that the reinforcement will be in a radial
placed at a distance not greater than kd within uout, or uout,ef, arrangement. However, the reinforcement can be laid on a
see Figure 6.22 of EC2-1-1. k is recommended as 1.5. grid provided the spacing rules are followed.
 As an alternative to using shear links, proprietary shear stud

rails may be used. EN 1992-1-1 allows them to be laid out in
a radial or cruciform pattern and gives spacing requirements
for both, see Figure 6.22. Other techniques are available for
increasing punching shear resistance and these are covered
in a best practice guide.

Procedure for determining punching shear capacity Procedure for determining punching shear capacity
1. Start the design process. 7. Determine concrete punching shear capacity without shear
2. Determine the value of  from Figure 6.21N or Eqs.(6.38) to (6.46). reinforcement, vRd,c, from the table in Slade 53
where l = (ly lz)0.5, taken over a width equal to column width
3. Determine the value of the design shear stress at the face of the
plus 3d each side.
column, vEd,max, from vEd,max =  VEd /(u1 deff)
8. Check if vEd ≤ vRd,c . If yes, punching shear reinforcement is not
where u1 is perimeter of column and deff = (dy + dz)/2 required. Otherwise go back to Step 6.
(dy and dz are the effective depths in orthogonal directions).
9. Determine the area of punching shear reinforcement per
4. Determine the value of vRd,max from the table in Slade 54. perimeter from Asw = (vEd – 0.75 vRd,c) sr u1 / (1.5 fywd,ef)
5. Check if vEd,max > vRd,max . where sr is the radial spacing of shear reinforcement, and
If yes, redesign the slab. Otherwise go to Step 6. fywd,ef = 250 + 0.25 deff ≤ fywd .
6. Determine the value of the design shear stress, vEd, from 10. Determine the length of the outer perimeter where shear
vEd =  VEd /(u1 deff) reinforcement not required from
uout,ef =  VEd /(vRd,c d )
where u1 is the length of control perimeter, see Figure 6.13.
11. Determine layout of punching shear reinforcement.
Minimum areas of longitudinal reinforcement Minimum areas of reinforcement for crack control
(9.3.1.1) (7.3.2(2))
 The minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement in the main  The minimum reinforcement area within the tensile zone for
direction, As,min, is recommended as crack control, As,min, is recommended as
As,mins = kc k fct,eff Act (7.1)
As,min = min(0.26 fctm bt d / fyk; 0.0013 bt d) (9.1N)
where
Act is the are of concrete within the tensile zone, which is part of
where the section calculated to be in tension just before the
bt is the mean width of the tension zone, formation of the first crack,
fctm is the mean tensile concrete strength which should be s is the absolute value of the maximum stress permitted in the
determined with respect to the relevant strength class reinforcement immediately after formation of the crack and
according to Table 3.1 of EN 1992-1-1. may be taken as the yield strength of the reinforcement fyk,

Minimum areas of reinforcement for crack control Minimum areas of a link leg for punching
(7.3.2(2)) (cont.) reinforcement (9.4.3(2))
fct,eff is the mean value of the effective tensile strength of the  The minimum area of a link leg for punching shear
concrete at the time when the cracks may first be expected to reinforcement, Asw,min, is given from
occur, i.e. fct,eff = fctm from Table 3.1, or fct,eff = fctm(t) if cracking is
expected earlier than 28 days, Asw,min (1.5 sin + cos) / (sr st) ≥ 0.08 f ck / fyk (9.11)
k is the coefficient which allows for the effect of non-uniform self-
equilibrating stresses, which lead to a reduction of restraint or Asw,min ≥ (0.08 f ck / fyk) (sr st) / (1.5 sin + cos)
forces with intermediate values to be interpolated:
k = 1.0 for webs with h  300 mm or flanges with bf < 300 mm,
where
k = 0.65 for webs with h  800 mm or flanges with bf  800 mm,  is the angle between the shear reinforcement and main steel,
kc is a coefficient which takes account of the stress distribution i.e. for vertical links  = 90° and sin  = 1,
within the section immediately prior to cracking and of the sr is the spacing of shear links in the radial direction,
change of the lever arm, kc = 1.0 for pure tension, and st is the spacing of shear links in the tangential direction,
kc = 0.4 for rectangular sections in bending without axial force. fck is in MPa.
Maximum area of reinforcement, As,max (9.2.1.1(3)) Minimum spacing of reinforcement, smin,slabs (8.2)
 Outside lap locations, the maximum area of tension or  The minimum reinforcement spacing (horizontal and vertical)
compression reinforcement should not exceed As,max , which between individual parallel bars or horizontal layers of
is given as parallel bars, smin,slabs , should be taken as
As,max = 0.04 Ac smin,slabs = smin,clear + s

where is the cross-sectional area of the concrete. = min[(k1 s); (dg + k2); 20 mm] + s
where
s is the bar diameter in mm,
dg is the maximum aggregate size in mm,
k1 is a parameter which is recommended as k1 = 1.0,
k2 is a parameter and is recommended as k2 = 5 mm.

Maximum spacing of main reinforcement Maximum spacing of main reinforcement

(9.3.1.1(3)) (9.3.1.1(3)) (cont.)
 For slabs less than 200 mm thick, the following maximum  For slabs 200 mm thick or greater, there are two methods to
spacing rules apply determine the maximum bar spacing.
smax,slabs = min(3.0h; 400 mm) for the principal steel  If cracking is controlled without direct calculation, Tables
smax,slabs = min(3.5h; 450 mm) for the secondary steel 7.2N and 7.3N in Section 7.3.3 of EC2-1-1 should be
referred to by limiting either the bar diameter or the
 For areas with concentrated loads or areas of maximum maximum bar spacing.
moment, the following maximum spacing rules applies  If cracking is controlled through calculation of crack
smax,slabs = min(2.0h; 250 mm) for the principal steel widths, Eqs.(7.11) to (7.15) in Section 7.3.4 of EC2-1-1
smax,slabs = min(3.0h; 400 mm) for the secondary steel should be referred to.

Punching shear reinforcement (Figure 9.10) Rules for spacing of punching shear
reinforcement (9.4.3(1))
(i) Punching shear reinforcement should be provided between
the face of the column and (k d) inside the outer perimeter
where shear reinforcement is no longer required, see
Figure 9.10 of EN 1992-1-1.
The UK National Annex recommends k = 1.5 (Table NA.1
of UK NA to EC2-1-1), unless the perimeter at which
reinforcement is no longer required is less than 3d from the
face of the loaded area/column. In this case, the punching
shear reinforcement should be placed in the zone 0.3d to
1.5d from the face of the column.

Rules for spacing of punching shear Layout of punching shear reinforcement

reinforcement (9.4.3(1)) (cont.) Outer perimeter of
shear reinforcement Outer control
perimeter uout
(ii) There should be at least two perimeters of shear links.

(iii) The radial spacing of the links should not exceed 0.75d A
 0.75d
A
(see the figure below).  1.5d
 1.5d
(iv) The tangential spacing of the links should not exceed 1.5d st
0.5d
sr ( 2d if > 2d
from column)
within 2.0d of the column face and should not exceed 2.0d
for any other perimeter, see the figure below.
(v) The distance between the face of the column and the 0.5d
sr  0.75d
nearest shear reinforcement should be no less than 0.3d kd
but no more than 0.5d.

Outer control
diameter
Section A-A
Reinforcement for flat slabs at internal columns Reinforcement for flat slabs at edge and corner
(9.4.1) columns (9.4.2)
 The arrangement of reinforcement in flat slab construction  Reinforcement perpendicular to a free edge required to
should reflect the behaviour under working conditions, i.e. transmit bending moments from the slab to an edge or
placing concentrated reinforcement over the columns. corner column should be placed within the effective width be
 At internal columns, unless rigorous serviceability calculations shown in Figure 9.9 of EC2-1-1.
are carried out, top reinforcement of area 0.5 At should be
placed in a width equal to the sum of 0.125 times the panel
width on either side of the column. At is the area of
reinforcement required to resist the full negative moment from
the sum of the two half panels each side of the column.
 Bottom reinforcement (≥ 2 bars) in each orthogonal direction
should be provided at internal columns and this reinforcement
should pass through the column.
1. EUROCODES AND EN 1992 Advanced Structural Eng
1.3 Design of RC FLAT Slabs (MHH223204/MHH225189)
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXAMPLE 1.1 – MULTI-SPAN FLOOR SYSTEM WITH FLAT SLABS

A floor system consisting of a reinforced concrete flat slab, without column heads, is supported on a
grid of columns as shown in Figure Ex.1.1. Using the data given:
(a) design suitable flexural reinforcement,

(b) design suitable shear reinforcement, and
(c) verify the suitability of the section with respect to deflection.
Design Data:
Characteristic permanent load (excluding self-weight) (gk) 1.0 kN/m2
Characteristic variable load is due general office use
Column dimensions 350 mm × 350 mm
Slab thickness (hs) 350 mm
Standard fire resistance REI 120
Strength Class of the concrete C30/37
1 2 3 4
6.0 m
B
6.0 m
C
6.0 m
D
6.0 m
E
7.0 m 7.0 m 7.0 m
Figure Ex.1.1
1
1. EUROCODES AND EN 1992 MHH223204&MHH225189
1.3 Design of RC FLAT Slabs Advanced Structural Eng
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Solution:
UK NA to EN 1990
Table NA.2.1 Category 4 for buildings and other common structures
Indicative design working life: 50 years
EN 1991-1-1
Annex A The self-weight of normal weight concrete = 25 kN/m3
Table A.1 Characteristic permanent load due to slab self-weight = (0.350 × 25) = 8.75 kN/m2
Total characteristic permanent loading gk = (1.0 + 8.75) = 9.75 kN/m2
UK NA to EN 1991-1-1
Table NA.2 Office area for general use is sub-category B1
Table NA.3 Variable floor loading for sub-category B1 qk = 2.5 kN/m2
UK NA to EN 1990
Table NA.A1.1 For Category B loading: ψ0 = 0.7 ψ1 = 0.5 ψ2 = 0.3
NA.2.2.3.2 γGj,sup = 1.35 γGj,inf = 1.00 γQ,1 = 1.50 γQ,i = 1.50 ξ = 0.925
Table NA.A1.2(B) Assume use of Eqs.(6.10a) and (6.10b) of EN 1990.
Eq.(6.10a) Fd = ∑γ
j ≥1
G,j Gk,j " + " γ Q,1ψ 0 ,1 Qk,1 " + " ∑γ
i >1
Q,i ψ 0,i Qk,i
not required
= (1.35 × 9.75) + (1.5 × 0.7 × 2.5) = 15.79 kN/m 2
Eq.(6.10b) Fd = ∑ξ γ
j ≥1
j G,j Gk,j " + " γ Q,1 Qk,1 " + "
not required
∑γ
i >1
Q,i ψ 0,i Qk,i
= (0.925 × 1.35 × 9.75) + (1.5 × 2.5) = 15.93 kN/m2
6.4.3.2(3) Eq.(6.10b) is the less favourable and design load ∴ Fd = 15.93 kN/m2.
EN 1992-1-1 Environmental conditions

Table 4.1 Assume XC1, i.e. concrete inside buildings with low air humidity
Table 4.2 Minimum cover considering bond: cmin,b = bar diameter (φs) – assume 16 mm
BS 8500-1
Table A.4 cmin,dur = 15.0 mm,
Table NA.1 ∆cdur,γ = 0, ∆cdur,st = 0, ∆cdur,add = 0,
EN 1992-1-1 Minimum cover considering both bond and environmental conditions

Eq.(4.2) cmin = max {cmin,b; [cmin,dur + ∆cdur,γ − ∆cdur,st − ∆cdur,add]; 10 mm}
= max {16 mm; 15 mm; 10 mm} = 16 mm
EN 1992-1-2 Minimum dimensions to satisfy fire resistance requirements

5.7.4(1) Assume coefficients (in which 20% re-distribution are used) are to be used to
determine the design bending moments.
Table 5.9 Minimum slab thickness for REI = 120 is hs = 200 mm < hactual (= 350 mm)
Slab thickness is adequate with respect to fire resistance.
2
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Table 5.8 In column 3 the minimum axis distance amin = 40 mm

Assuming 8 mm diameter shear reinforcement:
cmin,fire = (a − φs/2 − φs.link) = (40 − 16/2 − 8) = 24 mm
cmin required to satisfy bond, environmental conditions and fire resistance:

max{16 mm; 24 mm ) = 24 mm
EN 1992-1-1
4.4.1.3 Allowance for deviation ∆cdev = 10 mm
Eq.(4.1) cnom = cmin + ∆cdev = (24 + 10) = 34 mm
Assume a nominal cover of 35 mm.
Annex I Column and middle strips
I.1.2(3) The slab panels should be assumed to be divided into column and middle strips as
shown in Figure Ex.1.2 :
Figure I.1 ly = 6.0 m; lx = 7.0 m
Width of column strips = ly/2 = 3.0 m
Width of middle strips = ly/2 = 3.0 m and (lx − ly/2) = (7.0 − 3.0) = 4.0 m as shown.
1 2 3 4
1.5 m
A
3.0 m
1.5 m 1.5 m
B
3.0 m
1.5 m 1.5 m
C
3.0 m
1.5 m 1.5m
D
3.0 m
1.5 m
4.0 m 4.0 m 4.0 m
1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m
Figure Ex.1.2
Table NA.1 Load options: Option 3
For slabs a simplified arrangement may be used if the following conditions are satisfied:
(1) in a one-way spanning slab the area of each bay exceeds 30 m2;
(2) the ratio of the variable load Qk to the permanent load Gk does not exceed 1.25, and
(3) the variable load Qk does not exceed 5 kN/m2 excluding partitions.
Area of one-bay = (21.0 × 6.0) = 126.0 m2 > 30 m2

Qk/Gk = (2.5/9.75) = 0.26 < 1.25
Qk does not exceed = 2.5 kN/m2 ≤ 5 kN/m2
3
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Since all conditions are satisfied, the simplified combination may be used; the
analysis should include 20% re-distribution. Alternatively, the tabulated values
given previously can be used since there are at least three spans.
(The moment coefficients include an allowance for 20% redistribution at the
support moments.)
Consider a section through the slab along grid line C:

The slab width for a typical frame = 6.0 m
∴ Design load/m length = (15.93 × 6.0) = 95.58 kN/m
EN 1992-1-1
5.3.2.2(1) Effective span
Figure 5.4(b) leff = ln + a1 + a2
ln = (7.0 − 0.35) = 6.65 m
a1 = a2 = min (h/2; t/2) h = slab thickness = 0.35 m t = column dimension = 0.35 m
∴ a1 = a2 = 0.35/2 = 0.175 m
leff = (6.65 + 0.350) = 7.0 m
1 2 3 4
1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5m 5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m
A
3.0 m
B
95.58 kN/m
3.0 m
C
3.0 m
7.0 m 7.0 m 7.0 m

D Model for analysis of span and internal
support moments using table
3.0 m
coefficients.
E
Figure Ex.1.3
1.5m 4.0m 3.0m 4.0m 3.0m 4.0m 1.5m
Bending moment coefficients for continuous slabs of three or more spans

End support/slab connection First Interior Interior
Pinned Continuous interior spans supports
End End span End support End span support
support
Moment 0 0.086Fl − 0.04Fl 0.075Fl − 0.086Fl 0.063Fl −0.063Fl
For all spans: F = (95.58 × 7.0) = 669.06 kN
Positive bending moment in an interior span

= + 0.063Fl = + (0.063 × 669.06 × 7.0) = 295.06 kNm/panel
Negative bending moment at the first interior support
= − 0.086Fl = − (0.086 × 669.06 × 7.0) = 402.77 kNm/panel
Annex I Simplified apportionment of bending moments for a flat slab
Table I.1 Assume the following apportionment:
Column strips (3.0 m wide)
4
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
− positive moments = 60% of MEd = (0.6 × 295.06) = 177.04 kNm

− negative moments = 70% of MEd = (0.7 × 402.77) = 281.94 kNm
Middle strips (3.0 m wide)

– positive moments = 40% of MEd = (0.4 × 295.06) = 118.02 kNm
− negative moments = 30% of MEd = (0.3 × 402.77) = 120.83 kNm
Column strip positive moment = (177.04/3.0) = 59.01 kNm/m width

Middle strip positive moment = (118.02/3.0) = 39.34 kNm/m width
Column strip negative moment = (281.94/3.0) = 93.98 kNm/m width
Middle strip negative moment = (120.83/3.0) = 40.28 kNm/m width
EN 1992-1-1
9.2.1.1 Minimum and maximum areas of reinforcement:
Eq.(9.1N) As,min = (0.26 fctm bt d) / fyk ≥ 0.0013 bt d
Table 3.1 fctm = 2.9 MPa
As,min = (0.26 × 2.9)/500 × bt d = 0.00151 bt d ≥ 0.0013 bt d ∴ ρ = 0.151%
9.2.1.1(3) As,max = 0.04 Ac = (0.04 × 1000 × 350) = 14000 mm2/m width
Consider the positive moments:

Effective depth for the 7.0 m span d = (hs − cnom − φs/2) = (350 − 35 − 16/2) = 307 mm
M Ed 59.01 × 106
For a column strip K = = = 0.02
bd 2 f ck 1000 × 307 2 × 30
There is an assumed 20% re-distribution on bending moment ∴ δ = 0.8 ≤ 0.85

K′ = (0.60δ − 0.18δ 2 − 0.21) = 0.152 ≥ 0.02 ∴ Section is singly reinforced.
z = 0.5 + 0.25 − 0.883K  d = 0.5 + 0.25 − ( 0.883 × 0.02 )  d = 0.98d ≤ 0.95d

 
M Ed 59.01 × 106
As = = = 465 mm2/m
0.87 f yk z 0.87 × 500 × 0.95 × 307
465 × 100
ρ= = 0.15% < As,min [= (0.151 × 1000 × 307)/100 = 463 mm2/m width]
1000 × 307
Adopt H16 bars @ 400 centres at the bottom (503 mm2/m).
M Ed 39.34 × 106
For a middle strip K = = = 0.01
bd 2 f ck 1000 × 307 2 × 30
K′ = 0.152 ≥ 0.01 ∴ Section is singly reinforced.
z = 0.5 + 0.25 − 0.883K  d = 0.5 + 0.25 − ( 0.883 × 0.01)  d = 0.99d ≤ 0.95d

 
M Ed 39.34 × 106
As = = = 310 mm2/m
0.87 f yk z 0.87 × 500 × 0.95 × 307
310 × 100
ρ= = 0.10% < As,min (= 463 mm2/m width)
1000 × 307
5
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EN 1992-1-1
7.4.2(2) Check the deflection for the middle strip.
[basic (l/d) × F1 × F2 × F3 × F4] ≥ actual (l/d)
actual (l/d) = (7000/307) = 22.8
ρ 0 = f ck 1000 = 30 1000 = 0.00548 (= 0.548%)
ρ ′ = 0 (i.e. no compression steel)
ρ = 0.10% is less than ρ 0 ∴ use Eq.(7.16.a).
 ρ0  ρ0  
32
Eq.(7.16.a) basic (l/d) = K 11 + 1.5 f ck + 3.2 f ck  − 1 

 ρ  ρ  
Table NA.5 K = 1.2 for flat slabs
For lightly stressed concrete i.e. ρ = 0.5%, the basic (l/d) ratio = 24
Since actual (l/d) ≤ 24 there is no need to evaluate Eq.(7.16.a) and the modification
factors for ρ = 0.10%
The slab is satisfactory with respect to deflection.
Consider the negative moments:

M Ed 93.98 × 106
bd 2 f ck 1000 × 307 2 × 30
K′ = 0.152 ≥ 0.03 ∴ Section is singly reinforced
z = 0.5 + 0.25 − 0.883K  d = 0.5 + 0.25 − ( 0.883 × 0.03)  d = 0.97d ≤ 0.95d

 
M Ed 93.98 × 106
As = = = 741 mm2/m
0.87 f yk z 0.87 × 500 × 0.95 × 307
741 × 100
ρ= = 0.24% > As,min
1000 × 307
Try H16 bars @ 250 centres at the top (804 mm2/m).
M Ed 40.28 × 106
bd 2 f ck 1000 × 307 2 × 30
z = 0.5 + 0.25 − 0.883K  d = 0.5 + 0.25 − ( 0.883 × 0.01)  d = 0.99d ≤ 0.95d

 
M Ed 40.28 × 106
As = = = 318 mm2/m
0.87 f yk z 0.87 × 500 × 0.95 × 307
318 × 100
ρ= = 0.10% < As,min (= 463 mm2/m width)
1000 × 307
Adopt H16 bars @ 400 centres at the top (503 mm2/m).
EN 1992-1-1 Consider an end span

Positive bending moment in an end span
= + 0.086Fl = + (0.086 × 669.06 × 7.0) = 402.77 kNm/panel
Annex I Simplified apportionment of bending moments for a flat slab
Table I.1 Assume the following apportionment:
6
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EN 1992-1-1 Column strips (3.0 m wide)

− positive moments = 60% of MEd = (0.6 × 402.77) = 241.66 kNm
Middle strips (3.0 m wide)
– positive moments = 40% of MEd = (0.4 × 402.77) = 161.11 kNm
Column strip positive moment = (241.66/3.0) = 80.55 kNm/m width

Middle strip positive moment = (161.11/3.0) = 53.70 kNm/m width
M Ed 80.55 × 106
bd 2 f ck 1000 × 307 2 × 30
There is an assumed 20% re-distribution on bending moment ∴ δ = 0.8 ≤ 0.85.
z = 0.5 + 0.25 − 0.883K  d = 0.5 + 0.25 − ( 0.883 × 0.03)  d = 0.97d ≤ 0.95d

 
M Ed 80.55 × 106
As = = = 635 mm2/m
0.87 f yk z 0.87 × 500 × 0.95 × 307
622 × 100
ρ= = 0.21% > As,min
1000 × 307
M Ed 53.70 × 106
2
bd f ck 1000 × 307 2 × 30
z = 0.5 + 0.25 − 0.883K  d = 0.5 + 0.25 − ( 0.883 × 0.02 )  d = 0.98d ≤ 0.95d

 
M Ed 53.70 × 106
As = = = 424 mm2/m
0.87 f yk z 0.87 × 500 × 0.95 × 307
424 × 100
ρ= = 0.14% < As,min (= 463 mm2/m width)
1000 × 307
7.4.2(2) Check the deflection for the middle strip.

[basic (l/d) × F1 × F2 × F3 × F4] ≥ actual (l/d)
actual (l/d) = (7000/307) = 22.8
ρ 0 = f ck 1000 = 30 1000 = 0.00548 (= 0.548%)

ρ ′ = 0 (i.e. no compression steel)
ρ = 0.14% is less than ρ 0 ∴ use Eq.(7.16.a).
 ρ0  ρ0  
32
Eq.(7.16a) basic (l/d) = K 11 + 1.5 f ck + 3.2 f ck  − 1 

 ρ  ρ  
7
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Table NA.5 K = 1.2 for flat slabs
For lightly stressed concrete i.e. ρ = 0.5%, the basic (l/d) ratio = 24
Since actual (l/d) ≤ 24 there is no need to evaluate Eq.(7.16.a) and the modification
factors for ρ = 0.40%
The slab is satisfactory with respect to deflection.
EN 1992-1-1
9.4.1(2) At internal columns, 0.5At should be placed in a width equal to the sum of 0.125
times the panel width on either side of the columns. At represents the reinforcement
area of required to resist the full negative moment from the sum of the two half
panels each side of the column.
The column strips are 3.0 m wide and the middle strips are 3.0 m wide.
At = 0.5 × [(3.0 × 741) + (3.0 × 318)] = 1588 mm2

The width required each side of the column = (0.125 × 6.0) = 0.75 m
The total width = (2 × 0.750) = 1.50 m
i.e. required area of steel = 1588/1.50 = 1059 mm2/m for 750 mm each side of the
column centre line.
Number of bars over the 1.5 m width = 9

Area of one 16 mm diameter bar = 201 mm2
In column width, outside the central 1.50 m of the 3.0 m column width the required
area of steel = [(3.0 × 741) − (9 × 201)] = 414 mm2
This steel is to be placed within (3.0 m − 1.50 m) = 1.50 m length.
i.e. required area of steel = 414/1.5 = 276 mm2/m
EN 1992-1-1
Annex I Perpendicular to edge of slab at edge column:
I.1.2(5) Design transfer moment to the edge column = 0.17be d2 fck
Figure 9.9(a) be = (350 + 350) = 700 mm
MEd,transfer = (0.17 × 700 × 3072 × 30)/106 = 336.47 kNm
M Ed 336.47 × 106
K= = = 0.12
bd 2 f ck 1000 × 307 2 × 30
z = 0.5 + 0.25 − 0.883K  d = 0.5 + 0.25 − ( 0.883 × 0.12 )  d = 0.88d ≤ 0.95d

 
M Ed 336.47 × 106
As = = = 2862 mm2
0.87 f yk z 0.87 × 500 × 0.88 × 307
This reinforcement is to be placed within 700 mm width = 2862/0.70 = 4089mm2/m.
Try H20 U-bars in pairs @ 300 centres local to the column (4180 mm2/m).
Table NA.1 Perpendicular to the slab generally ∴ β2 = 0.25
8
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EN 1992-1-1
9.2.1.4(1)1 Assuming that there is partial fixity along the edge of the slab, top reinforcement
capable of resisting 25% of the maximum moment in the adjacent slab should be
provided :
(0.25 × 741) = 186 mm2/m < As,min (= 463 mm2/m)
The reinforcement should extend at least (0.2 × adjacent span) measured from the
face of the support = (0.2 × 7.0) = 1.4 m
Adopt H16 U-bars @ 400 centres at the bottom (503 mm2/m).
Consider punching shear in Column C2

6.4.3(2) At the column perimeter:
(a) vEd < vRd,max
(b) If vEd < vRd,c punching shear reinforcement is not required,
(c) If vEd > vRd,c for the control section considered punching shear reinforcement
should be provided according to 6.4.5.
VEd
6.4.3(3) vEd = β
ui d
Loaded area at column face = (0.35 × 0.35) = 0.175 m2
Full area = (6.0 × 7.0) = 42.0 m2
Design load = 15.93 kN/m2
VEd = 15.93 × (42.0 − 0.175) = 666.27 kN
Figure 6.21N β = 1.15
ui = control perimeter at column face = 2 × (0.35 + 0.35) = 1.40 m
Assume the mean effective depth = (307 − 8) = 299 mm
VEd 666.27 × 103

6.4.3(3) vEd = β = 1.15 × = 1.83 MPa
ui d 1.4 × 103 × 299
Table NA.1
6.4.5(3) vRd,max = 0.5 v fcd
EN 1992-1-1
 f   30 
Eq.(6.6N) v = 0.6 1 − ck  = 0.6 × 1 −  = 0.528 MPa
 250   250 
fcd = αcc fck /γc = (0.85 × 30)/1.5 = 17.0 MPa
vRd,max = (0.5× 0.528 × 17.0) = 4.49 MPa > vEd
Punching shear is satisfactory at column face.
6.4.2 Check the punching shear at the basic control perimeter.
2d control perimeter u1
2d 2d
2d
Figure Ex.1.4
9
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EN 1992-1-1 u1 = [(4 × 0.35) + (2π × 2 × 0.307)] = 5.258 m

Area inside control perimeter
= [0.352 + (4 × 0.35 × 2 × 0.307)] + [π × (2 × 0.307)2] = 2.167 m2
Full area = 42.0 m2
Design load = 15.93 kN/m2

VEd = 15.93 × (42.0 − 2.167) = 634.548 kN
Figure 6.21N β = 1.15
VEd 634.54 × 103

6.4.3(3) vEd = β = 1.15 × = 0.46 MPa
u1d 5.258 × 103 × 299
VRd,c = 0.12 k (100 ρ1 f ck )  bw d

1/ 3
Eq.(6.47)
 
where no axial for force exists
≥ 0.035k f ck  bw d
1.5 0.5
Assume ρ1 = 0.151% (steel ratio is required for both directions to determine an

accurate value, the minimum value = 0.151%)
d = 307 mm and ρ1 = 0.20% ∴ vRd.c = 0.47 MPa
Since vRd.c > vEd punching shear reinforcement is not required.
Additional checks on minimum/maximum areas of steel, minimum/maximum spacing should also be

carried out, and anchorage, lap lengths and curtailment lengths determined.
EXAMPLE 1.2 – MULTI-SPAN FLOOR SYSTEM WITH FLAT SLABS

Considering grid-line 2 of the floor slab in Figure Ex.1.1:
(d) design suitable flexural reinforcement, and
(e) check punching shear for an internal column and the edge column.
10
(MHH223204/MHH225189)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. DESIGN OF PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE TO EN 1992
2.1 Introduction of Prestressed Concrete

2.2 Design of Prestressed Concrete to EN 1992
2. DESIGN OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 2.1 INTRODUCTION OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
 2.1 INTRODUCTION OF PRESTRESSED

CONCRETE
Plain concrete beam in bending
2.1 INTRODUCTION OF
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Professor Ben Zhang Stress distribution of a concrete beam in bending

Professor Ben Zhang 2 MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering
2. DESIGN OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
2.1 INTRODUCTION OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 2.1 INTRODUCTION OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Reinforced concrete beam in bending Disadvantages of reinforced concrete

 Cracks encourage corrosion of steel.
 A cracked concrete beam is much more flexible than an
uncracked beam. This means that when using a reinforced
concrete beam, there will be serviceability problems due to
deflection or even due to cracking if a very slender beam is
used.
 In addition, cracked concrete is not, on the whole,
contributing to strength but rather it simply adding to dead
weight.
Stress distribution of a reinforced concrete beam

2. DESIGN OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 2. DESIGN OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Invention of prestressing Modern graphic design
Eugène Freyssinet (1879 –1962) Gustaaf Magnel (1889 – 1955)
 French structural and civil engineer  Belgian structural engineer
 Pioneer of prestressed concrete  Magnel diagram
 Pont le Veurdre: a bridge of three  Walnut Lane Memorial Bridge
72.5 m spans near Vichy, built in 1911 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (1950)


Pioneer of modern prestressed concrete Pioneer of modern prestressed concrete (cont.)
Tung-yen Lin (1912 – 2003) Tung-yen Lin (1912 – 2003)
 Chinese structural engineer
 Pioneer of modern prestressed concrete
 Mr. Prestressed Concrete
 T.Y. Lin International: many grand projects

Prestressed concrete Prestressed concrete beam in bending

 A concrete structure where external compressive forces are
intentionally used to overcome tensile stresses caused by
unavoidable loads due to gravity, wind, etc.
or
 Introduction of compressive stresses into areas of a concrete
structure where tensile stresses might develop under working
load and this pre-compression is introduced even before the
structure begins its working life.
Stress distribution of a prestressed concrete beam

with a prestressing force at the centroid of section

Sydney Opera House, Australia (1973)
Stress distribution of a prestressed concrete beam

with a prestressing force at an eccentricity of e
The Jubilee Church, Rome (2000) Grand Central Water Tower (2002)
 Midrand, Gauteng, South Africa
 Prestressed concrete
 Height: 40 m
 Reservoir capacity: 6 500 000 litres
 Prestressed circumferentially

Grand Lisboa, Macau (2007) San Diego-Coronado Bridge, USA (1969)

 54-storey building at 228 meters
 shape of a lotus flower, with upper
cantilever part over 20 meters
 large column-free elliptical sphere

São João Bridge, Portugal (1991) Alfred Zampa Memorial Bridge, USA (2003)

Millau Viaduct, France (2004) Ethylene Tank, Singapore (2004)

 tallest bridge in the world, with one mast's summit at 336.4 m
 Post-tensioned
 Capacity: 18 000 m3
 Outer diameter: 33.8m
 Height: 28.6m
 Thickness: 550 to 650 mm
 Prestressed circumferentially

An oil production platform, USA Pre-tensioning
Basic stages of pre-tensioning

Post-tensioning Types of ducts

 Corrugated metal ducts
̶ Semi-rigid, made of cold rolled steel strips
̶ Good with grout
̶ Thickness: 0.2 to 0.6 mm
grout
Basic stages of post-tensioning

Types of ducts (cont.) Types of ducts (cont.)

 Smooth metal ducts  Corrugated plastic ducts
̶ Advantages: ̶ Materials: polyethylene (PE) or polypropylene (PP)
 avoid deformation when empty ̶ Thickness: min 1.0 mm
 withstand high grouting pressure
̶ Application: internal, boned post-tensioning
 prevent damage in bad conditions
 work well for high curvature
̶ Thickness: typical d/50, 2 to 5 mm, min 3 mm for welded
̶ Application: nuclear power stations, liquid nitrogen gas
and other tanks

Types of ducts (cont.) Types of tendons

 Smooth plastic ducts
Single wire
̶ Materials: polyethylene (PE) or polypropylene (PP) Standard strand
Drawn strand (outer
̶ Thickness: typical d/(16-18), 4 to 10 mm wires are compressed)
Cable of seven strands
̶ Application: external prestressing
Dividag bar
Macalloy bar

Types of strand Types of anchor

 Grip systems
Standard Strand Drawn Strand

7 wires in total, 6 are rolled Same as standard strand except the
around 1 which is the core. outer wires are compressed.

Types of anchor (cont.) Types of anchor (cont.)

 Threaded-nut systems  Wedge systems

Tensioning process Tensioning process

Kern distance Influential factors

 The extent of the range of positions at the ends of the beam  elastic shortening of the concrete (pre-tensioned members,
where the prestsressing force can be “anchored off ” without short term)
inducing tensile stress.  steam curing of the concrete (short term)
 h/3 for a rectangular section. b
 the mechanisms used during anchorage (short term)
 friction in the jack and anchorage (short term)
Kern limits h/6
 friction in the duct (short term)
 The extreme positions of the kern distance. h/3 h
 shrinkage of the concrete (main, long term)
 For a rectangular section,
h/6  creep of the concrete under sustained compressive load (long
+h/6 and -h/6 (the middle third rule).
term)
 relaxation of the steel under sustained tension (long term)

Typical values of prestress loss Ex.2.1 Comparison of loading capacities

 The magnitude of the losses are normally considered to be a  A simply supported beam with a rectangular cross-section as
percentage (%) of the prestressing force. shown in the figure below. Based on the design data,
compare the loading capacities when
(i) prestress force applied at the centroid of the section,
 5% to 10% before and during the transfer of the prestress
(ii) prestress force applied at an eccentricity of e = d/6,
force (short-term losses)
(iii) prestress force applied at the centroid of the I-section.
The short-term prestress loss factor  = 0.90 – 0.95.
Design data: max ≤ fmax = 20 N/mm2 (compression)
 20% after transfer. min ≥ fmin = 0 N/mm2 (tension)
 Long-term losses are of the order of 25-30%.
The long-term prestress loss factor  = 0.70 – 0.75.

Ex.2.1 Solution Case 1 (cont.)

Case 1
 A simply supported beam with a rectangular cross-section as
shown in the figure.
Assuming a prestress force of “P ” applied at the level of the

centroid of the section, i.e. “e” = 0.
Determine the maximum UDL that can be supported and the

corresponding prestressing force. A simply supported beam with a prestressing force
at the centroid of section
Maximum stress max ≤ fmax = 20 N/mm2 (compression)
Minimum stress min ≥ fmin = 0 N/mm2 (tension)
Case 1 (cont.) Case 1 (cont.)

 Cross-sectional area A  Elastic stress diagrams
A = b d = 300  400 = 120  103 mm2
 Section modulus Z
Z = b d 2 / 6 = 300  4002 / 6 = 8  106 mm3
 Maximum bending moment Mmax
Mmax = w L2 / 8 = w  82 / 8 = 8 w kNm
 Extreme fibre stresses
= ± Mmax/Z = ± 8w  106/ (8  106) =  w N/mm2 Applied load Prestress Combined
Induced stresses stresses stresses
 Stress due to prestress
= + P/A = + P  103 / (120103) = + P/120 N/mm2

Case 1 (cont.) Case 2
 Extreme fibre stresses  Consider the same problem but with prestressing force
applied at the lower kern limit as shown in the figure. This will
at the top: + w + P/120 = 20 (1) alter the “prestress stresses” diagram only and not the
at the bottom: - w + P/120 = 0 (2) applied load diagram as shown in the following figure.
Adding Equations (1) and (2)  P/120 + P/120 = 20 Assuming a prestress force of “P ” applied at an eccentricity
 P = 20  60 = 1200 kN of e = d/6.
Substituting for P into either (1) or (2) gives Determine the maximum UDL that can be supported and the
corresponding prestressing force.
w = 10 kN/m
 i.e. the maximum UDL which can be carried is 10 kN/m
requiring a prestressing force of 1200 kN located at the level Minimum stress min ≥ fmin = 0 N/mm2 (tension)
of the centroidal axis.

 Elastic stress diagrams
Applied Prestress Combined

load Stresses stresses stresses

Case 2 (cont.) Case 3

 Extreme fibre stresses  A simply supported I-beam as shown in the figure.
at the top: +w + P/120 - P10366.67/(8106)
= 20 (1) Assuming a prestress force of “P ” applied at the level of the
at the bottom: -w + P/120 + P10366.67/(8106) = 0 (2) centroid of the section, i.e. “e” = 0.
Adding Equations (1) and (2)  P/120 + P/120 = 20 Determine the maximum UDL that can be supported.
 P = 20  60 = 1200 kN
Substituting for P into either (1) or (2) gives
Minimum stress min ≥ fmin = 0 N/mm2 (tension)
w = 20 kN/m
 For the same span, section and prestressing force, the load
carrying capacity of the beam has doubled by selecting the
most efficient location for the application of the force.

 Geometric properties  Maximum bending moment Mmax
Mmax = w L2 / 8 = w  82 / 8 = 8 w kNm
 Extreme fibre stresses
A = 84  103 mm2
= ± Mmax/Z = ± 8 w  106 / (7.4106)
Z = 7.4  106 mm3
I = 1.48  109 mm4 =  (8/7.4) w N/mm2
 Stress due to prestress
= + P/A = + P  103 / (84103) = + P/84 N/mm2

Case 3 (cont.) Summary

 Extreme fibre stresses Case P (kN) w (kN/m)
at the top: + (8/7.4) w + P/84 = 20 (1)
1 1200 10
at the bottom: - (8/7.4) w + P/84 = 0 (2)
2 1200 20
Adding Equations (1) and (2)  P/84 + P/84 = 20
3 840 9.25
 P = 20  42 = 840 kN
 Eccentric prestressing can largely increase the load capacity.
Substituting for P into either (1) or (2) gives  Compared with rectangular section, I-section with only 70% area
w = 9.25 kN/m and 70% prestressing force can carry 92.5% of the load which is
supposed to be carried by the beam with rectangular section.
 Rectangular section is not an economical option.

2. DESIGN OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 2.2 DESIGN OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE TO EC2
 2.2 DESIGN OF PRESTRESSED

CONCRETE TO EN 1992
Durability requirements for prestressed concrete
 The nominal concrete cover cnom (4.4.1.1(2))
cnom = cmin + cdev (4.1)
The deviation of nominal cover cdev = 10 mm normally.
2.2 DESIGN OF PRESTRESSED  The minimum nominal cover cmin should be set to satisfy the
CONCRETE TO EN 1992 requirements below (4.4.1.2(1))
─ safe transmission of bond forces
─ durability
Professor Ben Zhang ─ fire resistance
2.2 DESIGN OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE TO EC2 2.2 DESIGN OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE TO EC2
Minimum concrete cover (4.4.1.2(2)) Minimum cover for bond cmin,b (4.4.1.2(3))
 The minimum nominal cover cmin due to bond and durability  The recommended values of cmin,b for post-tensioned circular
considerations should be determined from the following and rectangular ducts for bonded tendons are:
cmin = max{cmin,b; cmin,dur + Δcdur, ─ Δcdur,st ─ Δcdur,add; 10 mm} ̶ circular ducts: diameter
(4.2) ̶ rectangular ducts: greater of the smaller dimension or half
where: the greater dimension
cmin,b is the minimum cover due to bond requirement, see 4.4.1.2(3)
cmin,dur is the minimum cover due to environmental conditions, see
 There is no requirement for more than 80 mm for either
4.4.1.2(5) circular or rectangular ducts.
Δcdur, is the additive safety element, see 4.4.1.2(6)
 The recommended values for pre-tensioned tendon:
Δcdur,st is the reduction of minimum cover for use of stainless steel, see
4.4.1.2(7) ̶ strand or plain wire: 1.5 x diameter
Δcdur,add is the reduction of minimum cover for use of additional protection, ̶ indented wire: 2.5 x diameter
see 4.4.1.2(8)

Minimum cover for durability requirements Minimum cover for durability requirements (cont.)

Ex.2.2 Nominal cover for concrete bridge deck Ex.2.2 Solution

 A post-tensioned prestressed concrete bridge deck is simply  Minimum cover due to bond consideration (cl. 4.4.1.2(3))
supported over a span of 20 m. The structure is simulated as cmin,b = duct = 50 mm
a solid slab, see figure below. Using the design data,
determine the nominal concrete cover cnom.  Minimum cover due to environmental consideration
Design data BS 8500-1:
B = 3000 mm
Concrete class: C40/50 Maximum aggregate size: dg = 20 mm (Known)
Exposure class: XC4 Design life of the bridge: 120 years (NA to EN 1990)
Duct diameter: 50 mm IVB-V Cement: Portland cement with 36% - 55% fly ash
REI: 120 min cnom h = 525 mm
Minimum cover: cmin,dur = 40 (35?) mm (Table A.5)
Maximum aggregate size: 20 mm

 Minimum cover due to bond and environmental  Minimum cover due to fire consideration
considerations (Table NA.1 of the UK NA to EC2-1-1) Minimum slab depth: hmin = 120 mm (Table 5.8 of EC2-1-2)
cdur, = cdur,st = cdur,add = 0 mm hmin = 120 mm < h = 525 mm OK!
cmin = max{cmin,b; cmin,dur + Δcdur, ─ Δcdur,st ─ Δcdur,add; 10 mm} Minimum axial distance: amin = 40 mm (Table 5.8 of EC2-1-2)
Incremental axial distance for prestressing wires and strands:
= max{50 mm; (40 + 0 ─ 0 ─ 0) mm; 10 mm} = 50 mm a = 15 mm (cl. 5.2(5) of EC2-1-2)
(4.2)
Axial distance: a = amin + a = 40 + 15 = 55 mm
cmin,fire = a – duct/2 = 55 – 50/2 = 30 mm < cmin = 50 mm
 Nominal cover cnom
Allowance for deviation: cdev = 10 mm (cl. 4.4.1.3(1))
Nominal cover: cnom = cmin + cdev = 50 + 10 = 60 mm Q.E.D.
Concrete stress/strain relationship: global analysis Stress-strain relationship for cross-section design
 Stress-strain relationship for non-linear structural  Rectangular stress-strain diagrams
analysis (3.1.5)
c fck cu3  fcd
sc
x x Fc
fcm  fcd neutral (1)cu3
fracture point axis
hd z
Ap p0 p
c Fp
(1)cu3 cu3
0.4fcm Stress-strain curve assumed for non- Cross-section Strain Stress
linear structural analysis
Ecm  tan
Ecm = the secant modulus of elasticity  = 0.8 for
 fck  50 fcd = cc fck /c
c  = 1.0
c1 cu1
Stress-strain relationship for cross-section design Concrete modulus of elasticity: Secant modulus
 Rectangular stress-strain diagrams for fck  50 MPa  Secant modulus of elasticity Ecm (3.1.3 & Table 3.1)
fck 0.0035 0.567 fck ̶ Used for general applications

sc 0.8x
x Fc ̶ In Table 3.1 of EC2, the secant modulus of elasticity at 28
 fcd neutral (1)cu3
hd axis z
days, assuming quartzite aggregates, is determined using
Ap p0 p
the following expression:
c Fp
(1)cu3 cu3 Ecm = 22 [( fcm/10)]0.3 kN/mm2
Cross-section Strain Stress
̶ The variation in this value with time can be estimated
 = 0.8  = 1.0 cc = 0.85 c = 1.5
using:
 fcd =  cc fck /c = 1.0  0.85  fck / 1.5 = 0.567 fck
cu3 = 0.0035
Ecm(t) = [ fcm(t) / fcm)]0.3 Ecm (3.5)

Secant modulus of elasticity at 28 days (N/mm2) Concrete Modulus of Elasticity:
Strength
Class Quartzite
Limestone ( 10%)
Type of Aggregate
Sandstone ( 30%) Basalt (+ 20%)
Tangent, design and effective values
C12/15 27 24.3 18.9 32.4
C16/20 29 26.1 20.3 34.8  Tangent modulus of elasticity, Ec (3.1.4(2))
C20/25 30 27.0 21.0 36.0 Used when considering second order effects due to creep
C25/30 31 27.9 21.7 37.2
C30/37 33 29.7 23.1 39.6
C35/45 34 30.6 23.8 40.8
 Design modulus of elasticity, Ecd (5.8.6.3)
C40/50 35 31.5 24.5 42.0 Used when considering global second order effects in buildings
C45/55 36 32.4 25.2 43.2
C50/60 37 33.3 25.9 44.4
 Effective modulus of elasticity, Ecd,eff (5.8.6.3)
C55/67 38 34.2 26.6 45.6
C60/75 39 35.1 27.3 46.8
Used when considering second order analysis based on nominal
C70/85 41 36.9 28.7 49.2 stiffness (considering cracked sections etc.)
C80/95 42 37.8 29.4 50.4
C90/105 44 39.6 30.8 52.8

Coefficient of thermal expansion c and Concrete properties for design (Table 3.1)
Poisson’s ratio c Exposure C12/ C16 C20 C25 C30 C35 C40 C45 C50
class 15 /20 /25 /30 /37 /45 /50 /55 /60
 Coefficient of thermal expansion, c (3.1.3(5)) fck (MPa) 12 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
c = 10  106 K1 fck,cube (MPa) 15 20 25 30 37 45 50 55 60
fcm (MPa) 20 24 28 33 38 43 48 53 58
 Poisson’s ratio, c (3.1.3(4)) fctm (MPa) 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.1
fctk,0.05 (MPa) 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.5 2.7 2.9
̶ For uncracked concrete, c = 0.2
fctk,0.95 (MPa) 2.0 2.5 2.9 3.3 3.8 4.2 4.6 4.9 5.3
̶ For cracked concrete, c = 0
Ecm (GPa) 27 29 30 31 33 34 35 36 37

Stress-strain diagram for typical prestressing Stress-strain diagram for prestressing steel
steel (Figure 3.9) (Figure 3.10)
 Clause 3.3.3(1) specifies
that the 0.1% proof stress
(fp0.1k) and the tensile
strength (fpk) are defined as
the characteristic value of
the 0.1% proof load and the
characteristic maximum
load in axial tension
respectively, divided by the
nominal cross sectional
area.  Clause 3.3.6(7) recommends ud = 0.9uk, and if the values
not known, ud = 0.02 and fp0.1k/fpk = 0.9.
Jacking forces and initial prestress (EN 10138-3) Maximum prestressing force (5.10.2.1(1))
Strand p Ap fpk fp0.1k Jacking Initial  The force applied to a tendon (the force at the active end
type (mm) (mm )
2
(MPa) (MPa) force (kN) prestress (kN) during tensioning), Pmax, shall not exceed the following value:
Y1770S7 15.2 140.0 1770 1520 192 181 Pmax = Ap σp,max (5.41)
16.0 150.0 1770 1520 205 194
where:
Y1860S7 12.5 93.0 1860 1600 134 126
Ap is the cross‐sectional area of the tendon
13.0 100.0 1860 1600 144 136 σp,max is the maximum stress applied to the tendon
15.2 140.0 1860 1600 202 190
σp,max = min {k1 fpk; k2 fp0.1k } = min {0.8 fpk; 0.9 fp0.1k }
16.0 150.0 1860 1600 216 204
Y1860S7G 12.7 112.0 1860 1610 162 153  Note: The values of k1 and k2 are recommended as k1 = 0.8 and k2
Y1820S7G 15.2 165.0 1820 1560 232 219 = 0.9.
Y1700S7G 18.0 223.0 1700 1470 294 278

Overstressing force (5.10.2.1(2)) Prestressing force (5.10.3(1))

 Overstressing is permitted if the force in the jack can be  At a given time t and distance x (or arc length) from the active
measured to an accuracy of ±5% of the final value of the end of the tendon, the mean prestress force Pm,t(x) is equal to
prestressing force. In such cases, the maximum prestressing the maximum force Pmax imposed at the active end, minus the
force Pmax may be increased to k3 fp0,1k = 0.95 fp0,1k, e.g. for immediate losses and the time dependent losses, i.e.
the occurrence of an unexpected high friction in long-line
pretensioning.
Pm,t (x) = Pmax – Pi(x) – Pc+s+r(x)
where:
 Note: The values of k3 is recommended value as 0.95.
Pi(x) is the immediate loss of prestress force,
Pc+s+r(x) is the time‐dependent loss of prestress force due to
creep, shrinkage and relaxation.

Partial factors for prestress (EN 10138-3) Partial factors for concrete and steel materials
Serviceability Ultimate (Table 2.1N)
Structural effect Design code limit state limit state
P,unfav P,fav P,unfav P,fav Design C S S
Flexure situation Concrete Reinforcing steel Prestressing steel
Pretensioned or EN 1992-1-1 1.05 0.95 1.3 1.0 Persistent and
unbonded
1.5 1.15 1.15
UK NA to EC2-1-1 1.0 1.0 1.1 0.9 transient
Post-tensioned or EN 1992-1-1 1.1 0.9 1.3 1.0 Accidental 1.2 1.0 1.0
bonded UK NA to EC2-1-1 1.0 1.0 1.1 0.9
Shear EN 1992-1-1 – – 1.3 1.0
Anchorage zones UK NA to EC2-1-1 – – 1.1 0.9
Anchorage of
See 11.8.1
pretensioned tendons
Anchorage zones 1.2 –

Strain in bonded prestressing tendons at the ULS Stress limits at the serviceability limit state
cu
FC
 Allowable compressive stresses at transfer, f 'c,max
(5.10.2.2(5))
̶ For post-tensioned members
AP FP f 'c,max = 0.6 fck(t) (5.42)
P0  P ̶ For pre-tensioned members
P0 is the initial strain in the tendon at a section (allowing only for f 'c,max = 0.7 fck(t)
losses due to friction and draw-in) + P0
P0 is the strain in the concrete due to stressing the tendon for ̶ Combination of loads
post-tensioned members, and is 0 for pretensioned members
FP is the force in the prestressing tendons at the ultimate limit G k,j " " P " (6.14b of EC)
state, and FP = EP AP P = EP AP (P + P,fav P0). j 1

Stress limits at the serviceability limit state Stress limits at the serviceability limit state
 Characteristic compressive strength at an age t, fck(t)  The age coefficient cc(t) (3.1.2(6))
(3.1.2)
cc(t ) = exp {s [1 – (28/t)0.5 ] } (3.2)
fck(t ) = fcm(t ) – 8 (MPa) for 3 < t < 28 days
where
fck(t ) = fck for t  28 days t is the age of the concrete in days,
s is a coefficient which depends on the type of cement:
where the mean compressive strength at an age t, fcm(t), is
s = 0.20 for cement of strength Classes CEM 42.5 R,
given as
CEM 52.5 N and CEM 52.5 R (Class R),
fcm(t ) = cc(t ) fcm (3.1) s = 0.25 for cement of strength Classes CEM 32.5 R,
CEM 42.5 N (Class N),
with fcm as the mean compressive strength at 28 days
according to Table 3.1. s = 0.38 for cement of strength Classes CEM 32.5 N (Class S).

 Allowable tensile stresses at transfer, f 'c,min  Mean tensile strength at an age t, fctm(t) (3.1.6(9))
fctm(t ) = [cc(t )] fctm (3.4)
̶ For characteristic combination of loads
f 'c,min = – fctm(t ) where
cc(t) is the age coefficient and is given in Eq.(3.2),
̶ For normal conditions (UK practice)  is an exponential index and is given as
f 'c,min = – 1.0 MPa  = 1 for t < 28 days, and  = 2/3 for t  28 days
fctm is the mean tensile strength at 28 days and can be
̶ For quasi-permanent combination of loads directly obtained from Table 3.1 or calculated from
(decompression, Table 7.1N) fctm = 0.30 fck2/3 (Table 3.1)
f 'c,min = 0

 Allowable compressive stresses at service, fc,max (7.2(2))  Allowable compressive stresses at service, fc,max (7.2(3))
̶ To avoid longitudinal cracks under the characteristic ̶ If the stress in the concrete under the quasi-permanent
combination of loads, the compressive stress should be loads is less than k2 fck(t), linear creep may be assumed. If
limited to a value k1fck(t) in areas exposed to environments the stress is larger than k2 fck(t), non-linearity should be
of exposure classes XD, XF and XS (see Table 4.1). The considered. The recommended value for k2 is 0.45.
recommended value for k1 is 0.6. Thus,
fc,max = 0.45 fck
fc,max = 0.6 fck (5.42)
̶ Quasi-permanent combination
̶ Characteristic combination
G k,j " " P " " Qk,1 " "  0,i Qk,i (6.14b of EC) G
j 1
k,j " " P " " 
i 1
2,i Qk,i (6.16b of EC)
j 1 i 1

Stress limits at the serviceability limit state Ex.2.3 Allowable stresses for concrete bridge deck
 Allowable tensile stresses at service, fc,min  A post-tensioned prestressed concrete bridge deck is simply
supported. Using the design data, determine the allowable
̶ For characteristic combination of loads stresses of the bonded tendons at transfer and at service.
fc,min = – fctm Design data
̶ For quasi-permanent combination of loads Concrete class: C40/50
(decompression, Table 7.1N) Exposure class: XC4 (cyclic wet and dry)
fc,min = 0 Age at transfer: 7 days
Cement class: CEM 42.5 R (Class R)
Load combination: (i) characteristic combinations of loads
(ii) quasi-permanent combination of loads

Ex.2.3 Solution  Allowable compressive stresses at transfer (cont.)

 Concrete properties for C40/50 (Table 3.1) ̶ Allowable compressive stress of concrete for
characteristic combination of loads at 7 days
fck = 40 MPa fcm = 48 MPa fctm = 3.5 MPa
f′max = 0.6 fck(7) = 0.6 × 31.30 = 18.8 MPa (5.42)
 Allowable compressive stresses at transfer
Cement type coefficient s = 0.20 (cl. 3.1.2(6)) ̶ Allowable compressive stress of concrete for quasi-
permanent combination of loads at 7 days
Age coefficient cc(7) = exp {s [1 – (28/t)0.5 ] }
f′max = 0.45 fck(7) = 0.45 × 31.30 = 14.1 MPa
= exp {0.2 [1 – (28/7)0.5 ] } = 0.819 (3.2)
Mean concrete strength at 7 days (cl. 3.1.4(4) and 7.2(3))
fcm(7) = cc(7) fcm = 0.819 × 48 = 39.30 MPa (3.1)
Characteristic concrete strength at 7 days
fck(7) = fcm(7) – 8 = 39.30 – 8 = 31.30 MPa (Table 3.1)
 Allowable tensile stresses at transfer  Allowable compressive stresses at service

Age coefficient cc(7) = 0.819 (3.2) ̶ Allowable compressive stress of concrete for
Exponential index  = 1.0 for t = 7 days (cl. 3.1.2(9)) characteristic combination of loads
Mean tensile concrete strength at 7 days fmax = 0.6 fck = 0.6 × 40 = 24 MPa (5.42)
fctm(7) = [cc(7)] fctm = 0.819 × 3.5 = 2.9 MPa (3.4) ̶ Allowable compressive stress of concrete for quasi-
̶ Allowable tensile stress of concrete for characteristic permanent combination of loads
combination of loads at 7 days fmax = 0.45 fck = 0.45 × 40 = 18 MPa
f′min = - fctm(7) = - 2.9 MPa
(cl. 3.1.4(4) and 7.2(3))
̶ Allowable tensile stress of concrete for quasi-permanent
combination of loads at 7 days
f′min = 0 MPa

 Allowable tensile stresses at service Cracking control at the SLS (7.3.1(5) and (6))
̶ Allowable tensile stress of concrete for characteristic  A limiting value, wmax, for the calculated crack width, wk,
combination of loads taking into account the proposed function and nature of the
fmin = - fctm = - 3.5 MPa structure and the costs of limiting cracking, should be
established. The recommended values of wmax for use in the
̶ Allowable tensile stress of concrete for quasi-permanent UK are given in Table NA.4 of the UK NA to EC2-1-1.
combination of loads
 For members with only unbonded tendons, the requirements
fmin = 0 MPa
for reinforced concrete elements apply. For members with a
Q.E.D. combination of bonded and unbonded tendons, requirements
for prestressed concrete members with bonded tendons
apply.

Recommended values of wmax (Table NA.4) Prestress losses

Exposure Reinforced members and Prestressed members
class prestressed members without with bonded tendons  Immediate losses of prestress force (5.10.3(3))
bonded tendons (quasi- (frequent load
permanent load combination) combination)
̶ losses due to elastic deformation of concrete ΔPel
mm mm ̶ losses due to short term relaxation of steel ΔPr
X0, XC1 0.3a 0.2
̶ losses due to friction ΔPμ(x)
XC2, XC3, XC4 0.2b
0.3
̶ losses due to anchorage slip ΔPsl
XD1, XD2, XD3, 0.2 and decompressionc
XS1, XS2, XS3
 Time dependent losses of prestress force (5.10.3(4))
a For X0, XC1 exposure classes, crack width has no influence on durability
and this limit is set to produce acceptable appearance. In the absence of ̶ losses due to creep of concrete ΔPc
specific requirements for appearance, this limit may be relaxed.
b For these exposure classes, in addition, decompression should be ̶ losses due to shrinkage of concrete ΔPs
checked under the quasi-permanent combination of loads.
c w ̶ losses due to relaxation of prestressing steel ΔPr
max = 0.2 mm applies to parts of the member that do not have to be
checked for decompression.
Professor Ben Zhang 43 MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering Professor Ben Zhang 44 MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering
Immediate losses of prestress for pre-tensioning Immediate losses of prestress for

(5.10.4) post-tensioning (5.10.5)
 During stressing process (5.10.4(1))  Losses due to the instantaneous deformation of concrete
̶ losses due to friction at the bends ΔPμ(x) ΔPel (5.10.5(1))
̶ losses due to wedge draw-in of the anchorage devices ΔPsl  Losses due to friction ΔPμ(x) (5.10.5(2))
 Before the transfer of prestress to concrete (5.10.4(2))  Losses at anchorage ΔPsl (5.10.5(3))
̶ losses due to relaxation of the pre-tensioning tendons ΔPr
̶ losses due to shrinkage and relaxation for heat curing ΔPs+r
 At the transfer of prestress to concrete (5.10.4(3))
̶ losses due to elastic deformation of concrete ΔPel
Immediate losses: Elastic shortening (5.10.5.1) The loss in prestress force ΔPel
Ap  e2 A 
The force after elastic loss P′ is linked to the transfer force P0 Pel   sp Ap   e cp Ap   e P ' 1  
A  I 
P ′ = P0 – ΔPel
Ap  e 2 A 
The stress in the concrete at the level of the tendon cp is P '  P0  Pel  P0   e P ' 1  
A  I 
P '  P 'e e P ' P ' e2 P '  e2 A 
 cp     cg    1   The remaining prestress force P′ will be
A I A I A I  P0
P'  for pre-tensioned concrete
The strain in the concrete: cp = cp / Ecm Ap  e 2 A 
1  e 1  
The reduction in steel strain: sp = cp = cp / Ecm A I 
P0
The reduction in steel stress: P'  for post-tensioned concrete
Ap  e 2 A 
sp = cp Ep = cp Ep / Ecm = e cp with e = Ep / Ecm 1  0.5 e 1  
A I 
Immediate losses: Elastic shortening (5.10.5.1) Proof of Eq.(5.44)

In EC2-1-1, a formula is given for the mean loss in each The strain variation in concrete at time t, c(t) = c(t) / Ecm(t)
tendon, ΔPel (note there is no term Σ in the formula) The strain variation in steel at time t,
 j  c (t )  p(t) = c(t) = c(t) / Ecm(t)
Pel  Ap Ep   (5.44)
 Ecm (t )  The stress variation in steel at time t,
where
p(t) = p(t) Ep = c(t) Ep = c(t) Ep / Ecm(t)
c(t) is the variation of stress at the centre of gravity of the
tendons applied at time t, The stress variation in the 1st tendon after the last one tensioned,
j is a coefficient equal to p,1(t) = [(n – 1) / n] c(t) Ep / Ecm(t)
(n-1)/2n where n is the number of identical tendons
successively prestressed, j 1/2, The stress variation in the 2nd tendon after the last one tensioned,
1.0 for the variations due to permannet actions p,2(t) = [(n – 2) / n] c(t) Ep / Ecm(t)
applied after prestressing.
The stress variation in the (n – 1)th tendon, Immediate losses: Friction (5.10.5.2)
p,(n-1)(t) = {[n – (n – 1)] / n} c(t) Ep / Ecm(t)
The losses due to friction in post-tensioned tendons,
= (1/n) c(t) Ep / Ecm(t) ΔP(, x), may be estimated as
The stress variation in the nth tendon,
Pμ ( , x)  Pmax 1  e  μ (θ + k x)  (5.45)
p,n(t) = [(n – n) / n] c(t) Ep / Ecm(t) = 0
where
The loss in prestress force in one tendon can be calculated as
θ is the sum of the angular displacements over a distance x
1 n Ap n (n  i ) c (t ) Ep  c (t ) Ep n
(irrespective of direction or sign),
Pel 
n

i =1
Ap  p,i 
n

i =1 n Ecm (t )
 Ap
n 2 Ecm (t )
 (n  i)
i =1
 is the coefficient of friction between the tendon and its duct,
k is an unintentional angular displacement for internal tendons
 c (t ) Ep (n  1) n  c (t ) Ep  (n  1)  j  c (t ) (per unit length) and 0.005 < k < 0.01 rad/m,
 Ap 2
 Ap    Ap Ep x is the distance along the tendon from the point where the
n Ecm (t ) 2 Ecm (t )  2n  Ecm (t )
prestressing force is equal to Pmax (the force at the active end
Q.E.D. during tensioning).
Coefficients of friction of post-tensioned internal Prestress forces after loss due to friction
tendons & external unbonded tendons,  (Table 5.1)  The remaining prestress force after the loss due to friction in
Internal straight ducts (“Wobble” effects), P(x), may be estimated as
Tendon type External unbonded tendons
tendons1)
Steel duct HPDE duct Steel duct HPDE duct
Pμ ( x)  Pmax e  μ k x
/non lubr. /non lubr. /lubricated /lubricated  The remaining prestress force after the loss due to friction by
Cold draw wire 0.17 0.25 0.14 0.18 0.12 duct curvature, P(), may be estimated as
Strand 0.19 0.24 0.12 0.16 0.10 Pμ ( )  Pmax e  μ θ
Deformed bar 0.65 – – – –
 In general, “Wobble” effects and duct curvature effects are
Smooth round bar 0.33 – – – – coupled and the remaining prestress force after considering
1) For tendons which fill about half of the duct. both effects, P(, x), may be estimated as
Note: HPDE – High density polyethylene. Pμ ( , x)  Pmax e  μ (θ + k x) (5.45)

Immediate losses: Anchorage draw-in (5.10.5.3) Immediate losses: Anchorage draw-in (cont.)
 The loss in prestress force due to the anchorage draw-in, Psl Assume that the anchorage draw-in is sl.
p Psl / 2 Psl The stress loss in the prestressing steel
  p xsl
Prestress force P 1 xsl 2 p = p Ep = (sl / xsl) Ep
where p is the prestress loss per
A metre due to friction, in kN/m, From p Ap = Psl / 2
Psl/2 p and can be determined using Psl / 2 = (sl / xsl) Ep Ap = p xsl

1 B Eq.(5.45) of EC2-1-1.
Psl/2 xsl = (sl Ep Ap / p)0.5
xsl C
D
Psl  2 p xsl  2 p  sl EP AP / p  2  sl EP AP p
Distance x
Time-dependent losses: Creep of concrete The elastic modulus of concrete due to creep, Ec,creep
Ec 1.05 Ecm
The force after creep of concrete P′ can be obtained from Ec,creep   (cl. 3.1.4(2))
 (  , t0 )  (  , t0 )
P ′ = P0 – ΔPc
The stress in the concrete at the level of the tendon cp is The loss in prestress force due to creep, Pc, is then given as
P '  e2 A  Ap Ep  (, t0 )  e 2 A 
 cp  1   Pc   sp,creep Ap  1  P'
A I  A 1.05 Ecm  I 
The loss in steel stress due to creep sp,creep is given as The remaining prestress force after the loss due to creep of
concrete, P′, will be
 cp Ep P ' Ep  e2 A  P0
 sp,creep   1   P' 
Ec,creep A Ec,creep  I  Ap Ep  (, t0 )  e 2 A 
1 1  
A 1.05Ecm  I 

Time-dependent losses: Shrinkage of concrete Drying shrinkage strain cd (3.1.4(6))

The force after shrinkage of concrete P′ can be obtained from The development of the drying shrinkage strain in time cd(t)
P ′ = P0 – ΔPs cd(t) = ds(t, ts) kh cd,0 (3.9)
The loss in prestress force due to shrinkage, Ps, is given as where
cd,0 is the nominal unrestrained drying shrinkage in‰
ΔPs = cs Ep Ap and may be taken from Table 3.2 of EC2-1-1,
The total shrinkage strain cs is given as (3.1.4(6)) kh is a coefficient depending on the notional size h0 and
may be taken from Table 3.3 of EC2-1-1,
cs = cd + ca (3.8)
ds(t, ts) is a time-dependent coefficient and is calculated
where from Eq.(3.10) of EC2-1-1.
cd is the drying shrinkage strain,
ca is the autogenous shrinkage strain. The final value of cd(t): cd, = cd(t = ) = kh cd,0.
Table 3.2 Nominal unrestrained drying shrinkage values Time-dependent coefficient ds(t, ts) (3.1.4(6))
cd,0 in ‰ for concrete with cement CEM Class N
The time-dependent coefficient ds(t, ts) can be estimated as
fck/fck,cube Relative humidity (‰)
(MPa) 20 40 60 80 90 100 (t  ts )
 ds (t , ts )  (3.10)
20/25 0.62 0.58 0.49 0.30 0.17 0.00 (t  ts )  0.04 h03
40/50 0.48 0.46 0.38 0.24 0.13 0.00
where
60/75 0.38 0.36 0.30 0.19 0.10 0.00
t is the age of the concrete at the moment considered, in days,
80/95 0.30 0.28 0.24 0.15 0.08 0.00
ts is the age of the concrete (days) at the beginning of drying
90/105 0.27 0.25 0.21 0.13 0.07 0.00
shrinkage or swelling, and normally this is at the end of curing,
h0 (mm) kh h0 is the notional size (mm) of the cross-section and h0 = 2Ac/u,
Table 3.3 Values for kh in Eq.(3.9) 100 1.00 Ac is the concrete cross-sectional area,
200 0.85 u is the perimeter of that part of the cross section which is
300 0.75 exposed to drying.
 500 0.70
Autogenous shrinkage strain ca (3.1.4(6)) Time-dependent losses: Relaxation of steel (3.3.2)
The autogenous shrinkage strain in time ca(t)  Classification of steel relaxation
ca(t) = as(t) ca, (3.11) ̶ Class 1: wire or strand - ordinary relaxation (not covered
by EN 10138)
where ̶ Class 2: wire or strand - low relaxation
ca () = 2.5 (fck – 10) × 10-6 (3.12) ̶ Class 3: hot rolled and processed bars
as(t) = 1 – exp(– 0.2 t 0.5) (3.13)
t is the time given in days.

Time-dependent losses: Relaxation of steel (3.3.2) Time-dependent losses: Relaxation of steel (3.3.2)
 The design calculations for the losses due to relaxation of the  The percentage ratio of the variation of the prestressing stress
prestressing steel should be based on the value of 1000, the over the initial prestressing stress for various classes of steel
relaxation loss (in %) at 1000 hours after tensioning and at a relaxation should be determined as follows:
mean temperature of 20°C. 0.75 (1 μ)
 pr  t 
Note: The value of 1000 is expressed as a percentage ratio of the Class 1  5.39 1000 e 6.7μ
  105 (3.28)
initial stress and is obtained for an initial stress equal to 0.7fp,  pi  1000 
where fp is the actual tensile strength of the prestressing steel  pr 0.75 (1 μ)
 t 
samples. For design calculations, the characteristic tensile strength Class 2  0.66 1000 e9.1μ   105 (3.29)
(fpk) is used and this has been taken into account in Eqs.(3.28) to  pi  1000 
(3.30).  pr 0.75 (1 μ)
 t 
 The values for 1000 can be either assumed equal to 8% for Class 3  1.98 1000 e 8.0μ
  105 (3.30)
 pi  1000 
Class 1, 2.5% for Class 2, and 4% for Class 3, or taken from
the certificate.
Parameters for Eqs.(3.28) to (3.30) Relative losses due to relaxation of steel at 20C
pr is absolute value of the relaxation losses of the prestress Tendon

Relative loss in prestress force after time t in hours (%)
type
pi is the absolute value of the initial prestress for post-tensioning 1 5 100 500 1000 5000 1E4 5E4 1E5 5E5
and pi = pm0 (see also 5.10.3 (2)), and is the maximum 0.6 0.30 0.49 1.20 1.95 2.40 3.89 4.79 7.77 9.56 15.50
Class 1
tensile stress applied to the tendon minus the immediate (wire or 0.7 0.99 1.42 2.80 4.02 4.69 6.74 7.88 11.32 13.23 19.00
losses occurred during the stressing process see 5.10.4(1)(i) strand)
0.8 3.25 4.14 6.49 8.27 9.17 11.68 12.96 16.49 18.30 23.30
for pre-tensioning
0.6 0.05 0.08 0.19 0.32 0.39 0.63 0.77 1.25 1.54 2.50
t is the time after tensioning in hours Class 2
(wire or 0.7 0.20 0.29 0.57 0.82 0.96 1.38 1.62 2.32 2.72 3.90
 is the relative stress and  = pi /fpk strand)
0.8 0.85 1.08 1.69 2.16 2.39 3.05 3.38 4.31 4.78 6.08
fpk is the characteristic value of the tensile strength of the
prestressing steel 0.6 0.12 0.20 0.48 0.78 0.96 1.56 1.92 3.11 3.83 6.21
Class 3
1000 is the value of relaxation loss (in %), at 1000 hours after (bars)
0.7 0.45 0.65 1.28 1.83 2.14 3.08 3.60 5.16 6.04 8.67
tensioning and at a mean temperature of 20°C. 0.8 1.69 2.15 3.37 4.30 4.77 6.07 6.73 8.57 9.51 12.11

Time-dependent losses of prestress for pre- and Time-dependent losses of prestress for pre- and
post-tensioning (5.10.6(1)) post-tensioning (5.10.6(2))
 The time dependent losses may be calculated by considering A simplified method to evaluate time dependent losses at
the following two reductions of stress: location x under the permanent loads is given as follows
(a) due to the reduction of strain, caused by the deformation Pc+s+r  Ap  p,c+s+r
of concrete due to creep and shrinkage in concrete, Ep
under the permanent loads,  cs Ep  0.8 pr   (t , t0 )  c,QP (5.46)
Ecm
(b) the reduction of stress in the steel due to the relaxation  Ap
Ep Ap  Ac 2 
under tension. 1 1  zcp  1  0.8  (t , t0 ) 
Note: The relaxation of steel depends on the concrete deformation Ecm Ac  Ic 
due to creep and shrinkage. This interaction can generally and
approximately be taken into account by a reduction factor 0.8.

Parameters for Eq.(5.46) Parameters for Eq.(5.46) (cont.)

σp,c+s+r is the absolute value of the variation of stress in the (t,t0) is the creep coefficient at time t and load application at time t0
tendons due to creep, shrinkage and relaxation at location x, c,QP is the stress in the concrete adjacent to the tendons, due to
at time t self-weight and initial prestress and other quasi-permanent
cs is the estimated shrinkage strain according to 3.1.4(6) in actions where relevant, and its value may be the effect of part
absolute value of self-weight and initial prestress or the effect of a full quasi-
Ep is the modulus of elasticity for the prestressing steel, see permanent combination of action (c(G + Pm0 + 2 Q)), relying
3.3.3(9) on the stage of construction considered
Ecm is the modulus of elasticity for the concrete (Table 3.1) Ap is the area of all the prestressing tendons at the location x
σpr is the absolute value of the variation of stress in the tendons Ac is the area of the concrete section
at location x, at time t, due to the relaxation of the Ιc is the second moment of area of the concrete section
prestressing steel, and it is determined for a stress of σp zcp is the distance between the centre of gravity of the concrete
p is the initial stress in the tendons due to initial prestress and section and the tendons
quasi-permanent actions, and p = p(G + Pm0 + 2Q)
Deflection control (7.4.1) Deflection control (7.4.1)

 The deformation of a member or a structure should be d2 y
From beam theory, M x   P ex  EI (1)
controlled to maintain its proper functioning or appearance. dx 2
 The appearance and general utility of the structure could be
P P
impaired when the calculated sag of a beam, slab or ex ec
cantilever subjected to quasi-permanent loads exceeds
span/250. The sag is assessed relative to the supports. Pre- y x
camber may be used to compensate for some or all of the L/2
deflection but any upward deflection incorporated in the d2 y
For straight tendons, M   P e  EI (2)
formwork should not generally exceed span/250. dx 2
 To avoid damaging adjacent parts of the structure, span/500
is normally an appropriate limit for quasi-permanent loads for
P e P
the deflection after construction.
Deflection for straight tendons Deflection for parabolic tendons

Integrating (2) once and noting dy/dx = 0 at x = L/2 yields For a simply supported beam of constant section with a
symmetric parabolic tendon profile, the bending moment due
dy ML
EIdy/dx = M x + C C = - ML/2 EI M x (3) to prestress, Mx = P ex, can be simulated using an equivalent
dx 2 uniformly distributed load we. P P
Integrating (3) once and noting y = 0 at x = 0 yields ex ec
M x2 M L M  x2 L x 
x
EIy   xD
L/2
D=0 y    (4) w L2
2 2 EI  2 2  The mid-span moment M, M  e   P ec (6)
The maximum deflection for a beam with straight tendons will 8
occur at x = L/2, i.e. 8P e
The equivalent UDL we, we   2 c (7)
P e P
L
L M  x Lx
2
M L2 P e L2 5 we L4 5 P ec L2
ymax  y    
 2  EI  2

2  x = L/2

8 EI

8 EI
   (5) Thus, ymax       (8)
384 EI 48 EI
Deflection for parabolic tendons with eccentricity Deflection checks for prestressed concrete floors
at supports  At transfer stage, Ec = Ecm(t),
For a more general case where a symmetric parabolic tendon ymax  y (Gself-weight  P0 )  L / 250 (10)
profile has an eccentricity e0, the maximum deflection at mid-  At composite stage, Ec = Ecm(t),
span can be calculated from ymax  y (Gself-weight  Gfinish   P0 )  L / 250 (11)
2 2
5 P e 'c L P e0 L
ymax 
48 EI

8 EI
   (9)  At service stage (long-term quasi-permanent), Ec = Ec,eff,
ymax  y (G   P0   2Q)  L / 250 (12)
P P where Ec,eff can be calculated from Eq.(7.20) as
e0 Ecm
e'c Ec,eff  (7.20)
ex 1+ (, t0 )
y (, t0) is the creep coefficient relevant for the load and time
x
L/2
interval (see cl. 3.1.4), and  and  are the coefficients for
prestress loss at transfer and service stages.
Deflection checks for prestressed conc bridges End blocks in anchorage zones (8.10.3(1) to (4))
 At transfer stage, Ec = Ecm(t),  Anchorage zones should be designed to the application rules
ymax  y (Gself-weight  P0 )  L / 250 (10) given in 8.10.3 and the rules in 6.5.3.
 At composite stage, Ec = Ecm(t),  When considering the local effects of the prestress, the rules
ymax  y (Gself-weight  Gfinish   P0 )  L / 250 (11) in 2.4.2.2(3) and the lower characteristic concrete tensile
strength should be used, i.e. using P,unfav = 1.2 and fctk,0.05.
 At service stage (long-term quasi-permanent), Ec = Ec,eff,
 The bearing stress behind anchorage plates should be
ymax  y (G   P0   1Q)  L / 250?? (12)
checked in accordance with the relevant regulations.
Note 1 in A.2.4.3(3) of EN 1990 specifies that the verification  Tensile forces due to concentrated forces should be
of serviceability limit states concerning deformation and assessed by a strut and tie model, or others (see 6.5).
vibration needs to be considered only in exceptional cases for Reinforcement should be detailed assuming that it acts at its
road bridges and that the frequent combination of actions is design strength. No check of crack widths is necessary if the
recommended for the assessment of deformation. stress in this reinforcement is limited to 300 MPa.
End blocks in anchorage zones (8.10.3(5)) End blocks in anchorage zones (8.10.3(5))
 The prestressing force is assumed to disperse at an angle of  Stress distribution in end blocks
spread 2, starting at the end of the anchorage device, where
 may be assumed to be tan-1(2/3), i.e.  = tan-1(2/3) = 33.7.
P P
Plan of flange
 = tan-1(2/3) = 33.7
A - Tendons
(a) Flat plate anchorage (b) Conical anchorage
Figure 8.18: Dispersion of

prestress

End blocks in anchorage zones (8.10.3(5)) Design of end blocks in anchorage zones (6.7)
 Bursting tensile force in end blocks  For a uniform distributed load on the end block area Ac0, the
0.5P concentrated resistance force may be determined as follows:
Ac1 FRdu  Ac0 f cd ( Ac1 / Ac0 )  3.0 f cd Ac0 (6.63)
P 33.7
Ac0 0.333P or f Rdu  FRdu / Ac0  0.567 f ck Ac1 / Ac0 )  1.7 f ck
Ac 0.5P where
Ac0 is the loaded area of the
(a) Anchorage zone (b) Strut and tie model anchorage plate
(end zone) of load disperse
Ac1 is the maximum design the
 In the strut and tie model, the compressive stresses in the distribution area
assumed struts should not exceed 0.4 (1 - fck/250) fck, and the Figure 6.29: Design distribution
stresses in the reinforcement are limited to fyd = 0.87 fyk. for partially loaded areas
Distribution of stress along the cross-section Distribution of stress along the cross-section
e e
P P P P
Pt Pt e Mi Ps Ps e Ms
 
Ac Zt Zt f t' Ac Zt Zt ft
- + - - + +
+ + + = =
+ - + + - -
Pt Pt e M
 i fb' Ps Ps e

Ms fb
Ac Zb Zb Ac Zb Zb
Stresses due to prestress and self-weight at transfer Stresses due to prestress and self-weight at service
Basic equalities for stresses at the top and Parameters for basic equalities
bottom fibres Ac Cross-sectional area
e Eccentricity of tendons
 From the stress diagram, the following basic equations at the
fb Stress at the bottom fibre at service
top and bottom fibres can be obtained as:
fb' Stress at the bottom fibre at transfer
P P e M  Pi  Pi e M i ft Stress at the top fibre at service
f t'  t  t  i    (1a)
Ac Z t Zt Ac Zt Zt ft ' Stress at the top fibre at transfer
Pt Pt e M i  Pi  Pi e M i fmax Maximum allowable compressive stress in the concrete at
f b'       (1b) service
Ac Z b Z b Ac Zb Zb
fmax' Maximum allowable compressive stress in the concrete at
Ps Ps e M s  Pi  Pi e M s transfer
ft       (1c)
Ac Z t Zt Ac Zt Zt fmin Minimum allowable stress in the concrete at service
Ps Ps e M s  Pi  Pi e M s (“-”ve when representing an allowable tensile stress)
fb       (1d) fmin' Minimum allowable stress in the concrete at transfer
Ac Z b Z b Ac Zb Zb
(“-”ve when representing an allowable tensile stress)
Parameters for basic equalities (cont.) Criteria for stresses at the top and bottom fibres
Mi Transfer load bending moment
 For the stresses at the top and bottom fibres, the following
Ms Service load bending moment
inequalities at transfer and service loads should be satisfied:
Pi Initial prestress force in tendons
Ps Prestress force in tendons at service, Ps =  Pi
f t'  f min
'
(2a)
Pt Prestress force in tendons at transfer, Pt =  Pi
Zb Elastic section modulus for the bottom fibre f b'  f max
'
(2b)
Zt Elastic section modulus for the top fibre f t  f max (2c)
 Short-term prestress loss factor
 Long-term prestress loss factor f b  f min (2d)

Basic inequalities for stresses at the top and Requirements for initial sizing of section
bottom fibres  By combining Inequalities (3a) with (3c) and (3b) with (3d),
 By combining equations (1a) to (1d) with inequalities (2a) to two inequalities for obtaining the initial sizing of the section
(2d), the following basic inequalities for the stresses at the top
can be obtained as:
and bottom fibres, at transfer and service loads are obtained:
 Pi  Pi e M i '  Ms   Mi
   f min (3a) Zt  (4a)
'
Ac Zt Zt  f max   f min
 Pi  Pi e Mi '  Ms   Mi
   f max (3b) Zb  (4b)
Ac Zb Zb '
 f max   f min
 Pi  Pi e Ms
   f max (3c)
Ac Zt Zt
 Pi  Pi e Ms
   f min (3d)
Ac Zb Zb
Lateral instability of slender beams (5.9(3)) Design of prestress force

 Second-order effects in connection with lateral instability for  Inequalities (3a) to (3d) can be rearranged for designing the
beams may be ignored if the following conditions are fulfilled: prestress force as:
l0t 50 '
( Z t f min  Mi )
─ persistent situations:  and h / b  2.5 (5.40a) Pi  (5a)
b (h / b)1/ 3  ( Z t / Ac  e)
l 70
─ transient situations: 0t  and h / b  3.5 (5.40b) '
( Z b f max  Mi )
b (h / b)1/ 3 Pi  (5b)
 ( Z b / Ac  e)
where:
( Z t f max  M s )
l0t is the distance between torsional restraints Pi  (5c)
 ( Z t / Ac  e)
h is the total depth of beam in central part of l0t
( Z b f min  M s )
b is the width of compression flange Pi  (5d)
 ( Z b / Ac  e)
Design of prestress force Magnel Diagram

 There are two upper bounds and two lower bounds on the  Inequalities (5a) to (5d) can be inversed as:
value of the prestress force. Generally, the minimum value of
1  ( Z t / Ac  e)
prestress force within these bounds is required, since the  '
(6a)
cost of the prestressing steel is a large proportion of the total Pi ( Z t f min  Mi )
cost of prestressed concrete structures. 1  ( Z b / Ac  e)
 '
(6b)
 The maximum prestress force Pi,max can be determined from Pi ( Z b f max  Mi )
Eqs.(5b) and (5c). 1  ( Z t / Ac  e)
 (6c)
 The minimum prestress force Pi,min can be determined from Pi ( Z t f max  M s )
Eqs.(5a) and (5d). 1  ( Z b / Ac  e)
 (6d)
Pi ( Z b f min  M s )

Magnel Diagram (cont.) Cable zone

 The 1/Pi - e relationships are linear and can be drawn in a  Inequalities (3a) to (3d) can be rearranged as:
figure, Magnel Diagram, which provides a very useful means
of determining appreciate values of Pi and e. These diagrams Z 1
e t   )
( M i  Z t f min (7a)
were first introduced by Belgian engineer, Gustaaf Magnel. Ac  Pi

(6c) (6a) (6d) 1 Z
e  ) b
( M i  Z b f max (7b)
 Pi Ac
1
(1/ N ) Zt 1
Pi (6b)
e  ( M s  Z t f max ) (7c)
Ac  Pi
1 Z
( M s  Z b f min )  b
Permissible zone
e (7d)
 Pi Ac

‐e
e (mm)
+e
Magnel Diagram

2. DESIGN OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE Permissible cable zone 2. DESIGN OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Design bending moment resistance at ULS, MRd Design bending moment resistance at ULS, MRd
 Compressive force in the concrete, FC  The design value of bending moment resistance at the ULT,
FC = (0.8 x) b (0.567 fck) MRd, can be calculated as:
 Tensile force in the prestressing steel, FP MRd = RP z = RC z
FP = min[(p + P,fav p0) Es, fpd] Ap (P,fav = 0.9 in the UK)  Design criterion for bending
 Equilibrium for force MRd > MEd
FC = FP where
MEd is the design value
of the bending
moment.

Project: Advanced Structural Eng Sheet No: 1
Job title: Prestressed concrete design MHH223204
School of Computing, Eng and Built Environment
George Moore Building Example 2.4: Determination of minimum slab depth
Glasgow Caledonian University Client: Calculated by: BZ Date:
Cowcaddens Road
Glasgow G4 0BA Checked by: Date:
No. Calculations Refs/Remarks
1. DESIGN DATA
A post-tensioned prestressed concrete bridge deck is in the form of a solid

slab and is simply supported over 20 m, shown in the following figure. It
carries a service load of 10.3 kN/m2. The allowable concrete stresses are
given below. Total short-term and long-term loses are 10% and 20%,
respectively.
f 'max = 18.8 N/mm2 fmax = 24.0 N/mm2
2
f 'min = - 1.0 N/mm fmin = 0.0 N/mm2
γ = 25.0 kN/m3
Determine the minimum depth of the slab required, hmin.
e h
2. SOLUTIONS
Known α = 1 – 0.1 = 0.9 β = 1 – 0.2 = 0.8

f 'max = 18.8 N/mm2 fmax = 24.0 N/mm2
f 'min = –1.0 N/mm2 fmin = 0.0 N/mm2
γ = 25 kN/m3 L = 20 m
Assume the overall depth of the slab is h in m with an eccentricity e.
UDL at transfer due to self-weight of the slab per metre width, wi:
wi = γ b h = 25 × 1 × h = 25 h (kN/m)/m
UDL at service due to self-weight and service load per metre width, ws:
ws = wi + 10.3 = 25 h + 10.3 (kN/m)/m
Bending moment at transfer due to self-weight of the slab per metre

width, Mi:
Mi = wi L2 / 8 = 25 h × 202 / 8 = 1250 h (kNm)/m
Bending moment at service due to self-weight and service load per metre
width, Ms:
Ms = ws L2 / 8 = (25 h + 10.3) × 202 / 8
= (1250 h + 515) (kNm)/m
Prof. Ben Zhang: MHH223204 Advanced Structural Eng  Design of Prestressed Concrete 1
George Moore Building Example 2.4: Determination of minimum slab depth
Cowcaddens Road
From Inequalities (4a) and (4b), we can obtain the elastic section moduli
required about the top and bottom fibres, Zt and Zb, as
α Ms − β Mi [0.9 × (1250h + 515) − 0.8 ×1250h] ×106

Zt ≥ =
α f max − β f min
' 0.9 × 24.0 − 0.8 × (−1)
(125h + 463.5) ×106
= = (5.58h + 20.69) ×106 mm3 /m
22.4
α Ms − β Mi [0.9 × (1250h + 515) − 0.8 ×1250h] ×106
Zb ≥ =
β f max
'
− α f min 0.8 ×18.8 − 0.9 × 0
(125h + 463.5) ×106
= = (8.31h + 30.82) ×106 mm3 /m
15.04
For a rectangular section, the elastic section moduli about the top and
bottom fibres, Zt and Zb, can be calculated as
Z t = Z b = bh 2 / 6 = 1.0 × h 2 ×109 / 6 = h 2 ×109 / 6 mm3 /m
Thus, we can establish two equations as follows

(5.58h + 20.69) ×106 =h 2 ×109 / 6 mm3 /m (i)
(8.31h + 30.82) ×10 =h ×10 / 6 mm /m
6 2 9 3
(ii)
By rearranging Eq.(i), we can get

h 2 − 0.03348h − 0.12414 = 0 (iii)
By solving Eq.(iii), we can get
0.03348 + 0.033482 + 4 ×1× 0.12414
=h = 0.369=m 369 mm
2 ×1
By rearranging Eq.(ii), we can get

h 2 − 0.04986h − 0.18492 = 0 (iv)
By solving Eq.(iv), we can get
0.04986 + 0.049862 + 4 ×1× 0.18492
=h = 0.456=m 456 mm
2 ×1
Hence, the required minimum depth of the slab, hmin, is determined as

hmin = max(369, 456) = 456 mm.
In the following examples, the slab depth is taken as 525 mm.
George Moore Building Example 2.5: Determination of minimum prestress force
Cowcaddens Road
1. DESIGN DATA
For the bridge deck in Example 2.4, the depth of prestressed concrete slab
depth is 525 mm and the maximum eccentricity of the tendons at mid-
span is 75 mm above the soffit.
Determine the minimum value of the presstressing force required, Pi,min,

and the spacing of the evenly distributed tendons, s, and check whether
the stresses at the extreme fibres are within the limits.
e
h
s
75 mm
2. SOLUTIONS
Known α = 1 – 0.1 = 0.9 β = 1 – 0.2 = 0.8

f 'max = 18.8 N/mm2 fmax = 24.0 N/mm2
f 'min = –1.0 N/mm2 fmin = 0.0 N/mm2
γ = 25 kN/m3 L = 20 m
h = 525 mm e = 525/2 – 75 = 187.5 mm

width, Mi:
Mi = 1250 h = 1250 × 0.525 = 656.25 kNm/m
width, Ms:
Ms = 1250 h + 515 = 1250 × 0.525 + 515 = 1171.25 kNm/m
From Inequality (5a), we get

'
( Z t f min − M i ) [45.94 ×106 × (−1) − 656.25 ×106 ] ×10−3
Pi ≥ = 6
α ( Z t / Ac − e) 0.9 × [45.94 ×10 /(5.25 ×105 ) − 187.5]
−702.19 ×103 −1
= = × 7802.5 kN/m
−89.996 −1
Cowcaddens Road
Note that the denominator is negative for this example. Dividing both
sides of an inequality by a negative number has the effect of changing the
sense of the inequality. Thus, the above inequality can be simplified as
Pi ≤ 7802.5 kN/m (i)
From Inequality (5b), we get

( Z f ' + M i ) [45.94 ×106 ×18.8 + 656.25 ×106 ] ×10−3
Pi ≤ b max =6
α ( Z b / Ac + e) 0.9 × [45.94 ×10 /(5.25 ×105 ) + 187.5]
1519.922 ×103
= = 6141.0 kN/m
247.504
i.e. Pi ≤ 6141.0 kN/m (ii)
From Inequality (5c), we get

( Z t f max − M s ) [45.94 ×106 × 24 − 1171.25 ×106 ] ×10−3
Pi ≤ =6
β ( Z t / Ac − e) 0.8 × [45.94 ×10 /(5.25 ×105 ) − 187.5]
−68.690 ×103 −1
= = × 858.7 kN/m
−79.996 −1
Because the denominator is negative, the sense of the inequality should be
changed again. Thus, the above inequality can be simplified as
Pi ≥ 858.7 kN/m (iii)
From Inequality (5d), we get

(Z f + M s ) [45.94 ×106 × 0 + 1171.25 ×106 ] ×10−3
Pi ≥ t min =
β ( Z b / Ac + e) 0.8 × [45.94 ×106 /(5.25 ×105 ) + 187.5]
1171.25 ×103
= = 5323.8 kN/m
220.004
i.e. Pi ≥ 5323.8 kN/m (iv)
Inequalities (i) and (ii) present two upper limits but the value from
Inequality (ii) is crucial, i.e.
Pi ≤ 6141.0 kN/m
Meanwhile, Inequalities (iii) and (iv) present two lower limits but the
value from Inequality (iv) is crucial, i.e.
Pi ≥ 5323.8 kN/m
The values from Inequalities (ii) and (iv) are crucial, which gives a control
range for the prestress force Pi as
5323.8 kN/m ≤ Pi ≤ 6141.0 kN/m
Cowcaddens Road
If the prestress force is provided by evenly spaced tendons, each with an
initial prestress force of 1112 kN, the spacing of tendons, s, is
s = 1112 / 5323.8 = 0.209 m = 209 mm
Take s = 200 mm so the total initial prestress force per metre will be
Pi = 1112 / 0.2 = 5560 kN/m
Now we check the stresses at different stages to make sure they all satisfy
the requirements for the stress limits.
The stresses for the top and bottom fibres at transfer are:
α P α Pi e M i
f t' = i − +
Ac Zt Zt
0.9 × 5560 ×103 0.9 × 5560 ×103 ×187.5 656.25 ×106
= − +
5.25 ×105 45.94 ×106 45.94 ×106
=−9.53 20.42 + 14.28 =
3.39 N/mm 2 > f min
'
=
−1 N/mm 2
α P α Pi e M i
f b' = i + −
Ac Zb Zb
0.9 × 5560 ×103 0.9 × 5560 ×103 ×187.5 656.25 ×106
= + −
5.25 ×105 45.94 ×106 45.94 ×106
=9.53 + 20.42 − 14.28 =15.67 N/mm 2 < f max
'
=18.8 N/mm 2
The stresses for the top and bottom fibres at service are:
β P β Pi e M s
ft = i − +
Ac Zt Zt
0.8 × 5560 ×103 0.8 × 5560 ×103 ×187.5 1171.25 ×106
= − +
5.25 ×105 45.94 ×106 45.94 ×106
=8.47 − 18.15 + 25.50 =15.82 N/mm 2 < f max =24 N/mm 2
β P β Pi e M s
fb = i + −
Ac Zb Zb
0.8 × 5560 ×103 0.8 × 5560 ×103 ×187.5 1171.25 ×106
= + −
5.25 ×105 45.94 ×106 45.94 ×106
= 8.47 + 18.15 − 25.50 =1.12 N/mm 2 > f min = 0 N/mm 2
It can be seen that all the stresses are within the limits, so the prestress
force chosen in this example is adequate.
George Moore Building Example 2.6: Magnel diagram for bridge slab deck
Cowcaddens Road
1. DESIGN DATA
Construct a Magnel diagram for the bridge slab in Example 2.4 and find
the minimum prestress force for a tendon eccentricity of 187.5 mm.
What would be the effect on the minimum prestress force of

(i) reducing the eccentricity to 90 mm;
(ii) increasing it to 250 mm?
e
h
s
75 mm
2. SOLUTIONS
Known α = 1 - 0.1 = 0.9 β = 1 - 0.2 = 0.8

f 'max = 18.8 N/mm2 fmax = 24.0 N/mm2
f 'min = -1.0 N/mm2 fmin = 0.0 N/mm2
γ = 25 kN/m3 L = 20 m
h = 525 mm
Bending moment at transfer, Mi:

Mi = 1250 h = 1250 × 0.525 = 656.25 kNm/m
Bending moment at service, Ms:
Ms = 1250 h + 515 = 1250 × 0.525 + 515 = 1171.25 kNm/m

1 α ( Z t / Ac − e) 0.9 × [45.94 ×106 /(5.25 ×105 ) − e]
≤ =
'
Pi ( Z t f min − Mi ) 45.94 ×106 × (−1) − 656.25 ×106
0.9 × [87.505 − e] (11.22 − 0.1282 e) ×10−8
= = 1/N
−702.19 ×106 −1
108
≥ 0.1282 e − 11.22 1/N (i)
Pi
Cowcaddens Road

1 α ( Z b / Ac + e) 0.9 × [45.94 ×106 /(5.25 ×105 ) + e]
≥ =
'
Pi ( Z b f max + Mi ) 45.94 ×106 ×18.8 + 656.25 ×106
0.9 × [87.505 + e]
= = (0.0592 e + 5.18) ×10−8 1/N
1519.922 ×10 6
108
i.e. ≥ 0.0592 e + 5.18 1/N (ii)
Pi

1 β ( Z t / Ac − e) 0.8 × [45.94 ×106 /(5.25 ×105 ) − e]
≥ =
Pi ( Z t f max − M s ) 45.94 ×106 × 24 − 1171.25 ×106
0.8 × [87.505 − e] (101.91 − 1.1647 e) ×10−8
= = 1/N
−68.69 ×106 −1

108
≤ 1.1647 e − 101.91 1/N (iii)
Pi

1 β ( Z b / Ac + e) 0.8 × [45.94 ×106 /(5.25 ×105 ) + e]
≤ =
Pi ( Z b f min + M s ) 45.94 ×106 × 0 + 1171.25 ×106
0.8 × [87.505 + e]
= = (0.0683 e + 5.98) ×10−8 1/N
1171.25 ×10 6
8
10
i.e. ≤ 0.0683 e + 5.98 1/N (iv)
Pi
Now we can put all results together as
108 / Pi ≥ 0.1282 e − 11.22 1/N (i)

108 / Pi ≥ 0.0592 e + 5.18 1/N (ii)
108 / Pi ≤ 1.1647 e − 101.91 1/N (iii)
108 / Pi ≤ 0.0683 e + 5.98 1/N (iv)
Cowcaddens Road
Now we can plot 108/Pi against e as follows in the figure below and these
four lines define a feasible region, the permissible zone.
30
(iii)
25 Permissible
zone (iv)
20
108/Pi (1/N)
Slab soffit (262.5)

15
287.1
(i)
10
(ii) 250
187.5
96.9
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
e (mm)
Magnel diagram
There are some typical points which should be mentioned.
The intersection point between Line (ii) and Line (iii) represents the
lowest admissible value of e and the highest admissible value of Pi (or the
lowest admissible value of 1/Pi). By solving Inequalities (ii) and (iii), we
can get
e = 96.9 mm and Pi = 9162.0 kN/m (or 108/Pi = 10.915 N-1)
The intersection point between Line (i) and Line (iv) represents the
highest admissible value of e and the lowest admissible value of Pi (or the
highest admissible value of 1/Pi). By solving Inequalities (i) and (iv), we
can get
e = 287.1 mm and Pi = 3907.5 kN/m (or 108/Pi = 25.592 N-1)
We can write down the limits for e and Pi, respectively, as

96.9 mm ≤ e ≤ 287.1 mm
and 3907.5 kN ≤ Pi ≤ 9162.0 kN
Cowcaddens Road
The largest value of e always corresponds to the lowest value of Pi and

vice versa. Theoretically, a lowest value of Pi or a largest value of e
should be always chosen due to economical reasons. In practice, however,
we cannot adopt the ultimate values of e and Pi due to the limitation of
geometrical profiles. In this example, the half depth of the slab is
525/2 = 262.5 mm.
If a cover of 50 mm is reasonably considered with a further 25 mm for the

tendon duct, the maximum value of e will be only
262.5 – 50 – 25 = 187.5 mm.
If we choose e = 187.5 mm, the corresponding range of Pi will be

5323.8 kN ≤ Pi ≤ 6141.0 kN
which are the same solutions as in Example 2.5.
If e is reduced to 90 mm first, it can be seen from the Magnel diagram that

there is no feasible range for Pi. This means that it is impossible to satisfy
all the Inequalities (i) to (iv) at the same time with this value of e  at
least one of the extreme fibre stresses must exceed the allowable value.
If the value of e is increased to 250 mm, the range of the values for Pi is
now given by Inequalities (i) and (iv), i.e.
4337.5 kN ≤ Pi ≤ 4800.8 kN
This only leaves a net distance, between the soffit and the centre of the
tendons, of 262.5 – 250 = 12.5 mm, which leaves not enough cover to
protect the prestressing steel from corrosion. The value of e = 187.5 mm
is the maximum practical eccentricity for this example, giving adequate
cover from the soffit of the slab.
School of Computing Eng and Built Environment
George Moore Building Example 2.7: Cable zone of a bridge slab deck
Cowcaddens Road
1. DESIGN DATA
In example 2.6, if the prestress force is 5560 kN, determine the cable zone
for the full length of the bridge deck, and a suitable cable profile. Also
prove the prestressing tendons are still within the cable zone if the spacing
of the tendons is slightly decreased from 200 mm to 185 mm.
2. SOLUTIONS
Known α = 1 – 0.1 = 0.9 β = 1 – 0.2 = 0.8

f 'max = 18.8 N/mm2 fmax = 24.0 N/mm2
f 'min = -1.0 N/mm2 fmin = 0.0 N/mm2
γ = 25 kN/m3 L = 20 m
h = 525 mm Pi = 5560 kN/m

Zt 1 45.94 ×106 M i − 45.94 ×106 × (−1)
e≤ + ( M i − Z t= ′ )
f min +
Ac α Pi 5.25 ×105 0.9 × 5560 ×103
=87.5 + 9.2 + 1.998 ×10−7 M i =96.7 + 1.998 ×10−7 M i mm
i.e. e ≤ 96.7 + 1.998 ×10−7 M i mm (i)

1 Z b M i + 45.94 ×106 ×18.8 45.94 ×106
e≤ ( M= + Z f ′ ) − −
α Pi i b max
Ac 0.9 × 5560 ×103 5.25 ×105
= 1.998 ×10−7 M i + 172.6 − 87.5 = 85.1 + 1.998 ×10−7 M i mm
i.e. e ≤ 85.1 + 1.998 ×10−7 M i mm (ii)

Z 1 45.94 ×106 M s − 45.94 ×106 × 24
e≥ t + ( M s − Z t=
f max ) +
Ac β Pi 5.25 ×105 0.8 × 5560 ×103
87.5 − 247.9 + 2.248 ×10−7 M s =
= −160.4 + 2.248 ×10−7 M s mm
i.e. e ≥ −160.4 + 2.248 ×10−7 M s mm (iii)
Cowcaddens Road
1 Z M s + 45.94 ×106 × 0 45.94 ×106

e≥ ( M s +=
Z b f min ) − b −
β Pi Ac 0.8 × 5560 ×103 5.25 ×105
=2.248 ×10−7 M s + 0 − 87.5 =−87.5 + 2.248 ×10−7 M s mm
i.e. e ≥ −87.5 + 2.248 ×10−7 M s mm (iv)
We can put all the results together as

e ≤ 96.7 + 1.998 ×10−7 M i mm (i)
e ≤ 85.1 + 1.998 ×10−7 M i mm (ii)
e ≥ −160.4 + 2.248 ×10−7 M s mm (iii)
e ≥ −87.5 + 2.248 ×10−7 M s mm (iv)
From Inequalities (i) and (ii), we get

e = emax ≤ 85.1 + 1.998 ×10−7 M i mm (v)
From Inequalities (iii) and (iv), we get
=e emin ≥ −87.5 + 2.248 ×10−7 M s mm (vi)
Thus, we can obtain the feasible range for e as
−87.5 + 2.248 ×10−7 M s ≤ e ≤ 85.1 + 1.998 ×10−7 M i (vii)
UDL at transfer due to self-weight of the slab per metre width, wi:
wi = γ b h = 25 × 1 × 0.525 = 13.125 (kN/m)/m
UDL at service due to self-weight and service load per metre width, ws:
ws = wi + 10.3 = 13.125 + 10.3 = 23.425 (kN/m)/m
For any section of the slab with a UDL of w at a distance of x from the left
support, the bending moment, Mx, can be calculated as
Mx = (w L / 2) x – w x (x / 2) = w x (L - x) / 2 kNm/m

width, Mi, can be obtained as
Mi = wi x (L – x) /2 = 13.125 x (20 – x) /2 = 6.563 x (20 – x) kNm/m
width, Ms, can be obtained as
Ms = ws x (L – x) /2 = 23.425 x (20 – x) /2 = 11.713 x (20 – x) kNm/m
We now take x = 0, L/8, L/4, 3L/8 and L/2, respectively, and calculate the
values of Mi and Ms, the minimum and maximum values of e and the limit
difference ∆e = emax – emin at each section. The calculated results are listed
in the table and illustrated as continuous curves in the figure below.
Cowcaddens Road
Table  Cable zone for the bridge deck slab

x (m) 0 2.5 5 7.5 10
Mi (kNm) 0 287.11 492.19 615.23 656.25
Ms (kNm) 0 512.42 878.44 1098.05 1171.25
emin (mm) -87.5 27.7 110.0 159.3 175.8
emax (mm) 85.1 142.5 183.4 208.0 216.2
∆e (mm) 172.6 114.8 73.5 48.7 40.4
epara (mm) 0.0 82.0 140.6 175.8 187.5
-300
-200
-100 Cable zone

e (mm)
0 Parabolic profile
100 emin[fb = fmin for Ms]
200
emax[f 'b = f 'max for Mi]
300
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0
x (mm)
Cable zone
Here we consider a special case that the shape of the chosen cable profile
is parabolic. If the eccentricity is 187.5 mm at mid-span and zero at
supports, giving a uniform stress at support, the shape of the profile is
given by
e = a x2 + b x + c (m) (viii)
When x = 0, e = 0 so c = 0. Thus, we have

e = a x2 + b x
When x = 10 m, e = 0.1875 m and we have

100 a + 10 b = 0.1875 (ix)
Cowcaddens Road
When x = 10 m, e' = 0 and we have

e' = 2 a x + b = 20 a + b = 0
or 200 a + 10 b = 0 (x)
By solving the simultaneous equations (ix) and (x), we have

a = – 0.1875/100 and b = 0.1875/5
Hence, Eq.(viii) can be finally rewritten as

e = (4 × 0.1875 / 202) x (20 – x) (m) (xi)
The values of e from the above equation with its parabolic curve, for
different values of x, are also shown in the table and figure above.
In practice, a small displacement upward would bring the prestress force

outside the cable zone. To overcome this problem, the spacing of the
tendons, s, is decreased slightly from 200 mm to 185 mm. Now, we prove
the prestressing tendons are still within the cable zone.
From Example 2.5, we know that each evenly spaced tendon has an initial
prestress force of 1112 kN so the total initial prestress force per metre
width will be
Pi = 1112 / 0.185 = 6010.8 kN/m
The limits to the cable zone at the mid-span can now be re-calculated
from Inequalities (7b) and (7d) as
1 Z
e≤ ′ )− b
( M i + Z b f max
α Pi Ac
656.25 ×106 + 45.94 ×106 ×18.8 45.94 ×106
−
0.9 × 6010.8 ×103 5.25 ×105
= 281.0 − 87.5 = 193.5 mm
1 Z b 1171.25 ×106 + 45.94 ×106 × 0 45.94 ×106
e≥ = ( M + Z b f min ) − −
β Pi s Ac 0.8 × 6010.8 ×103 5.25 ×105
= 243.6 − 87.5 = 156.1 mm
i.e. 156.1 mm ≤ e ≤ 193.5 mm
Therefore, the nominal eccentricity of 187.5 mm lies within the cable

zone with an acceptable tolerance of 187.5 – 156.1 = 31.4 mm.
School of Computing, Eng and Built Environment Example 2.8: Bending moments versus prestress force
George Moore Building
Cowcaddens Road Checked by: Date:
Glasgow G4 0BA
1. DESIGN DATA
Plot the relationships of the bending moments at transfer and service

conditions with the prestress force.
If Ms is increased from 1171.25 kNm/m to 1500 kNm/m by keeping

Mi = 656.25 kNm/m, check whether the initial prestress force of
5560 kN/m is still adequate.
2. SOLUTIONS
Known α = 1 - 0.1 = 0.9 β = 1 - 0.2 = 0.8

f 'max = 18.8 N/mm2 fmax = 24.0 N/mm2
f 'min = -1.0 N/mm2 fmin = 0.0 N/mm2
Ac = 5.25×105 mm2 Zt = Zb = 45.94×106 mm3
e = 187.5 mm

'
( Z t f min − M i ) [45.94 ×106 × (−1) − M i ×106 ] ×10−3
Pi ≥ =
α ( Z t / Ac − e) 0.9 × [45.94 ×106 /(5.25 ×105 ) − 187.5]
−(45.94 ×103 + M i ×103 ) −1
= = × (11.112 M i + 510.5) kN/m
−89.996 −1
Pi ≤ 11.112 M i + 510.5 kN/m (i)

( Z f ' + M i ) (45.94 ×106 ×18.8 + M i ×106 ) ×10−3
Pi ≤ b max =
α ( Z b / Ac + e) 0.9 × [45.94 ×106 /(5.25 ×105 ) + 187.5]
863.672 ×103 + M i ×103
= = 4.040 M i + 3489.5 kN/m
247.50
i.e. Pi ≤ 4.040 M i + 3489.5 kN/m (ii)
George Moore Building Example 2.8: Bending moments versus prestress force
Cowcaddens Road
( Z t f max − M s ) (45.94 ×106 × 24 − M s ×106 ) ×10−3
Pi ≤ =
β ( Z t / Ac − e) 0.8 × [45.94 ×106 /(5.25 ×105 ) − 187.5]
−(−1102.56 ×103 + M s ×103 )
=
−79.996
−1
= × (12.501 M s − 13782.7) kN/m
−1

Pi ≥ 12.501 M s − 13782.7 kN/m (iii)

(Z f + Ms ) (45.94 ×106 × 0 + M s ×106 ) ×10−3
Pi ≥ t min =6
β ( Z b / Ac + e) 0.8 × [45.94 ×10 /(5.25 ×105 ) + 187.5]
M s ×103
= = 4.545 M s kN/m
220.004
i.e. Pi ≥ 4.545 M s kN/m (iv)
Now we can put all four Inequalities together

Pi ≤ 11.112 M i + 510.5 kN/m (i)
Pi ≤ 4.040 M i + 3489.5 kN/m (ii)
Pi ≥ 12.501 M s − 13782.7 kN/m (iii)
Pi ≥ 4.545 M s kN/m (iv)
It can be seen that Inequalities (i) and (ii), dependent on Mi, define the
upper limits of Pi for a given value of e, while Inequalities (iii) and (iv),
dependent on Ms, define the lower limits of Pi.
Now we can plot Mi and Ms against Pi in the figure below and these four
lines define a feasible region for Pi, the permissible zone.
For e = 187.5 mm, we have obtained the limits of Pi in Example 2.5 as

Pi ≤ 6141.0 kN/m and Pi ≥ 5323.8 kN/m
or 5323.8 kN/m ≤ Pi ≤ 6141.0 kN/m
George Moore Building Example 2.8: Bending moments versus prestress force
Cowcaddens Road
2500
(iv)
Permissible
zone
2000
1350 (iii) (ii)

M i or M s (kNm)
1500
1171.25
(i)
1000
656.25
500
0
5323.8 6823.5
0 2500 5000 6141.07500 10000 12500
Prestress force Pi (kN)

Limits to prestress force
Inequality (iv) governs the minimum prestress force Pi,min from

5323.8 kN/m up to 6141.0 kN/m for increasing the service load bending
moment Ms. The prestress force of 5560 kN/m may thus be regarded as an
economic force to provide. If a much higher force is required for the given
section, then probably it will be better to increase the section size.
If Ms is increased from 1171.25 kNm/m to 1500 kNm/m without changing

Mi = 656.25 kNm/m, Pi can be directly determined by using the line for
Inequality (iv) in the above figure as
Pi ≥ 4.545 M s = 4.545 ×1500 = 6817.5 kN/m (iv)
i.e. Pi ≤ 6141.0 kN/m and Pi ≥ 6817.5 kN/m
It is clear that there is no feasible range for Pi and the depth of the slab
should be increased.
George Moore Building Example 2.9: Ultimate bending moment resistance
Cowcaddens Road
1. DESIGN DATA
For the bridge deck in Example 2.4, determine the design moment of
resistance of the section at mid-span with the eccentricity e = 187.5 mm.
If the resistance is not large enough to resist the maximum ultimate

bending moment, choose an adequate prestress force within the
permissible range.
If the initial prestress force is kept unchanged as Pi = 5560 kN/m,

alternatively, determine the amount of any extra un-tensioned
reinforcement which may be required, with fyk = 500 N/mm2.
The following parameters are assumed or known

• characteristic strength of prestress steel fpk = 1700 N/mm2
• initial stress in tendons fpi = 1247 N/mm2
• characteristic strength of concrete fck = 40 N/mm2
• elastic modulus of steel Es = 200 kN/mm2
• total area of prestressing steel per meter Ap = 4460 mm2/m
• partial factor of safety for prestressing steel γS = 1.15
• wG,k = 13.125 (kN/m)/m and wQ,k = 15.5 (kN/m)/m
Here, we also assume that the tendon ducts have been grouted after
tensioning the tendons.
2. SOLUTIONS
In the stress-strain relationship for prestressing steel, there is one
transition point from linearly elastic to perfectly plastic with the following
coordinates:
σp = fpd = fp0.1k / γS = 0.9 fpk / γS
= 0.9 × 1700 / 1.15 = 1330 N/mm2
εp = σp / Es = 1330 / (200×103) = 0.00665
The stress and strain distributions are shown in the figure even below. The
strain in the prestressing steel at the ultimate limit state due to prestress
only, εp0, is given by
εp0 = fpi / Es = 1247 / (200×103) = 0.00624
The total strain at the ultimate limit state in the steel, εp, is calculated as
εp = ∆εp + γP,fav εp0 = ∆εp + 0.9 × 0.00624 = ∆εp + 0.00562
Cowcaddens Road
ε c = 0.0035 0.567 fck
FC
x 0.8 x
d = 450
z
0.00562 ∆ εp fp FP
Strain and stress diagrams
Here, ∆εp is the strain in tendons due to flexure and is calculated from
0.0035 ∆ε p
=
x 450 − x
0.0035 × (450 − x)
or ∆ε p =
x
Cowcaddens Road
The stress in the steel is found from the stress-strain curve and the tensile
and compressive forces in the steel and concrete, FP and FC, can then be
determined according to the principles for the design of reinforced and
prestressed concrete sections as
FP is calculated from
FP = fp Ap = min(εp Es, fpd) Ap = min[(∆εp + γP,fav εp0) Es, fpd] Ap
and FC is calculated from FC = (0.8 x) b (0.567 fck)
with the value of εp directly obtained from the strain diagram.
The following table shows these forces for different values of x.
Table Ex.2.9a  Neutral axis depth for slab

x (mm) ∆εp εp fp (N/mm2) FP (kN) FC (kN)
300 0.00175 0.00737 1330 5931.8 5443.2
320 0.00142 0.00704 1330 5931.8 5806.1
327 0.00132 0.00694 1330 5931.8 5933.1
When x = 327 mm,

∆εp = (450 – 327) × 0.0035 / 327 = 0.00132
εp = 0.00132 + 0.00562 = 0.00694
FP = fp Ap = 1330 × 4460 × 10-3 = 5931.8 kN/m
FC = (0.8 x) b (0.567 fck)
= (0.8×327)×1000×(0.567×40)×10-3 = 5933.1 kN/m
The neutral axis depth may thus be taken with sufficient accuracy to be
327 mm, showing that the steel has already yielded.
Design moment of resistance, MRd, can be calculated as

MRd = FP (d – 0.4x)
= 5931.8×103×(450–0.4×327)×10-6 = 1893.431 kNm/m
where d is the effective depth for the prestressing steel and
d = 525 – 75 = 450 mm.
Design applied uniform load (ULD), wd, is calculated as

wd = ξ γG wG + γQ wQ Eq.(6.10b) of
= 0.925×1.35×13.125 + 1.5×15.5 = 39.64 (kN/m)/m EC
Design bending moment, MEd, can now be calculated as
MEd = wd L2 / 8 = 39.64 × 202 / 8 = 1982.0 kNm/m
Here, MEd > MRd, so the design is not safe yet and addition actions are
needed.
Cowcaddens Road
This can be adjusted by using different ways as
• increasing the prestress force within the permissible range,
• adding extra un-tensioned reinforcement, or
• increasing the cross-section and rechecking the design.
Here, we only consider the first two methods.
First, we try to increase the prestress force within the permissible range.
As calculated in Example 2.5, for e = 187.5 mm, the permissible range of
Pi is
5323.8 kN ≤ Pi ≤ 6141.0 kN
We first reduce the steel spacing from 200 mm to 190 mm, which is
equivalent to the prestress force of 5560 kN increased by 5.3% to
Pi = 5560 × (200/190) = 5852.6 kN/m < 6141.0 kN (OK!)
Table Ex.6.2 lists the calculated forces for different values of x for the
case where the prestress force Pi is increased by 5.3%.
Table Ex.2.9b  Neutral axis depth for increasing Pi by 5.3%

330 0.00127 0.00689 1330.0 6244.0 5987.5
340 0.00113 0.00675 1330.0 6244.0 6169.0
344 0.00108 0.00670 1330.0 6244.0 6241.4
We adopt the neutral axis depth as x = 344 mm.

MRd = FP (d – 0.4x)
= 6244.0×103×(450–0.4×344)×10-6 = 1950.626 kNm/m
which is still smaller than the design bending moment MEd. Hence, further
modification is needed.
Now we try to adopt the upper limit for the prestress force which is
Pi = 6141.0 kN
The corresponding area of the steel per metre, Ap, will be increased to
Ap = 4460×(6141.0/5560) = 4460×1.1045 = 4926.1 mm2/m
which is equivalent to an increase of 10.5% in the area.
Table Ex.2.9c lists the calculated forces for different values of x for the
case where the prestress force Pi is increased to 6141.0 kN/m, up by
10.5%.
Cowcaddens Road
Table Ex.2.9c  Neutral axis depth for increasing Pi to 6141.0 kN/m

340 0.00113 0.00675 1330.0 6551.7 6169.0
350 0.00100 0.00662 1324.0 6522.1 6350.4
356 0.00092 0.00654 1308.8 6447.4 6459.3

MRd = FP (d – 0.4x)
= 6447.4×103×(450–0.4×356)×10-6 = 1983.2 kNm/m
which is just larger than the maximum ultimate bending moment MEd
which is 1982.0 kNm/m. Hence, the design is just adequate and safe.
Now we try the second method by adding extra un-tensioned

reinforcement to increase the ultimate bending moment of resistance.
The effective depth for this extra steel is assumed as

d1 = h – 50 = 525 – 50 = 475 mm
In order to obtain an estimate of the required amount of un-tensioned

reinforcement As, it may be assumed initially that both the prestressing
steel and the un-tensioned reinforcement have not yielded, since the
presence of any extra reinforcement in the section will lower the neutral
axis. If the neutral axis depth is first taken approximately 360 mm, the
compressive force in the concrete and the tensile forces in the prestressing
and un-tensioned reinforcement can be calculated respectively as
• compressive force in the concrete
FC = (0.8 x) b (0.567 fck)
= (0.8×360)×1000×(0.567×40)×10-3 = 6531.84 kN/m
• tensile force in the prestressing steel
FP = min[(∆εp + γP,fav εp0) Es, fpd] Ap
= [0.0035×(450-360)/360 + 0.00562]×200×103×4460×10-3
= 5793.54 kN/m
• tensile force in the un-tensioned reinforcement
FST = εst Es As = [0.0035 (d1–x) / x)] Es As
= [0.0035×(475-360)/360]×200×103×As×10-3
= 0.2236 As kN/m
An equilibrium equation can now be established to determine As

FC = FP + FST
or 6531.84 = 5793.54 + 0.2236 As
Cowcaddens Road
From the above equation, As can be solved as
As = 3301.9 mm2/m
Here, H32 high yield strength bars at 200 mm centres are provided with
the cross-sectional area As = 4021.2 mm2/m which is larger than the
required 3301.9 mm2/m.
Table Ex.2.9d lists the calculated forces for different values of x for the
case where the extra un-tensioned steel is used.
Table Ex.2.9d  Neutral axis depth for extra un-tensioned steel

x ∆εp γP,favεp0 εst fp fst FT FC
(mm) (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (kN) (kN)
360 0.00088 0.00562 0.00112 1299.0 223.6 6693 6532
364 0.00083 0.00562 0.00107 1294.2 213.5 6609 6604
ε c = 0.0035 0.567 fck
FC
x 0.8 x
d = 450
d1 = 475
z z1
0.00562 ∆ εp fp FP
ε st fst FST

MRd = FP (d - 0.4x) + FS (d1 - 0.4x)
= [5750.7×(450-0.4×364)
+ 858.4×(475-0.4×364)] × 10-6
= 1750.5 + 282.8
= 2033.3 kNm/m
The value of design bending moment of resistance has been calculated as

MRd = 2033.3 kNm/m which is larger than the maximum design bending
moment MEd = 1982 kNm/m. Hence, the design is adequate.
George Moore Building Example 2.10: Design of prestress force and eccentricity
Glasgow Caledonian University Client: Calculated by: Date:
Cowcaddens Road
1. DESIGN DATA
A single span prestressed rectangular beam of 175 × 480 mm indicated in

figure below is required to effectively span 10 m and support an in-service
imposed load of 12 kN/m. Assume the losses of prestress force at transfer
and service are 10% and 20%, respectively. Other relevant data are given
as follows
γ = 25 kN/m3
f 'max = 27.2 N/mm2 fmax = 36.0 N/mm2
2
f 'min = -1.0 N/mm fmin = 0.0 N/mm2
12 kN/m
Pi Pi
A simply supported rectangular beam with an initial prestressing

force of Pi at an eccentricity of e
Based the data provided, determine a suitable prestressing force and

eccentricity at mid-span using a Magnel diagram.
Cowcaddens Road
2. SOLUTIONS
Known α = 1 – 0.1 = 0.9 β = 1 – 0.2 = 0.8

f 'max = 27.2 N/mm2 fmax = 36.0 N/mm2
f 'min = -1.0 N/mm2 fmin = 0.0 N/mm2
wimp = 12 kN/m
γ = 25 kN/m3 L = 10 m
b = 175 mm h = 480 mm
Cross-sectional area, Ac:

Ac = b h = 175 × 480 = 84 × 103 mm2
UDL at transfer due to self-weight of the beam, wi:
wi = γ Ac = 25 × 84 × 103 × 10-6 = 2.1 kN/m
UDL at service due to self-weight and service load, ws:
ws = wi + 12 = 2.1 + 12 = 14.1 kN/m
Bending moment at transfer due to self-weight of the beam, Mi:

Mi = wi L2 / 8 = 2.1 × 102 / 8 = 26.25 kNm
Bending moment at service due to self-weight and service load, Ms:
Ms = ws L2 / 8 = 14.1 × 102 / 8 = 176.25 kNm
α Ms − β Mi 0.9 × 176.25 × 106 − 0.8 × 26.25 × 106
Zt ≥ =
'
0.9 × 36 − 0.8 × (−1)
137.626 × 106
= = 4.145 × 106 mm3
33.2
α Ms − β Mi 0.9 × 176.25 × 106 − 0.8 × 26.25 × 106
Zb ≥ =
β f max
'
− α f min 0.8 × 27.2 − 0.9 × 0
137.625 × 106
= = 6.325 × 106 mm3
21.76
For a rectangular section, the elastic section moduli about the top and
bottom fibres, Zt and Zb, can be calculated as
Zt =
Zb =
b h 2 / 6 =×
175 4802 / 6 =
6.72 × 106 mm3
> max( Z t,req , Z b,req ) =
Z b,req =
6.325 × 106 mm3
Hence, the elastic section moduli are adequate.
Cowcaddens Road
1 α ( Z t / Ac − e) 0.9 × (6.72 × 106 / 84000 − e)
≤ =
Pi '
( Z t f min − Mi ) 6.72 × 106 × (−1) − 26.25 × 106
0.9 × (80 − e) (218.38 − 2.7298 e) × 10−8
= = 1/N
−32.97 × 106 −1
108
≥ 2.7298 e − 218.38 1/N (i)
Pi

1 α ( Z b / Ac + e) 0.9 × (6.72 × 106 / 84000 + e)
≥ =
Pi '
( Z b f max + Mi ) 6.72 × 106 × 27.2 + 26.25 × 106
0.9 × (80 + e)
= = (0.4306 e + 34.44) × 10−8 1/N
209.034 × 10 6
108
i.e. ≥ 0.4306 e + 34.44 1/N (ii)
Pi

1 β ( Z t / Ac − e) 0.8 × (6.72 × 106 / 84000 − e)
≥ =
Pi ( Z t f max − M s ) 6.72 × 106 × 36 − 176.25 × 106
0.8 × (80 − e)
= =(97.46 − 1.2182 e) × 10−8 1/N
65.67 × 106
108
i.e. ≥ −1.2182 e + 97.46 1/N (iii)
Pi

1 β ( Z b / Ac + e) 0.8 × (6.72 × 106 / 84000 + e)
≤ =
Pi ( Z b f min + M s ) 6.72 × 106 × 0 + 176.25 × 106
0.8 × (80 + e)
= = (0.4539 e + 36.31) × 10−8 1/N
176.25 × 10 6
108
i.e. ≤ 0.4539 e + 36.31 1/N (iv)
Pi
Cowcaddens Road
Now we can put all results together as
108 / Pi ≥ 2.7298 e − 218.38 1/N (i)
108 / Pi ≥ 0.4306 e + 34.44 1/N (ii)
10 / Pi ≥ −1.2182 e + 97.46 1/N
8
(iii)
10 / Pi ≤ 0.4539 e + 36.31 1/N
8
(iv)
Now we can plot 108/Pi against e as follows in the figure below and these
four lines define a feasible region, the permissible zone.
120
Ine(6a)
Ine(6b)
100 Ine(6c)
Ine(6d)
Intersection on (6d)
80 Soffib
108/Pi (1/N)
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
e (mm)
Magnel diagram
The maximum possible value of eccentricity for the permissible zone is

e = 111.9 mm
with a corresponding value of 108/Pi as 87.108 N-1.
Here, we choose e = 111.9 mm, which leaves a distance from the centre of
the prestressing steel to the soffit as
480/2 – 111.9 = 128.1 mm >> c = 50 mm
The corresponding prestressing force will be

Pi = (108/87.108) × 10-3 = 1148.00 kN.
George Moore Building Example 2.11: Design of prestressed concrete I-beam
Cowcaddens Road
1. DESIGN DATA
A post-tensioned, prestressed beam is simply supported over a span of

10.0 m as shown in Figure Ex.2.11a. Using the design data provided,
(i) determine the tendons required and their eccentricity at mid-span
(ii) check the ultimate moment capacity of the section.
Characteristic dead load (excluding self-weight) = 10 kN/m

Characteristic superimposed dead load = 6 kN/m
Characteristic imposed load = 20 kN/m
Characteristic strengths of concrete C40/50 at different stages
f 'max = 18.8 N/mm2 fmax = 24 N/mm2
2
f 'min = -1.0 N/mm fmin = 0.0 N/mm2
Short term prestress loss at transfer = 12%
Long term prestress loss = 22%
b = 500
D F = 150
y T = 320
D = 750
b r = 100
y B = 430
D F = 150
b B = 300
Figure Ex.2.11a  Sectional properties of a prestressed concrete beam
The following cross-sectional properties for a prestressed concrete beam

are obtained from the section property tables for prestressed concrete
bB/b = 0.6 br/b = 0.2
DF/D = 0.2 Ac/bD = 0.44
yT/D = 0.427 yB/D = 0.573
I/bD3 = 0.0535
Zt/bD2 = 0.1253 Zb/bD2 = 0.0935
Cowcaddens Road
2. SOLUTION
2.1 Sectional properties

Ac = 0.44 × 500 × 750 = 165 × 103 mm2
yT = 0.427 × 750 = 320 mm
yB = 0.573 × 750 = 430 mm
I = 0.0535 × 500 × 7503 = 11.29 × 109 mm4
Zt = 0.1253 × 500 × 7502 = 35.24 × 106 mm3
Zb = 0.0935 × 500 × 7502 = 26.30 × 106 mm3
2.2 Other design parameters

Known α = 1 – 0.12 = 0.88 β = 1 – 0.22 = 0.78
f 'max = 18.8 N/mm2 fmax = 24.0 N/mm2
f 'min = -1.0 N/mm2 fmin = 0.0 N/mm2
wdead = 10 kN/m wimp,dead = 6 kN/m
wimp = 20 kN/m γconc = 25 kN/m3
L = 10 m
2.3 Design loads

UDL at transfer due to self-weight of the beam, wi
wi = γconc Ac + wdead = 25×165×103×10-6 + 10 = 14.125 kN/m
UDL at service due to self-weight and service load, ws
ws = wi + wimp,dead + wimp = 14.125 + 6 + 20 = 40.125 kN/m
Bending moment at transfer due to self-weight of the beam, Mi

Mi = wi L2 / 8 = 14.125 × 102 / 8 = 176.563 kNm
Bending moment at service due to self-weight and service load, Ms
Ms = ws L2 / 8 = 40.125 × 102 / 8 = 501.563 kNm
2.4 Elastic sectional moduli

α Ms − β Mi 0.88 × 501.563 × 106 − 0.78 × 176.563 × 106
Zt ≥ =
'
0.88 × 24 − 0.78 × (−1)
303.656 × 106
= = 13.866 × 106 mm3 (< Z= t 35.24 × 106 mm3 OK!)
21.9
α Ms − β Mi 0.88 × 501.563 × 106 − 0.78 × 176.563 × 106
Zb ≥ =
β f max
'
− α f min 0.78 × 18.8 − 0.9 × 0
303.656 × 106
= = 20.708 × 106 mm3 (< Z b= 26.30 × 106 mm3 OK!)
14.664
Cowcaddens Road
2.5 Determination of prestress force and eccentricity

1 α ( Z t / Ac − e) 0.88 × (35.24 × 106 /165000 − e)
≤ =
Pi '
( Z t f min − Mi ) 35.24 × 106 × (−1) − 176.563 × 106
0.88 × (213.576 − e) −(0.4155 e − 88.74) × 10−8
= = 1/N
−211.803 × 106 −1
108
≥ 0.4155 e − 88.74 1/N (i)
Pi

1 α ( Z b / Ac + e) 0.88 × (26.30 × 106 /165000 + e)
≥ =
Pi '
( Z b f max + Mi ) 26.30 × 106 × 18.8 + 176.563 × 106
0.88 × (159.394 + e)
= = (0.1311e + 20.90) × 10−8 1/N
671.008 × 106
108
i.e. ≥ 0.1311e + 20.90 1/N (ii)
Pi

1 β ( Z t / Ac − e) 0.78 × (35.24 × 106 /165000 − e)
≥ =
Pi ( Z t f max − M s )
35.24 × 106 × 24 − 501.563 × 106
0.78 × (213.576 − e)
= =
−0.2266 e + 48.40 1/N
344.197 × 106
108
i.e. ≥ −0.2266 e + 48.40 1/N (iii)
Pi

1 β ( Z b / Ac + e) 0.78 × (26.30 × 106 /165000 + e)
≤ =
Pi ( Z b f min + M s )
35.24 × 106 × 0 + 501.563 × 106
0.78 × (159.394 + e)
= = (0.1555 e + 24.79) × 10−8 1/N
501.563 × 10 6
8
10
i.e. ≤ 0.1555 e + 24.79 1/N (iv)
Pi
Cowcaddens Road
2.5 Now we can put all four Inequalities together as

108 / Pi ≥ 0.4155 e − 88.74 1/N (i)
10 / Pi ≥ 0.1311e + 20.90 1/N
8
(ii)
10 / Pi ≥ −0.2266 e + 48.40 1/N
8
(iii)
10 / Pi ≤ 0.1555 e + 24.79 1/N
8
(iv)
Inequalities (i) to (iii) define the lower limit of 1/Pi or the upper limit of
Pi, and Inequality (iv) defines the upper limit of 1/Pi or the lower limit of
Pi. Now we can plot 1/Pi against e as follows in the figure below and
these four lines define a feasible region, the permissible zone.
120
Ine(6a)
Ine(6b)
100 Ine(6c)
Ine(6d)
Soffit
80
108/Pi (1/N)
Beam soffit (430 mm)
60
Maximum eccentricity
40
(350 mm)
20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
e (mm)
Magnel diagram
Figure Ex.2.11b  Magnel diagram
In this case, the distance from the neutral axis to the soffit is 430 mm. If
we reasonably take the distance from the centre of the prestressing steel to
the soffit as 80 mm, the maximum possible value of eccentricity for the
permissible zone is
e = 430 – 80 = 350 mm
with a corresponding value of 108/Pi as 79.22 N-1 from Inequality (iv).

Pi = (108/79.22) × 10-3 = 1262.3 kN.
Cowcaddens Road
2.6 Selection of prestressing steel

Clause 5.10.3(2) specifies that the value of the initial prestress force
applied to the concrete immediately after tensioning and anchoring (post-
tensioning) or after transfer of prestressing (pre-tensioning), Pm0 = Ap σpm0
with σpm0 = min{0.75 fpk; 0.85 fp0,1k}. Thus, the maximum initial prestress
required can be estimated as
Preq = Pi / 0.75 = 1262.3 / 0.75 = 1683.1 kN
Here we assume 5 No. 7-wire drawn strands, so the required characteristic

load per strand will be
Preq /5 = 1683.1 / 5 = 336.6 kN
Try 5 No. Y1700S7G 7-wire drawn strands of 18 mm nominal dia. with

Pyk,strand = Ap,strand fyk = 223 × 1700 × 10-3 = 379 kN
with a characteristic strength fyk = 1700 N/mm2 and a cross-sectional area
of Ap,strand = 223 mm2.
The total prestress force Ppk is calculated as

Ppk = 379 × 5 = 1895 kN
with the total area of the prestressing steel Ap is calculated as
Ap = Astrand × 5 = 223 × 5 = 1115 mm2
The actual prestress force Pi now becomes

Pi = 5 Pi,strand = 5 × 278 = 1390 kN > 1262.3 kN
2.7 Concrete stresses at transfer

From Inequality (1a), the stress at the top fibre ft' can be calculated as
α Pi α Pi e M i
ft =
'
− +
Ac Zt Zt
0.88 × 1390 × 103 0.88 × 1390 × 103 × 350 176.563 × 106
= − + OK!
165000 35.24 × 106 35.24 × 106
=
7.41 − 12.15 + 5.01 =
0.27 N/mm 2 > f min
'
=−1 N/mm 2
From Inequality (1b), the stress at the bottom fibre fb' can be calculated as
α Pi α Pi e M i
fb =
'
+ −
Ac Zb Zb
0.88 × 1390 × 103 0.88 × 1390 × 103 × 350 176.563 × 106
= + − OK!
165000 26.30 × 106 26.30 × 106
= 7.41 + 16.28 − 6.71 = 16.98 N/mm 2 < f max
'
= 18.8 N/mm 2
Cowcaddens Road
2.8 Concrete stresses at service

From Inequality (1c), the stress at the top fibre ft can be calculated as
β Pi β Pi e M s
ft = − +
Ac Zt Zt
0.78 × 1390 × 103 0.78 × 1390 × 103 × 350 501.563 × 106
= − + OK!
165000 35.24 × 106 35.24 × 106
= 6.57 − 10.77 + 14.23 = 10.03 N/mm 2 < f max = 24.0 N/mm 2
From Inequality (1d), the stress at the bottom fibre fb can be calculated as
β Pi β Pi e M s
fb = + −
Ac Zb Zb
0.78 × 1390 × 103 0.78 × 1390 × 103 × 350 501.563 × 106
= + − OK!
165000 26.30 × 106 26.30 × 106
= 6.57 + 14.43 − 19.07 = 1.93 N/mm 2 > f min = 0 N/mm 2
2.9 Bending moment resistance

The initial stress in tendons is fpi = Pi / Ap = 2.78×103/223 = 1247 N/mm2
The elastic modulus of steel is assumed as Es = 200 kN/mm2
In the stress-strain relationship for prestressing steel, there is one

transition point from linearly elastic to perfectly plastic with the following
coordinates:
σp = fpd = fp0.1k / γS = 0.9 fpk / γS
= 0.9 × 1700 / 1.15 = 1330 N/mm2
εp = σp / Es = 1330 / (200×103) = 0.00665
εp0 = fpi / Es = 1247 / (200×103) = 0.00624
Here, ∆εp is the strain in tendons due to flexure and is calculated from
0.0035 ∆ε p
=
x 670 − x
0.0035 × (670 − x)
or ∆ε p =
x
Cowcaddens Road
2.9
Figure Ex.2.11c  Stress-strain curve for tendons
ε c = 0.0035 0.567 fck
FC
x 0.8 x
d = 670
z
0.00562 ∆ εp fp FP
Figure Ex.2.11d  Strain and stress diagrams
The stress in the steel is found from the stress-strain curve and the tensile
with the value of εp directly obtained from the strain diagram.
Cowcaddens Road
b = 500
2.9
y T = 320
D = 750
b r = 100
350
y B = 430
80
b B = 300
Figure Ex.2.11e  Compression zone for concrete
We need to try different values of x to make sure FP = FC and then

calculate the ultimate bending moment resistance. The following table
shows these forces for different values of x.

150 0.01213 0.01775 1330 1483.0 1336.8
160 0.01116 0.01678 1330 1483.0 1451.5
163 0.01089 0.01651 1330 1483.0 1478.7
When x = 163 mm,

∆εp = (670 – 163) × 0.0035 / 163 = 0.01089
εp = ∆εp + γP,fav εp0 = 0.01089 + 0.00562 = 0.01651
FP = fp Ap = 1330 × 1115 × 10-3 = 1483.0 kN
FC = (0.8 x) b (0.567 fck)
= (0.8×163)×500×(0.567×40)×10-3 = 1478.7 kN
The neutral axis depth may thus be taken with sufficient accuracy to be
163 mm, showing that the steel has already yielded.
Also, the calculations show that the neutral axis lies in the web but the
concrete stress block is still within the flange otherwise the calculations
will be different.
Cowcaddens Road
2.9 Design moment of resistance, MRd, can be calculated as

MRd = FP (d – 0.4x)
= 1483.0×103 × (670 – 0.4×163) × 10-6 = 896.918 kNm
d = 750 – 80 = 670 mm.
2.10 Maximum bending moment due to applied loads
Design applied uniform load (ULD), wd, is calculated as

wd = ξ γG wG + γQ wQ
= 0.925×1.35×(14.125 + 6) + 1.5×20 = 55.131 kN/m
MEd = wd L2 / 8 = 55.131 × 102 / 8 = 689.138 kNm
2.11 Remarks
Here, the design bending moment resistance, MRd, is larger than the
maximum bending moment due to applied loads, MEd, by 30.2%, so the
present design is adequate to resist the ultimate bending moment.
George Moore Building Example 2.12: Design of prestressed concrete box-beam
Cowcaddens Road
1. A post-tensioned, prestressed box-beam is simply supported as shown in

Figure Ex.2.12a. Using the design data provided,
(i) determine the tendons required and their eccentricity at mid-span,
and
(ii) check the ultimate moment capacity of the section.
Design data
Span of the box-beam: L = 12.0 m
Characteristic dead load (excluding self-weight): wdead = 2 kN/m
Characteristic imposed load: wimp = 20 kN/m
Characteristic strength: fck = 35 N/mm2 (C35/45)
Unit weight of concrete γconc = 25 kN/m3
Cement class: CEM 42.5R (Class R)
Exposure class: XC4 (cyclic wet and dry)
Age at transfer: 7 days
Short term prestress loss at transfer: 6%
Long term prestress loss at service: 25%
Cross-sectional area of the box-beam: Ac = 303.6 × 103 mm2

Distance of the neutral axis to the top fibre: yT = 277.3 mm
Distance of the neutral axis to the bottom fibre: yB = 422.7 mm
Second moment area of the box-beam: I = 17.854 × 109 mm4
Elastic section modulus for the top fibre: Zt = 64.38 × 106 mm3
Elastic section modulus for the bottom fibre: Zb = 42.24 × 106 mm3
1240 mm
110 mm
277.3 mm
700 mm
590 mm
422.7 mm 110 mm
560 mm
Figure Ex.2.12a  Sectional properties of a prestressed

concrete box-beam
Cowcaddens Road
2. SOLUTION EC2-1-1:
2.1 Design parameters

For C35/45 concrete, the compressive strengths are
fck = 35 N/mm2 fcu = 45 N/mm2 fcm = 43 N/mm2 Table 3.1
Cement type coefficient for CEM 42.5R (Class R) s = 0.2 3.1.2(6)

Age coefficient for t = 7 days
βcc(7) = exp{s [1 – (28/t)0.5]} = exp{0.2 × [1 – (28/7)0.5]} = 0.819 Eq.(3.2)
Mean concrete strength at 7 days
fcm(7) = βcc(7) fcm = 0.819 × 43 = 35.2 N/mm2 Eq.(3.1)
fck(7) = fcm(7) – 8 MPa = 35.2 – 8 = 27.2 N/mm2 Table 3.1
The maximum allowable compressive concrete stress for members at

transfer, f 'max, is calculated as
f 'max = 0.6 fck(7) = 0.6 × 27.2 = 16.3 N/mm2 Eq.(5.42)
The maximum allowable tensile concrete stress for members at transfer,
f 'max, is assumed as f 'min = - 1.0 N/mm2 UK Practice

service, f max, is calculated as
f max = 0.6 fck = 0.6 × 35 = 21.0 N/mm2 Eq.(5.42)
The maximum tensile stress allowed in concrete for members with
decompression, fmin, is assumed as fmin = 0 N/mm2
Now all parameters can be put together as

α = 1 - 0.06 = 0.94 β = 1 - 0.25 = 0.75
wdead = 2 kN/m wimp = 20 kN/m
γconc = 25 kN/m3 L = 12 m
2
f 'max = 16.3 N/mm fmax = 21.0 N/mm2
f 'min = -1.0 N/mm2 fmin = 0.0 N/mm2
2.2 Design loads

UDL at transfer due to self-weight of the beam per metre width, wi
wi = γ conc Ac + wdead = 25×303.6×103×10-6 + 2 = 9.59 kN/m
UDL at service due to self-weight and service load per metre width, ws
ws = wi + wimp = 9.59 + 20 = 29.59 kN/m

Mi = wi L2 / 8 = 9.59 × 122 / 8 = 172.62 kNm
Bending moment at service due to self-weight and service load, Ms
Ms = ws L2 / 8 = 29.59 × 122 / 8 = 532.62 kNm
Cowcaddens Road
2.3 Elastic sectional moduli
α Ms − β Mi 0.94 × 532.62 × 106 − 0.75 × 172.62 × 106
Zt ≥ =
'
0.94 × 21.0 − 0.75 × (−1)
371.198 × 106
= = 18.116 × 106 mm3 (< Z= t 64.38 × 106 mm3 OK!)
20.49
α Ms − β Mi 0.94 × 532.62 × 106 − 0.75 × 172.62 × 106
Zb ≥ =
β f max
'
− α f min 0.75 × 16.3 − 0.9 × 0
371.198 × 106
= = 30.364 × 106 mm3 (< Z b= 42.24 × 106 mm3 OK!)
12.225
2.4 Determination of prestress force and eccentricity

1 α ( Z t / Ac − e) 0.94 × (64.38 × 106 / 303600 − e)
≤ =
'
Pi ( Z t f min − M i ) 64.38 × 106 × (−1) − 172.62 × 106
0.94 × (212.055 − e) −(0.3966 e − 84.11) × 10−8
= = 1/N
−231 × 106 −1
108 / Pi ≥ 0.3966 e − 84.11 1/N (i)

1 α ( Z b / Ac + e) 0.94 × (42.24 × 106 / 303600 + e)
≥ =
'
Pi ( Z b f max + M i ) 42.24 × 106 × 16.3 + 172.62 × 106
0.94 × (139.130 + e)
= = (0.1092 e + 15.19) × 10−8 1/N
861.132 × 10 6
i.e. 10 / Pi ≥ 0.1092 e + 15.19 1/N

8
(ii)

1 β ( Z t / Ac − e) 0.75 × (64.38 × 106 / 303600 − e)
≥ =
Pi ( Z t f max − M s ) 64.38 × 106 × 21 − 532.62 × 106
0.75 × (212.05 − e)
= = −0.0915 e + 19.41 1/N
819.36 × 106
i.e. 108 / Pi ≥ −0.0195 e + 19.41 1/N (iii)
Cowcaddens Road
2.4 From Inequality (6d), we get

1 β ( Z b / Ac + e) 0.75 × (42.24 × 106 / 303600 + e)
≤ =
Pi ( Z b f min + M s ) 42.24 × 106 × 0 + 532.62 × 106
0.75 × (139.130 + e)
= = (0.1408 e + 19.59) × 10−8 1/N
532.62 × 10 6
i.e. 10 / Pi ≤ 0.1408 e + 19.59 1/N

8
(iv)
Now we can put all four Inequalities together as

108 / Pi ≥ 0.3966 e − 84.11 1/N (i)
108 / Pi ≥ 0.1092 e + 15.19 1/N (ii)
108 / Pi ≥ −0.0195 e + 19.41 1/N (iii)
108 / Pi ≤ 0.1408 e + 19.59 1/N (iv)
100
Ine(6a)
Ine(6b)
80
Ine(6c)
Ine(6d)
Soffit
60
108/Pi (1/N)
Beam soffit (422.7 mm)

Maximum eccentricity
40
(342.7 mm)
20
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
e (mm)
Figure Ex.2.12b -- Magnel diagram
Cowcaddens Road
2.4 In this case, the distance from the neutral axis to the soffit is 422.7 mm. If
we reasonably take the distance from the centre of the prestressing steel to
the soffit as 80 mm, the maximum possible value of eccentricity for the
permissible zone is
e = 422.7 – 80 = 342.7 mm
with a corresponding value of 108/Pi as 67.85 N-1.

Pi = (108/67.85) × 10-3 = 1473.9 kN.

Preq = Pi / 0.75 = 1473.9 / 0.75 = 1965.2 kN
Here we assume 6 No. 7-wire drawn strands, so the required characteristic

load per strand will be
Preq /5 = 1975.2 / 6 = 327.5 kN
Try 6 No. Y1700S7G 7-wire drawn strands of 18 mm nominal dia. with

Pyk,strand = Ap,strand fyk = 223 × 1700 × 10-3 = 379 kN
with a characteristic strength fyk = 1700 N/mm2 and a cross-sectional area
of Ap,strand = 223 mm2.

Ppk = 379 × 6 = 2274 kN
Ap = Astrand × 6 = 223 × 6 = 1338 mm2

Pi = 6 Pi,strand = 6 × 278 = 1668 kN > 1473.9 kN
2.6 Concrete stresses at transfer

From Inequality (1a), the stress at the top fibre ft' can be calculated as
α P α Pi e M i
f t' = i − +
Ac Zt Zt
0.94 × 1668 × 103 0.94 × 1668 × 103 × 342.7 172.62 × 106
= − + OK!
303600 64.38 × 106 64.38 × 106
=
5.16 − 8.35 + 2.68 =−0.51 N/mm 2 > f min
'
=−1 N/mm 2
Cowcaddens Road
2.6 From Inequality (1b), the stress at the bottom fibre fb' can be calculated as
α P α Pi e M i
f b' = i + −
Ac Zb Zb
0.94 × 1668 × 103 0.94 × 1668 × 103 × 342.7 172.62 × 106
= + − OK!
303600 42.24 × 106 42.24 × 106
= 5.16 + 12.72 − 4.09 = 13.79 N/mm 2 < f max
'
= 16.3 N/mm 2
2.7 Concrete stresses at service

From Inequality (1c), the stress at the top fibre ft can be calculated as
β P β Pi e M s
ft = i − +
Ac Zt Zt
0.75 × 1668 × 103 0.75 × 1668 × 103 × 342.7 532.62 × 106
= − + OK!
303600 64.38 × 106 64.38 × 106
= 4.12 − 6.66 + 8.27 = 5.73 N/mm 2 < f max = 21.0 N/mm 2
From Inequality (1d), the stress at the bottom fibre fb can be calculated as
β P β Pi e M s
fb = i + −
Ac Zb Zb
0.75 × 1668 × 103 0.75 × 1668 × 103 × 342.7 532.62 × 106
= + − OK!
303600 42.24 × 106 42.24 × 106
= 4.12 + 10.15 − 12.61 = 1.66 N/mm 2 > f min = 0 N/mm 2

The initial stress in tendons is fpi = Pi / Ap = 278×103/223 = 1247 N/mm2
In the tress-strain relationship for prestressing steel, there is one transition

point from linearly elastic to perfectly plastic with the following
coordinates:
σp = fpd = fp0.1k / γS = 0.9 fp0.1k / γS
= 0.9 × 1700 / 1.15 = 1330 N/mm2
εp = σp / Es = 1330 / (200×103) = 0.00665
εp0 = fpi / Es = 1247 / (200×103) = 0.00624
Cowcaddens Road
2.8 Here, ∆εp is the strain in tendons due to flexure and is calculated from
0.0035 ∆ε p
=
x 620 − x
0.0035 × (620 − x)
or εp =
x
2000
1500
1330
σ p (N/mm2)
1000
500
0
0.00665
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025
εp
Figure Ex.2.12c  Stress-strain curve for tendons
ε c = 0.0035 0.567 fck
FC
x 0.8 x
d = 620
z
0.00562 ∆ εp fp FP
Figure Ex.2.12d  Strain and stress diagrams
Cowcaddens Road
2.8 The stress in the steel is found from the stress-strain curve and the tensile
b = 1240 mm DF = 110
y T = 277.3 mm
D = 700
d
D - D F =590
br = DF
y B = 422.7 mm
=110 mm
b B = 560 mm
Figure Ex.2.12e  Compression zone for concrete
We need to try different values of x to make sure FP = FC and then

calculate the ultimate bending moment resistance. The following table
shows these forces for different values of x.

80 0.02363 0.02923 1330 1779.5 1574.9
85 0.02203 0.02764 1330 1779.5 1673.3
90 0.02061 0.02623 1330 1779.5 1771.8
When x = 90 mm,
∆εp = (620 – 90) × 0.0035 / 90 = 0.02061
εp = ∆εp + γP,fav εp0 = 0.02061 + 0.00562 = 0.02623
FP = fp Ap = 1330 × 1338 × 10-3 = 1779.54 kN
FC = (0.8 x) b (0.567 fck)
= (0.8×90)×1240×(0.567×35)×10-3 = 1771.76 kN
Cowcaddens Road
2.8 The neutral axis depth may thus be taken with sufficient accuracy to be
90 mm, showing that the steel has already yielded. Also the total strain in
the steel εp is 0.02623 which is larger than the suggested design value of
0.02 if the value for ultimate strain εuk is not known. One of the following
options can be adopted to eliminate this:
(i) a lower concrete grade, e.g. C30/37, is used,
(ii) the number of prestressing tendons is reduced to 5 by adding
additional un-tensioned reinforcement.
Also the calculations show that both the neutral axis and the concrete
stress block lie within the flange.

MRd = FP (d – 0.4x)
= 1779.54×103×(620–0.4×90)×10-6 = 1039.25 kNm
d = 700 – 80 = 620 mm.
2.9 Maximum bending moment due to applied loads
Design applied uniform load (ULD), wd, is calculated as EN 1990:

wd = ξ γG wG + γQ wQ Eq.(6.10b)
= 0.925×1.35×9.59 + 1.5×20 = 41.976 kN/m
MEd = wd L2 / 8 = 41.976 × 122 / 8 = 755.559 kNm
2.10 Remarks
Here, the design bending moment resistance, MRd, is larger than the
maximum bending moment due to applied loads, MEd, by 37.5%, so the
present design is adequate to resist the ultimate bending moment.
Prestressed Concrete
Properties of unsymmetric I and U sections

(long flange on the top surface)
b b
DF DF
yT yT
c of g.
D D
½ br ½ br
br
yB yB
DF DF
bB ½ bB ½ bB
𝒃𝒃𝐁𝐁 𝒃𝒃𝐫𝐫 𝑫𝑫𝐅𝐅 𝑨𝑨 𝒚𝒚𝐓𝐓 𝒚𝒚𝐁𝐁 𝑰𝑰 𝒁𝒁𝐓𝐓 𝒁𝒁𝐁𝐁
𝒃𝒃 𝒃𝒃 𝑫𝑫 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝑫𝑫 𝑫𝑫 𝒃𝒃𝑫𝑫𝟑𝟑 𝒃𝒃𝑫𝑫𝟐𝟐 𝒃𝒃𝑫𝑫𝟐𝟐
0.06 0.178 0.421 0.579 0.0245 0.0582 0.0422
0.08 0.204 0.410 0.590 0.0287 0.0701 0.0487
0.10 0.230 0.402 0.598 0.0326 0.0810 0.0545
0.12 0.256 0.397 0.603 0.0360 0.0907 0.0597
0.14 0.282 0.393 0.607 0.0391 0.0993 0.0644
0.1
0.16 0.308 0.391 0.609 0.0418 0.1069 0.0686
0.18 0.334 0.390 0.610 0.0442 0.1135 0.0724
0.20 0.360 0.389 0.611 0.0464 0.1192 0.0759
0.22 0.386 0.389 0.611 0.0482 0.1240 0.0789
0.24 0.412 0.389 0.611 0.0498 0.1280 0.0816
0.06 0.266 0.447 0.553 0.0305 0.0683 0.0552
0.08 0.288 0.436 0.564 0.0342 0.0783 0.0606
0.10 0.310 0.427 0.573 0.0374 0.0875 0.0653
0.12 0.332 0.420 0.580 0.0403 0.0958 0.0695
0.14 0.354 0.415 0.585 0.0428 0.1032 0.0732
0.2
0.16 0.376 0.411 0.589 0.0451 0.1098 0.0765
0.18 0.398 0.407 0.593 0.0471 0.1156 0.0794
0.20 0.420 0.405 0.595 0.0488 0.1205 0.0820
0.22 0.442 0.403 0.597 0.0503 0.1248 0.0842
0.24 0.464 0.402 0.598 0.0516 0.1284 0.0862
0.06 0.354 0.460 0.540 0.0364 0.0791 0.0674
0.08 0.372 0.451 0.549 0.0394 0.0874 0.0716
0.10 0.390 0.442 0.558 0.0420 0.0950 0.0753
0.12 0.408 0.435 0.565 0.0443 0.1018 0.0785
0.14 0.426 0.429 0.571 0.0464 0.1080 0.0813
0.5 0.3
0.16 0.444 0.424 0.576 0.0482 0.1135 0.0837
0.18 0.462 0.420 0.580 0.0497 0.1184 0.0857
0.20 0.480 0.417 0.583 0.0511 0.1226 0.0875
0.22 0.498 0.414 0.586 0.0522 0.1262 0.0891
0.24 0.516 0.412 0.588 0.0532 0.1292 0.0904
0.06 0.442 0.468 0.532 0.0422 0.0901 0.0793
0.08 0.456 0.460 0.540 0.0445 0.0967 0.0823
0.10 0.470 0.452 0.548 0.0465 0.1028 0.0849
0.12 0.484 0.445 0.555 0.0483 0.1083 0.0870
0.14 0.498 0.440 0.560 0.0498 0.1133 0.0888
0.4
0.16 0.512 0.434 0.566 0.0511 0.1177 0.0904
0.18 0.526 0.430 0.570 0.0523 0.1216 0.0917
0.20 0.540 0.426 0.574 0.0532 0.1250 0.0927
0.22 0.554 0.423 0.577 0.0541 0.1279 0.0936
0.24 0.568 0.420 0.580 0.0547 0.1304 0.0943
0.06 0.530 0.473 0.527 0.0479 0.1012 0.0910
0.08 0.540 0.466 0.534 0.0495 0.1063 0.0927
0.10 0.550 0.459 0.541 0.0509 0.1109 0.0941
0.12 0.560 0.453 0.547 0.0521 0.1151 0.0952
0.14 0.570 0.447 0.553 0.0531 0.1188 0.0961
0.5
0.16 0.580 0.442 0.558 0.0540 0.1222 0.0968
0.18 0.590 0.437 0.563 0.0547 0.1251 0.0973
0.20 0.600 0.433 0.567 0.0553 0.1277 0.0976
0.22 0.610 0.430 0.570 0.0558 0.1299 0.0979
0.24 0.620 0.426 0.574 0.0562 0.1318 0.0980
0.06 0.184 0.439 0.561 0.0262 0.0598 0.0467
0.08 0.212 0.431 0.569 0.0311 0.0722 0.0546
0.10 0.240 0.425 0.575 0.0355 0.0834 0.0617
0.12 0.268 0.421 0.579 0.0394 0.0935 0.0681
0.14 0.296 0.419 0.581 0.0429 0.1026 0.0739
0.1
0.16 0.324 0.417 0.583 0.0461 0.1105 0.0791
0.18 0.352 0.416 0.584 0.0489 0.1175 0.0838
0.20 0.380 0.416 0.584 0.0514 0.1236 0.0879
0.22 0.408 0.416 0.584 0.0535 0.1287 0.0917
0.24 0.436 0.416 0.584 0.0554 0.1331 0.0949
0.06 0.272 0.459 0.541 0.0321 0.0701 0.0593
0.08 0.296 0.450 0.550 0.0363 0.0806 0.0660
0.10 0.320 0.444 0.556 0.0401 0.0903 0.0720
0.12 0.344 0.439 0.561 0.0434 0.0990 0.0773
0.14 0.368 0.435 0.565 0.0464 0.1068 0.0821
0.2
0.16 0.392 0.431 0.569 0.0491 0.1138 0.0864
0.18 0.416 0.429 0.571 0.0515 0.1200 0.0901
0.20 0.440 0.427 0.573 0.0535 0.1253 0.0935
0.22 0.464 0.426 0.574 0.0553 0.1299 0.0964
0.24 0.488 0.425 0.575 0.0569 0.1338 0.0990
0.06 0.360 0.469 0.531 0.0379 0.0809 0.0714
0.08 0.380 0.461 0.539 0.0414 0.0898 0.0768
0.10 0.400 0.455 0.545 0.0445 0.0979 0.0817
0.12 0.420 0.450 0.550 0.0473 0.1052 0.0860
0.14 0.440 0.445 0.555 0.0498 0.1118 0.0898
0.6 0.3
0.16 0.460 0.442 0.558 0.0520 0.1178 0.0931
0.18 0.480 0.439 0.562 0.0539 0.1230 0.0960
0.20 0.500 0.436 0.564 0.0556 0.1276 0.0986
0.22 0.520 0.434 0.566 0.0571 0.1315 0.1009
0.24 0.540 0.432 0.568 0.0583 0.1349 0.1028
0.06 0.448 0.475 0.525 0.0437 0.0920 0.0831
0.08 0.464 0.468 0.532 0.0464 0.0992 0.0873
0.10 0.480 0.463 0.538 0.0489 0.1058 0.0910
0.12 0.496 0.457 0.543 0.0511 0.1118 0.0942
0.14 0.512 0.453 0.547 0.0531 0.1172 0.0971
0.4
0.16 0.528 0.449 0.551 0.0548 0.1221 0.0995
0.18 0.544 0.446 0.554 0.0563 0.1264 0.1016
0.20 0.560 0.443 0.557 0.0576 0.1302 0.1035
0.22 0.576 0.440 0.560 0.0588 0.1334 0.1050
0.24 0.592 0.438 0.562 0.0597 0.1363 0.1064
0.06 0.536 0.479 0.521 0.0494 0.1031 0.0948
0.08 0.548 0.473 0.527 0.0515 0.1087 0.0977
0.10 0.560 0.468 0.532 0.0533 0.1139 0.1001
0.12 0.572 0.463 0.537 0.0549 0.1186 0.1023
0.14 0.584 0.459 0.541 0.0563 0.1228 0.1041
0.5
0.16 0.596 0.455 0.545 0.0576 0.1266 0.1057
0.18 0.608 0.451 0.549 0.0587 0.1300 0.1070
0.20 0.620 0.448 0.552 0.0596 0.1330 0.1081
0.22 0.632 0.446 0.554 0.0604 0.1355 0.1090
0.24 0.644 0.443 0.557 0.0611 0.1378 0.1097
0.06 0.190 0.455 0.545 0.0279 0.0612 0.0512
0.08 0.220 0.450 0.550 0.0332 0.0739 0.0604
0.10 0.250 0.446 0.554 0.0381 0.0854 0.0688
0.12 0.280 0.443 0.557 0.0425 0.0958 0.0764
0.14 0.310 0.442 0.558 0.0465 0.1052 0.0832
0.1
0.16 0.340 0.441 0.559 0.0500 0.1134 0.0894
0.18 0.370 0.440 0.560 0.0531 0.1207 0.0949
0.20 0.400 0.440 0.560 0.0559 0.1270 0.0998
0.22 0.430 0.440 0.560 0.0583 0.1325 0.1042
0.24 0.460 0.441 0.559 0.0604 0.1372 0.1080
0.06 0.278 0.470 0.530 0.0337 0.0717 0.0635
0.08 0.304 0.464 0.536 0.0383 0.0827 0.0715
0.10 0.330 0.459 0.541 0.0425 0.0927 0.0787
0.12 0.356 0.456 0.544 0.0464 0.1018 0.0851
0.14 0.382 0.453 0.547 0.0498 0.1099 0.0909
0.2
0.16 0.408 0.451 0.549 0.0528 0.1172 0.0961
0.18 0.434 0.449 0.551 0.0555 0.1236 0.1007
0.20 0.460 0.448 0.552 0.0579 0.1292 0.1048
0.22 0.486 0.447 0.553 0.0600 0.1341 0.1084
0.24 0.512 0.447 0.553 0.0618 0.1383 0.1116
0.06 0.366 0.477 0.523 0.0394 0.0826 0.0753
0.08 0.388 0.472 0.528 0.0434 0.0919 0.0820
0.10 0.410 0.467 0.533 0.0469 0.1005 0.0880
0.12 0.432 0.463 0.537 0.0501 0.1082 0.0934
0.14 0.454 0.460 0.540 0.0530 0.1152 0.0982
0.7 0.3
0.16 0.476 0.458 0.542 0.0556 0.1214 0.1025
0.18 0.498 0.456 0.544 0.0578 0.1270 0.1062
0.20 0.520 0.454 0.546 0.0598 0.1318 0.1095
0.22 0.542 0.453 0.547 0.0616 0.1360 0.1124
0.24 0.564 0.451 0.549 0.0631 0.1397 0.1150
0.06 0.454 0.481 0.519 0.0451 0.0937 0.0870
0.08 0.472 0.477 0.523 0.0483 0.1014 0.0924
0.10 0.490 0.472 0.528 0.0513 0.1085 0.0972
0.12 0.508 0.469 0.531 0.0539 0.1149 0.1014
0.14 0.526 0.466 0.534 0.0562 0.1207 0.1052
0.4
0.16 0.544 0.463 0.537 0.0583 0.1259 0.1085
0.18 0.562 0.461 0.539 0.0601 0.1305 0.1115
0.20 0.580 0.459 0.541 0.0617 0.1346 0.1140
0.22 0.598 0.457 0.543 0.0631 0.1382 0.1163
0.24 0.616 0.456 0.544 0.0643 0.1412 0.1182
0.06 0.542 0.484 0.516 0.0508 0.1049 0.0986
0.08 0.556 0.480 0.520 0.0533 0.1111 0.1026
0.10 0.570 0.476 0.524 0.0556 0.1167 0.1061
0.12 0.584 0.473 0.527 0.0576 0.1218 0.1093
0.14 0.598 0.470 0.530 0.0594 0.1264 0.1120
0.5
0.16 0.612 0.467 0.533 0.0610 0.1306 0.1145
0.18 0.626 0.465 0.535 0.0624 0.1343 0.1166
0.20 0.640 0.463 0.538 0.0636 0.1376 0.1184
0.22 0.654 0.461 0.539 0.0647 0.1405 0.1200
0.24 0.668 0.459 0.541 0.0656 0.1429 0.1213
0.06 0.196 0.471 0.529 0.0294 0.0624 0.0556
0.08 0.228 0.468 0.532 0.0352 0.0754 0.0662
0.10 0.260 0.465 0.535 0.0406 0.0871 0.0759
0.12 0.292 0.464 0.536 0.0454 0.0978 0.0846
0.14 0.324 0.463 0.537 0.0497 0.1073 0.0925
0.1
0.16 0.356 0.462 0.538 0.0535 0.1158 0.0995
0.18 0.388 0.462 0.538 0.0570 0.1233 0.1059
0.20 0.420 0.462 0.538 0.0600 0.1299 0.1115
0.22 0.452 0.462 0.538 0.0626 0.1356 0.1164
0.24 0.484 0.462 0.538 0.0649 0.1405 0.1208
0.06 0.284 0.480 0.520 0.0351 0.0732 0.0676
0.08 0.312 0.476 0.524 0.0403 0.0845 0.0769
0.10 0.340 0.474 0.526 0.0449 0.0948 0.0853
0.12 0.368 0.471 0.529 0.0491 0.1042 0.0929
0.14 0.396 0.470 0.530 0.0529 0.1126 0.0997
0.2
0.16 0.424 0.468 0.532 0.0562 0.1201 0.1058
0.18 0.452 0.467 0.533 0.0592 0.1267 0.1112
0.20 0.480 0.467 0.533 0.0619 0.1326 0.1160
0.22 0.508 0.466 0.534 0.0642 0.1377 0.1202
0.24 0.536 0.466 0.534 0.0662 0.1420 0.1239
0.06 0.372 0.485 0.515 0.0408 0.0842 0.0793
0.08 0.396 0.481 0.519 0.0452 0.0939 0.0872
0.10 0.420 0.479 0.521 0.0492 0.1028 0.0944
0.12 0.444 0.476 0.524 0.0528 0.1109 0.1008
0.14 0.468 0.474 0.526 0.0560 0.1181 0.1066
0.8 0.3
0.16 0.492 0.473 0.527 0.0589 0.1246 0.1117
0.18 0.516 0.471 0.529 0.0615 0.1304 0.1163
0.20 0.540 0.470 0.530 0.0637 0.1355 0.1203
0.22 0.564 0.470 0.530 0.0657 0.1399 0.1239
0.24 0.588 0.469 0.531 0.0674 0.1437 0.1269
0.06 0.460 0.488 0.512 0.0465 0.0954 0.0908
0.08 0.480 0.485 0.515 0.0502 0.1036 0.0974
0.10 0.500 0.482 0.518 0.0535 0.1110 0.1033
0.12 0.520 0.480 0.520 0.0565 0.1178 0.1086
0.14 0.540 0.478 0.522 0.0592 0.1239 0.1133
0.4
0.16 0.560 0.476 0.524 0.0616 0.1294 0.1175
0.18 0.580 0.475 0.525 0.0637 0.1342 0.1212
0.20 0.600 0.473 0.527 0.0656 0.1385 0.1245
0.22 0.620 0.472 0.528 0.0672 0.1423 0.1274
0.24 0.640 0.472 0.529 0.0686 0.1455 0.1298
0.06 0.548 0.490 0.510 0.0522 0.1066 0.1023
0.08 0.564 0.487 0.513 0.0551 0.1133 0.1075
0.10 0.580 0.484 0.516 0.0578 0.1193 0.1121
0.12 0.596 0.482 0.518 0.0602 0.1248 0.1162
0.14 0.612 0.480 0.520 0.0623 0.1297 0.1199
0.5
0.16 0.628 0.479 0.521 0.0642 0.1342 0.1232
0.18 0.644 0.477 0.523 0.0659 0.1382 0.1261
0.20 0.660 0.476 0.524 0.0674 0.1417 0.1286
0.22 0.676 0.475 0.525 0.0687 0.1448 0.1308
0.24 0.692 0.474 0.526 0.0698 0.1474 0.1327
0.06 0.202 0.486 0.514 0.0309 0.0635 0.0600
0.08 0.236 0.484 0.516 0.0371 0.0766 0.0720
0.10 0.270 0.483 0.517 0.0428 0.0886 0.0829
0.12 0.304 0.483 0.517 0.0480 0.0994 0.0927
0.14 0.338 0.482 0.518 0.0526 0.1091 0.1016
0.1
0.16 0.372 0.482 0.518 0.0568 0.1178 0.1096
0.18 0.406 0.482 0.518 0.0605 0.1255 0.1167
0.20 0.440 0.482 0.518 0.0637 0.1323 0.1230
0.22 0.474 0.482 0.518 0.0666 0.1381 0.1285
0.24 0.508 0.482 0.518 0.0690 0.1432 0.1333
0.06 0.290 0.490 0.510 0.0365 0.0745 0.0717
0.08 0.320 0.489 0.512 0.0421 0.0861 0.0823
0.10 0.350 0.487 0.513 0.0471 0.0967 0.0919
0.12 0.380 0.486 0.514 0.0517 0.1063 0.1005
0.14 0.410 0.485 0.515 0.0558 0.1149 0.1083
0.2
0.16 0.440 0.485 0.515 0.0594 0.1226 0.1153
0.18 0.470 0.484 0.516 0.0627 0.1294 0.1215
0.20 0.500 0.484 0.516 0.0655 0.1354 0.1270
0.22 0.530 0.484 0.516 0.0681 0.1407 0.1318
0.24 0.560 0.484 0.516 0.0702 0.1452 0.1360
0.06 0.378 0.493 0.507 0.0422 0.0857 0.0832
0.08 0.404 0.491 0.509 0.0470 0.0958 0.0924
0.10 0.430 0.490 0.510 0.0514 0.1050 0.1007
0.12 0.456 0.488 0.512 0.0553 0.1133 0.1082
0.14 0.482 0.488 0.512 0.0589 0.1208 0.1149
0.9 0.3
0.16 0.508 0.487 0.513 0.0620 0.1275 0.1209
0.18 0.534 0.486 0.514 0.0649 0.1334 0.1262
0.20 0.560 0.486 0.514 0.0674 0.1387 0.1310
0.22 0.586 0.485 0.515 0.0695 0.1433 0.1351
0.24 0.612 0.485 0.515 0.0714 0.1472 0.1387
0.06 0.466 0.494 0.506 0.0479 0.0970 0.0947
0.08 0.488 0.492 0.508 0.0520 0.1055 0.1024
0.10 0.510 0.491 0.509 0.0557 0.1133 0.1094
0.12 0.532 0.490 0.510 0.0590 0.1204 0.1157
0.14 0.554 0.489 0.511 0.0620 0.1267 0.1214
0.4
0.16 0.576 0.488 0.512 0.0647 0.1324 0.1264
0.18 0.598 0.488 0.512 0.0671 0.1375 0.1309
0.20 0.620 0.487 0.513 0.0692 0.1420 0.1348
0.22 0.642 0.487 0.513 0.0710 0.1459 0.1383
0.24 0.664 0.486 0.514 0.0726 0.1493 0.1413
0.06 0.554 0.495 0.505 0.0536 0.1083 0.1061
0.08 0.572 0.494 0.506 0.0569 0.1153 0.1124
0.10 0.590 0.492 0.508 0.0599 0.1217 0.1181
0.12 0.608 0.491 0.509 0.0627 0.1275 0.1232
0.14 0.626 0.490 0.510 0.0651 0.1328 0.1278
0.5
0.16 0.644 0.490 0.510 0.0673 0.1375 0.1319
0.18 0.662 0.489 0.511 0.0693 0.1417 0.1355
0.20 0.680 0.488 0.512 0.0710 0.1454 0.1387
0.22 0.698 0.488 0.512 0.0725 0.1486 0.1415
0.24 0.716 0.487 0.513 0.0738 0.1514 0.1439
Advanced Structural Eng
(MHH223204/MHH225189)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Revision Question: Design of a prestressed concrete footbridge
A 16 m span, simply-supported prestressed concrete footbridge is to be designed, as shown in

Figure 1.
Using the data provided:
(a) check whether the cross-section of the beam is appreciate, i.e. prove Zt and Zb are larger
than the required;
(b) produce a Magnel diagram and show possible option combinations for the prestressing
force and the cable eccentricity at mid-span by shadowing the area, and determine the
minimum initial prestressing force at mid-span if the tendon centroid is assumed to be
80 mm to the beam soffit;
(c) determine the permissible tendon zone through calculations at mid-span, quarter-span
and at the supports if Pi is chosen as 3700 kN.
Design data:
Unit weight of concrete (γconc) = 25 kN/m3
Self weight allowance for the deck (excluding the beam) = 5 kN/m2
Imposed loading = 9 kN/m2
Maximum allowable concrete stress at transfer ( fmax') = 18.8 N/mm2
Minimum allowable concrete stress at transfer ( fmin') = – 1.0 N/mm2
Maximum allowable concrete stress at service ( fmax) = 24.0 N/mm2
Minimum allowable concrete stress at service ( fmin) = 0.0 N/mm2
Short-term prestress loss factor (1 – α) = 10%
Long-term prestress loss factor (1 – β) = 25%
Note:
α Ms − β Mi α Ms − β Mi
Zt ≥ Zb ≥
'
β f max
'
− α f min
Zt 1 1 α ( Z t / Ac − e)
e≤ + ( M i − Z t f min
'
) ≤
Ac α Pi '
Pi ( Z t f min − Mi )
1 Z 1 α ( Z b / Ac + e)
e≤ ( M i + Z b f max
'
)− b ≥
α Pi Ac '
Pi ( Z b f max + Mi )
Zt 1 1 β ( Z t / Ac − e)
e≥ + ( M s − Z t f max ) ≥
Ac β Pi Pi ( Z t f max − M s )
1 Z 1 β ( Z b / Ac + e)
e≥ ( M s + Z b f min ) − b ≤
β Pi Ac Pi ( Z b f min + M s )
(MHH223204/MHH225189)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.0 m
810 mm
480 mm Cross-section
2.0 m
Pre-stressing 16.0 m
tendon
Figure 1
Solution for Revision question on prestressed concrete design:
(a) Zt = 52.488 × 106 mm3 > Zt,req = 27.430 × 106 mm3

Zb = 52.488 × 106 mm3 > Zb,req = 43.479 × 106 mm3
(b) 108/Pi ≥ 0.1317 e – 17.78

108/Pi ≥ 0.0556 e + 7.51 Pi,min = 3498.7 kN (e = 325 mm)
108/Pi ≥ –1.4239 e + 192.23 Pi,max = 3907.8 kN (e = 325 mm)
108/Pi ≤ 0.0621 e + 8.39
(c) M = w x (L - x) / 2 where x is the distance of the section to the left support;

wi = 19.72 kN/m, ws = 37.72 kN/m.
Pi (kN) x (m) Mi (kNm) Ms (kNm) emin (mm) emax (mm)

0.0 0 0 – 135.0 150.8
3700 4.0 473.28 905.28 191.2 292.9
8.0 631.04 1207.04 300.0 340.3
2
(MHH223204/MHH225189)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
40
Ine(6a)
Ine(6b)
Ine(6c)
30
Ine(6d)
Soffit
108/Pi (1/N)
emax = 325 mm
20
10
0
-200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500
e (mm)
Figure 2  Magnel diagram
-500
-400
-300 Pi = 3700 kN
-200
Cable zone
-100
e (mm)
0
emin[fb = fmin for Ms]
100
200
300
emax[f 't = f 'min for Mi]
400
500
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x (mm)
Figure 3  Permissible cable zone
3
1. Deduction of Eqs.(4a) and (4b)
α Pi α Pi e Mi
Multiplying Eq.(3a) − + ≥ f min
'
by (–β) yields
Ac Zt Zt
α β Pi α β Pi e β Mi
− + − ≤ − β f min
'
(3e)
Ac Zt Zt
β Pi β Pi e Ms
Multiplying Eq.(3c) − + ≤ f max by α yields
Ac Zt Zt
α β Pi α β Pi e α M s
− + ≤ α f max (3f )
Ac Zt Zt
Combining Eq.(3e) and Eq.(3f) yields
α Ms − β Mi
≤ α f max − β f min
'
(3g)
Zt
Rearranging Eq.(3g) yields
) ααf M s −− ββ Mf ' i
Z t ≥ ( Z t,min = (4a)
max min
α Pi α Pi e Mi
Multiplying Eq.(3b) + − ≤ f max
'
by β yields
Ac Zb Zb
α β Pi α β Pi e β Mi
+ − ≤ β f max
'
(3h)
Ac Zb Zb
β Pi β Pi e Ms
Multiplying Eq.(3d) + − ≥ f min by (–α) yields
Ac Zb Zb
α β Pi α β Pi e α M s
− − + ≤ −α f min (3i)
Ac Zb Zb
Combining Eq.(3h) and Eq.(3i) yields
α Ms − β Mi
≤ β f max
'
− α f min (3j)
Zb
Rearranging Eq.(3j) yields
) β αf 'M s −−βα Mf i
Z b ≥ ( Z b,min = (4b)
max min
1
2. Deduction of Eqs.(5a) to (5d)
α Pi α Pi e Mi
'
by Zt yields
Ac Zt Zt
α Pi Z t
− α Pi e + M i ≥ Z t f min
'
(3k)
Ac
Rearranging Eq.(3k) yields
α Pi ( Z t Ac − e ) ≥ Z t f min
'
− Mi (3l)
Rearranging Eq.(3l) by dividing α ( Z t Ac − e ) yields

'
Z t f min − Mi
Pi ≥ (5a)
α ( Z t Ac − e )
α Pi α Pi e Mi
'
by Zb yields
Ac Zb Zb
α Pi Z b
+ α Pi e − M i ≤ Z b f max
'
(3m)
Ac
Rearranging Eq.(3m) yields
α Pi ( Z b Ac + e ) ≤ Z b f max
'
+ Mi (3n)
Rearranging Eq.(3n) by dividing α ( Z b Ac + e ) yields

'
Z b f max + Mi
Pi ≤ (5b)
α ( Z b Ac + e )
2
β Pi β Pi e Ms
Multiplying Eq.(3c) − + ≤ f max by Zt yields
Ac Zt Zt
β Pi Z t
− β Pi e + M s ≤ Z t f max (3o)
Ac
Rearranging Eq.(3o) yields
β Pi ( Z t Ac − e ) ≤ Z t f max − M s (3p)
Rearranging Eq.(3p) by dividing β ( Z t Ac − e ) yields
Z t f max − M s
Pi ≤ (5c)
β ( Z t Ac − e )
β Pi β Pi e Ms
Multiplying Eq.(3d) + − ≥ f min by Zb yields
Ac Zb Zb
β Pi Z b
+ β Pi e − M s ≥ Z b f min (3q)
Ac
Rearranging Eq.(3q) yields
β Pi ( Z b Ac + e ) ≥ Z b f min + M s (3r)
Rearranging Eq.(3r) by dividing β ( Z b Ac + e ) yields
Z b f min + M s
Pi ≥ (5d)
β ( Z b Ac + e )
3
'
Z t f min − Mi
P ≥
Reversing Eq.(5a) i
α ( Z t Ac − e ) yields
1 α ( Z t Ac − e )
≤ (6a)
'
Pi Z t f min − Mi
'
Z b f max + Mi
P ≤
Reversing Eq.(5b) i
α ( Z b Ac + α ) yields
1 α ( Z b Ac + α )
≥ (6b)
'
Pi Z b f max + Mi
Z t f max − M s
P ≤
Reversing Eq.(5c) i
β ( Z t Ac − e ) yields
1 β ( Z t Ac − e )
≥ (6c)
Pi Z t f max − M s
Z b f min + M s
Reversing Eq.(5d) Pi ≥
β ( Z b Ac + e ) yields
1 β ( Z b Ac + e )
≤ (6d)
Pi Z b f min + M s
4
α Pi α Pi e Mi  Zt 
'
by   yields
Ac Zt Zt  α Pi 
'
Zt M i Z t f min
−e+ ≥ (3s)
Ac α Pi α Pi
Rearranging Eq.(3s) yields
e≤
Zt
+
1
Ac α Pi
(
M i − Z t f min
'
) (7a)
α Pi α Pi e Mi  Zb 
'
by   yields
Ac Zb Zb  α Pi 
'
Zb M i Z b f max
+e− ≤ (3t)
Ac α Pi α Pi
Rearranging Eq.(3t) yields
e≤
1
α Pi
(M i + Z b f max
' Z
− b
Ac
) (7b)
5
β Pi β Pi e Ms  Z 
Multiplying Eq.(3c) − + ≤ f max by  t  yields
Ac Zt Zt  β Pi 
Zt M Z f
− e + s ≤ t max (3u)
Ac β Pi β Pi
Rearranging Eq.(3t) yields
Zt 1
e≥ + ( M s − Z t f max ) (7c)
Ac β Pi
β Pi β Pi e Ms  Z 
Multiplying Eq.(3d) + − ≥ f min by  b  yields
Ac Zb Zb  β Pi 
Zb M Z f
+ e − s ≥ b min (3v)
Ac β Pi β Pi
Rearranging Eq.(3v) yields
1 Z
e≥ ( M s + Z b f min ) − b (7d)
β Pi Ac
6
(MHH223204/MHH225189)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Revision Question: Design of a prestressed concrete footbridge
A 16 m span, simply-supported prestressed concrete footbridge is to be designed, as shown in

Figure 1.
Using the data provided:
(a) check whether the cross-section of the beam is appropriate, i.e. prove Zt and Zb are
larger than the required;
(b) produce a Magnel diagram and show possible option combinations for the prestressing
80 mm to the beam soffit;
(c) determine the permissible tendon zone through calculations at mid-span, quarter-span
Design data:
Unit weight of concrete (γconc) = 25 kN/m3
Self-weight allowance for the deck (excluding the beam) = 5 kN/m2
Superimposed dead load due to surfacing = 3 kN/m2
Imposed loading = 9 kN/m2
Maximum allowable concrete stress at transfer ( fmax') = 18.8 N/mm2
Minimum allowable concrete stress at transfer ( fmin') = – 1.0 N/mm2
Maximum allowable concrete stress at service ( fmax) = 24.0 N/mm2
Minimum allowable concrete stress at service ( fmin) = 0.0 N/mm2
Short-term prestress loss factor (1 – α) = 10%
Long-term prestress loss factor (1 – β) = 25%
Note:
α Ms − β Mi α Ms − β Mi
Zt ≥ Zb ≥
'
β f max
'
− α f min
Zt 1 1 α ( Z t / Ac − e)
'
) ≤
Ac α Pi '
Pi ( Z t f min − Mi )
1 Z 1 α ( Z b / Ac + e)
e≤ ( M i + Z b f max
'
)− b ≥
α Pi Ac '
Zt 1 1 β ( Z t / Ac − e)
e≥ + ( M s − Z t f max ) ≥
Ac β Pi Pi ( Z t f max − M s )
1 Z 1 β ( Z b / Ac + e)
e≥ ( M s + Z b f min ) − b ≤
β Pi Ac Pi ( Z b f min + M s )
(MHH223204/MHH225189)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.0 m
810 mm
480 mm Cross-section
2.0 m
Pre-stressing 16.0 m
tendon
Figure 1
Solution for Revision question on prestressed concrete design:
(a) Zt = 52.488 × 106 mm3 > Zt,req = 27.430 × 106 mm3

Zb = 52.488 × 106 mm3 > Zb,req = 43.479 × 106 mm3
(b) 108/Pi ≥ 0.1317 e – 17.78

108/Pi ≥ 0.0556 e + 7.51 Pi,min = 3498.7 kN (e = 325 mm)
108/Pi ≥ –1.4239 e + 192.23 Pi,max = 3907.8 kN (e = 325 mm)
108/Pi ≤ 0.0621 e + 8.39
(c) M = w x (L - x) / 2 where x is the distance of the section to the left support;

wi = 19.72 kN/m, ws = 37.72 kN/m.
Pi (kN) x (m) Mi (kNm) Ms (kNm) emin (mm) emax (mm)

0.0 0 0 – 135.0 150.8
3700 4.0 473.28 905.28 191.2 292.9
8.0 631.04 1207.04 300.0 340.3
2
(MHH223204/MHH225189)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(a) Check whether the cross-section of the beam is appropriate, i.e. prove Zt and Zb are
larger than the required.
Known α = 1 – 10% = 0.90 β = 1 – 25% = 0.75

f 'max = 18.8 N/mm2 f 'min = –1.0 N/mm2
fmax = 24.0 N/mm2 fmin = 0.0 N/mm2
γconc = 25 kN/m3
L = 16.0 m B = 2.0 m
b = 480 mm h = 810 mm
a = 80 mm wsuper-imp = 3 kN/m2
wslab = 5.0 kN/m2 wimp = 9.0 kN/m2
Cross-sectional area, Ac:

Ac = b h = 480 × 810 = 0.3888 × 106 mm2
UDL at transfer due to self-weight of the beam and slab, wi:
wi = wbeam + wslab = γc Ac + wslab = 25×0.3888×106×10-6 + 5×2 = 19.72 kN/m
UDL at service due to self-weight and imposed load, ws:
ws = wi + wsuper-imp + wimp = 19.72 + 3×2 + 9×2 = 37.72 kN/m
Bending moment at transfer due to self-weight of the beam, Mi:

Mi = wi L2 / 8 = 19.72 × 162 / 8 = 631.04 kNm
Bending moment at service due to self-weight and service load, Ms:
Ms = ws L2 / 8 = 37.72 × 162 / 8 = 1207.04 kNm
From the two inequalities given in the question, we can obtain the elastic section moduli
α Ms − β Mi 0.90 ×1207.04 ×106 − 0.75 × 631.04 ×106
Z= ≥ Z =
t t,req
'
0.90 × 24 − 0.75 × (−1)
613.056 ×106
= = 27.430 × 106 mm3
22.35
α Ms − β Mi 0.90 ×1207.04 ×106 − 0.75 × 631.04 ×106
Z b=
≥ Z b,req =
β f max
'
− α f min 0.75 ×18.8 − 0.90 × 0
613.056 ×106
= = 43.479 ×106 mm3
14.1
For a rectangular section, the elastic section moduli about the top and bottom fibres, Zt and Zb,
can be calculated as
Z t =bh 2 / 6 =480 × 8102 / 6 =52.488 ×106 mm3 > Z t,req =27.430 ×106 mm3
Z b =bh 2 / 6 =480 × 8102 / 6 =52.488 ×106 mm3 > Z b,req =43.479 ×106 mm3
Hence, the selected elastic section is adequate.
3
(MHH223204/MHH225189)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(b) Produce a Magnel diagram and show possible option combinations for the prestressing
80 mm to the beam soffit.
1 α ( Z t / Ac − e) 1 α ( Z b / Ac + e)
≤ (1) ≥ (2)
'
Pi ( Z t f min − Mi ) '
1 β ( Z t / Ac − e) 1 β ( Z b / Ac + e)
≥ (3) ≤ (4)
Pi ( Z t f max − M s ) Pi ( Z b f min + M s )
From Inequality (1), we get

1 α ( Z t / Ac − e) 0.90 × (52.488 ×106 / 388800 − e)
≤ =
'
Pi ( Z t f min − M i ) 52.488 ×106 × (−1) − 631.04 ×106
0.90 × (135 − e) (−0.1317 e + 17.78) ×10−8
= = (1/ N)
−683.528 ×106 −1
Note that the denominator is negative for this example. Dividing both sides of an inequality
by a negative number has the effect of changing the sense of the inequality. Thus, the above
inequality can be simplified as
108 / Pi ≥ 0.1317 e − 17.78 (1/ N) (1a)

1 α ( Z b / Ac + e) 0.90 × (52.488 ×106 / 388800 + e)
≥ =
'
Pi ( Z b f max + M i ) 52.488 ×106 ×18.8 + 631.04 ×106
0.90 × (135 + e)
= = (0.0556 e + 7.51) ×10−8 (1/ N)
1617.8144 ×106
i.e. 108 / Pi ≥ 0.0556 e + 7.51 (1/ N) (2a)

1 β ( Z t / Ac − e) 0.75 × (52.488 ×106 / 388800 − e)
≥ =
Pi ( Z t f max − M s ) 52.488 ×106 × 24 − 1207.04 ×106
0.75 × (135 − e)
= = (−1.4239 e + 192.23) ×10−8 (1/ N)
52.672 ×10 6
Because the denominator is negative, the sense of the inequality should be changed again.
Thus, the above inequality can be simplified as
108 / Pi ≥ −1.4239 e + 192.23 (1/ N) (3a)

1 β ( Z b / Ac + e) 0.75 × (52.488 ×106 / 388800 + e)
≤ =
Pi ( Z b f min + M s ) 52.488 ×106 × 0 + 1207.04 ×106
0.75 × (135 + e)
= = (0.0621 e + 8.39) × 10−8 (1/ N)
1207.04 × 106
4
(MHH223204/MHH225189)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
i.e. 108 / Pi ≤ 0.0621 e + 8.39 (1/ N) (4a)
Now all the results can be put together as

108 / Pi ≥ 0.1317 e − 17.78 (1/ N) (1a)
10 / Pi ≥ 0.0556 e + 7.51
8
(1/ N) (2a)
10 / Pi ≥ −1.4239 e + 192.23 (1/ N)
8
(3a)
10 / Pi ≤ 0.0621 e + 8.39
8
(1/ N) (4a)
Now we can plot 108/Pi against e as follows in the figure below and these four lines define a
feasible region, the permissible zone.
From Inequality (1), we know

108 / Pi ≥ 0.1317 e − 17.78 (1/ N) (1a)
Point 1: 108/Pi = 0 N-1, e = 17.78/0.1317 = 135 mm, i.e. (135, 0).
Point 2: e = 500 mm, 108/Pi = 0.1317×500 – 17.78 = 48.07 N-1, i.e. (500, 48.07).

108 / Pi ≥ 0.0556 e + 7.51 (1/ N) (2a)
Point 1: e = 0 mm, 108/Pi = 7.51 N-1, i.e. (0, 7.51).
Point 2: e = 500 mm, 108/Pi = 0.0556×500 + 7.51 = 35.31 N-1, i.e. (500, 35.31).

108 / Pi ≥ −1.4239 e + 192.23 (1/ N) (3a)
Point 1: 108/Pi = 0 N-1, e = 192.23/1.4239 = 135 mm, i.e. (135, 0).
Point 2: 108/Pi = 50 N-1, e = (192.23–50)/1.4239 = 99.9 mm, i.e. (99.9, 50).

108 / Pi ≤ 0.0621 e + 8.39 (1/ N) (4a)
8 -1
Point 1: e = 0 mm, 10 /Pi = 8.39 N , i.e. (0, 8.39).
Point 2: e = 500 mm, 108/Pi = 0.0621×500 + 8.39 = 39.44 N-1, i.e. (500, 39.44).
5
(MHH223204/MHH225189)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
50
Ine(1a)
Ine(2a)
40 Ine(3a)
Ine(4a)
Pmin point
Soffit with yb = 405 mm
108/Pi (1/N)
30 emax = 325 mm
Pmax point
20
10
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
e (mm)
Magnel diagram
In this case, the cable eccentricity e at mid-span is taken as

e = h/2 - a = 810/2 – 80 = 325 mm
The most economic option for practical design is to choose the minimum value of Pi or the
maximum value of 1/Pi. The Magnel diagram indicates that the best option for choosing the
prestressing force should be obtained from Ine. (4a) by letting e = 325 mm, i.e.
108 / Pi = 0.0621 e + 8.39 = 0.0621 × 325 + 8.39 = 28.57 N-1
or Pi,min = (108 / 28.57) × 10-3 = 3500 kN
Using Ine. (2a), 108 / Pi = 0.0556 e + 7.51 = 0.0556 × 325 + 7.51 = 25.58 N-1
or Pi,max = (108 / 25.58) × 10-3 = 3909 kN
Hence, the minimum initial prestressing force at mid-span is chosen as 3500 kN.
6
(MHH223204/MHH225189)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(c) Determine the permissible tendon zone through calculations at mid-span, quarter-span
α = 0.9; β = 0.75;
Pi = 3700 kN; L = 16 m
Ac = b h = 480 × 810 = 0.3888 × 10 mm 6 2
Zt = Zb = b h2 / 6 = 380 × 8102 / 6 = 52.488 × 106 mm3

wi = wbeam + wslab = γc Ac + wslab = 25×0.3888×106×10-6 + 5×2 = 19.72 kN/m
ws = wi + wsuper-imp + wimp = 19.72 + 3×2 + 9×2 = 37.72 kN/m
M(x)
x x
wL/2
Bending moment for the section at a distance of x to the left support, M(x), can be obtained as
M(x) = (w L x / 2) – (w x2 / 2) = w x (L – x) / 2
Zt 1 1 Z
'
) (1) e≤ ( M i + Z b f max
'
)− b (2)
Ac α Pi α Pi Ac
Zt 1 1 Z
e≥ + ( M s − Z t f max ) (3) e≥ ( M s + Z b f min ) − b (4)
Ac β Pi β Pi Ac
At mid span, x = L/2 so M = w x (L – x) / 2 = w L2 / 8

Mi = wi L2 / 8 = 19.72 × 162 / 8 = 631.04 kNm
Ms = ws L2 / 8 = 37.72 × 162 / 8 = 1207.04 kNm
Zt 1 52.488 ×106 1
e≤ + (M = − Z f '
) + 631.04 ×106 − 52.488 ×106 × (−1) 
Ac α Pi 0.3888 ×10 0.9 × 3700 ×103 
i t min 6
=
135 + 205.3 =340.3 mm
52.488 ×106
e≤
1
α Pi
(=
M i + Z b f max ) −
' Zb 1
Ac 0.9 × 3700 ×103
631.04 ×10 + 52.488 ×10 ×18.8 −
6 6
388800
( )
= 485.8 − 135= 350.8 mm
52.488 ×106
e≥
Zt
+
1
Ac β Pi
(M s − =
Z t f max )
388800
+
1
0.75 × 3700 ×10 3
1207.04 ×106 − 52.488 ×106 × 24 ( )
=135 − 19.0 =116.0 mm
52.488 ×106
e≥
1
=
β Pi
Z
( M s + Z b f min ) − b
1
Ac 0.75 × 3700 ×103
1207.04 × 10 6
+ 52.488 × 10 6
× 0 −
388800
( )
= 435.0 − 135= 300.0 mm
Hence, 300.0 mm ≤ e ≤ 340.3 mm and ∆e = 340.3 – 300.0 = 40.3 mm
7
(MHH223204/MHH225189)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
At quarter span, x = L/4 so M = w x (L – x) / 2 = 3 w L2 / 32

Mi = 3 wi L2 / 32 = 3 × 19.72 × 162 / 32 = 473.28 kNm
Ms = 3 ws L2 / 32 = 3 × 37.72 × 162 / 32 = 905.25 kNm
Zt 1 52.488 ×106 1
e≤ + (M =
i − Z t f min )
'
+  473.28 ×106 − 52.488 ×106 × (−1) 
3 
Ac α Pi 388800 0.9 × 3700 ×10
=135 + 157.9 =292.9 mm
52.488 ×106
e≤
1
α Pi
(=
M i + Z b f max
' Z
)− b
1
Ac 0.9 × 3700 ×103
473.28 × 10 6
+ 52.488 × 10 6
×18.8 −
388800
( )
= 438.5 − 135= 303.5 mm
52.488 ×106
e≥
Zt
+
1
Ac β Pi
(M s − =
Z t f max )
388800
+
1
0.75 × 3700 ×103
905.28 ×106 − 52.488 ×106 × 24 ( )
=135 − 127.7 =7.3 mm
52.488 ×106
e≥
1
=
β Pi
Z
( M s + Z b f min ) − b
1
Ac 0.75 × 3700 ×103
905.28 × 10 6
+ 52.488 × 10 6
× 0 −
388800
( )
= 326.2 − 135= 191.2 mm
Hence, 292.9 mm ≤ e ≤ 191.2 mm and ∆e = 292.9 – 191.2 = 101.7 mm
At supports, x = 0 so M = w x (L – x) / 2 = 0 i.e. Mi = Ms = 0 kNm
Zt 1 52.488 ×106 1
e≤ + (M = − Z f '
) + 0 − 52.488 ×106 × (−1) 
Ac α Pi 0.9 × 3700 ×103 
i t min
388800
=135 + 15.8 =150.8 mm
52.488 ×106
e≤
1
α Pi
(M i + =
Z b f max ) −
' Zb 1
Ac 0.9 × 3700 ×103
0 + 52.488 ×10 ×18.8 −
6
388800
( )
= 296.3 − 135= 161.3 mm
52.488 ×106
e≥
Zt
+
1
Ac β Pi
(M s − =
Z t f max )
388800
+
1
0.75 × 3700 ×10 3
0 − 52.488 ×106 × 24 ( )
=
135 − 454.0 =
−319.0 mm
52.488 ×106
e≥
1
β Pi
( M s=
Z
+ Z b f min ) − b
1
Ac 0.75 × 3700 ×103
0 + 52.488 × 10 6
× 0 −
388800
( )
=
0 − 135.0 =
−135.0 mm
Hence, −135.0 mm ≤ e ≤ 150.8 mm and ∆e = 150.8 – (−135.0) = 285.8 mm
8
(MHH223204/MHH225189)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
-500
-400
-300 Pi = 3700 kN
-200
Cable zone
-100
e (mm)
0
emin[fb = fmin for Ms]
100
200
300
emax[f 't = f 'min for Mi]
400
500
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x (mm)
Figure 3  Permissible cable zone
9
(MHH223204/MHH225189)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. DESIGN OF COMPOSITE
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 
REINFORCED CONCRETE
STRUCTURES
3. DESIGN OF COMPOSITE PC-RC STRUCTURES 3.1 DESIGN OF COMPOSITE PC-RC STRUCTURES TO EC2
 3.1 DESIGN OF COMPOSITE PRESTRESSED

CONCRETE – REINFORCED CONCRETE
STRUCTURES TO EN 1992
Ex.3.1 Advantages of composite construction
 Two simply supported solid steel beams of 150 mm  500 mm are
3.1 DESIGN OF COMPOSITE required to span 10 m. Both beams are manufactured using two
smaller beams, each 150 mm wide and 250 mm deep, positioned
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE – one above the other. In Beam A the two small beams are not
REINFORCED COCNRETE connected and act independently whereas in Beam B they are fully
jointed and act together as a combined section (Figure Ex.3.1a).
STRUCTURES TO EN 1992 Here, the elastic modulus of the steel is Es = 200 kN/mm2.
Professor Ben Zhang

3. DESIGN OF COMPOSITE PC – RC STRUCTURES 3. DESIGN OF COMPOSITE PC – RC STRUCTURES
3.1 DESIGN OF COMPOSITE PC-RC STRUCTURES TO EC2 3.1 DESIGN OF COMPOSITE PC-RC STRUCTURES TO EC2
Ex.3.1 Advantages of composite construction (cont.) Ex.3.1 Solution

 Using the data provided,  Load capacity for Beam A
─ determine the maximum uniformly distributed load that Beam A Elastic modulus of single 150250 mm beam, Zs
and Beam B can support respectively if fy = 200 N/mm2;
─ calculate the mid-span deflections of both beams assuming that Is bh3 /12 bh 2 150  2502
Zs      1.5625 106 mm3
they are subjected to a UDL of 30 kN/m at service; and y h/2 6 6
─ further analyse the results of load capacity and deflection if the Combined elastic modulus of two separate 150250 mm beams, ZA
limit of the maximum deflection for a beam is L/360.
ZA = 2 Zs = 2  1.5625  106 = 3.125  106 mm3
250
Beam A
250
500 Beam B Bending moment capacity of the combined section, MA
150 MA = fy ZA = 200  3.125  106  10-6 = 625 kNm
250 Thus, the uniformly distributed load capacity of Beam A, wA, is
250 MA = wA L2 / 8 = 625 kNm
10 m i.e. wA = 8 MA / L2 = 8  625 / 102 = 50 kN/m
 Load capacity for Beam B  Deflection

The two small sections act together and behave like a beam of
Beam A
150 mm  500 mm. The elastic modulus of the combined section,
ZB, is The second moment of area of Beam A, IA, is
I bh3 /12 bh 2 150  5002 IA = 2 Is = 2  150  2503 / 12 = 390.625106 mm4
ZB  B     6.25 106 mm3
y h/2 6 6 Mid-span deflection of Beam A for a UDL w = 30 kN/m, A, is
5wL4 5  30  (10 103 ) 4
Bending moment capacity of the combined section, MB, is A    50 mm
384 EI A 384  200  103  390.625  106
MB = fy ZB = 200  6.25  106  10-6 = 1250 kNm
Beam B
Hence, the uniformly distributed load capacity of Beam B, wB, can
The second moment of area of Beam B, IB, is
be calculated from the following expression
IB = 150  5003 / 12 = 1562.5106 mm3
MB = wB L2 / 8 = 1250 kNm Mid-span deflection of Beam A for a UDL w = 30 kN/m, B, is
i.e. wB = 8 MB / L2 = 8  1250 / 102 = 100 kN/m 5wL4 5  30  (10 103 ) 4
B    12.5 mm
384 EI B 384  200 103  1562.5 106
 Summary  Summary (cont.)

Load capacity Deflection and its limit
The ratio of the load capacity of Beam B to that of Beam A, w, is The ratio of the mid-span deflection of Beam B to that of Beam A, d
w = wB / wA = 100 / 50 = 2 d = B / A = 12.5 / 50 = 0.25
which means the load capacity has been doubled if the two beams which means the mid-span deflection has been decreased by three-
are connected as a composite beam. quarters if the two beams are connected as a composite beam.
Stiffness The limit of the maximum deflection for Beams A and B, d, is
The ratio of the stiffness of Beam B to that of Beam A, s, is d = L / 360 = 10000 / 360 = 27.78 mm
s = (EIB) / (EIA) = IB / IA It is obvious that Beam A fails to satisfy the deflection requirement
= (1562.5106) / (390.625106) =4 and needs to be made composite whereas Beam B satisfies the
requirement.
which means the stiffness has been quadrupled if the two beams
are connected as a composite beam. Q.E.D.
Composite structures Solid composite structure with inverted T beams

 A composite structure is basically a structure constructed by  A structure composited from prestressed concrete beams and
combining two or more different structural sub-components, in-situ solid reinforced concrete
each retaining its own distinctive material properties and
structural behaviours.

Composite “top-hat” structure with inverted Composite steel-concrete structures

T beams
 A structure composited from steel beams and in-situ
 A structure composited from steel beams and in-situ solid reinforced concrete deck
reinforced concrete deck

Composite steel-concrete structures (cont.) Composite timber-concrete structures

 A structure composited from timber beams and in-situ
 A structure composited from steel beams and in-situ steel-
reinforced concrete deck
sheeted reinforced concrete deck

Typical prestressed concrete beams for bridges Standard inverted T beams: Sections and strand
(from BCA) positions
(a) Inverted T beam (b) M beam (c) U beam

Standard inverted T beams: Link shapes Standard inverted T beams: Section properties
D Ac Yb I Zt Zb conc
Section 9 4 6 3 6 3
(mm) (mm2) (mm) (10 mm ) (10 mm ) (10 mm ) (kN/m)
T1 380 98000 140 1.24 5.18 8.89 2.45
T2 420 106200 160 1.76 6.76 10.98 2.66
T3 535 114275 196 3.24 9.57 16.55 2.86
T4 575 122475 220 4.23 11.92 19.23 3.06
T5 615 130675 244 5.31 14.30 21.81 3.27
T6 655 138875 267 6.50 16.73 24.36 3.47
T7 695 147075 289 7.79 19.20 26.91 3.68
T8 735 155160 312 9.19 21.73 29.46 3.88
T9 775 163360 334 10.72 24.31 32.10 4.08
T10 815 171560 356 12.39 26.97 34.82 4.29

Standard T beams: Span recommendations Standard T beams: Additional information

 Concrete strengths:
─ fck,max = 30 MPa at transfer
─ fck,max = 40 MPa at service
 Prestressing strands:
─ Y1860S7: p = 12.5 mm Pi = 126 kN
─ Y1860S7G: p = 12.7 mm Pi = 153 kN
 Secondary reinforcement:
─ H8 or H10 reinforcement

Standard T beams: Typical deck section Standard M beams: Sections and strand positions

Standard M beams: Link shapes Standard M beams: Section properties

Section 9 4 6 3 6 3
M2 720 316650 265 16.20 35.64 61.04 7.92
M3 800 348650 310 23.02 46.96 74.31 8.72
M4 880 380650 353 30.91 58.77 87.57 9.52
M5 960 355050 357 35.81 59.39 100.31 8.88
M6 1040 387050 409 47.55 75.39 116.23 9.68
M7 1120 419050 460 60.52 91.70 131.57 10.48
M8 1200 393450 454 65.19 87.39 143.57 9.84
M9 1280 425450 512 82.98 108.05 161.96 10.64
M10 1360 457450 568 101.88 128.65 179.36 11.44

Standard M beams: Span recommendations Standard M beams: Additional information

─ Y1770S7: p = 15.2 mm Pi = 181 kN
─ Y1860S7: p = 15.2 mm Pi = 190 kN
─ Y1820S7G: p = 15.2 mm Pi = 219 kN
─ H12 reinforcement

Standard M beams: Typical deck section Standard U beams: Sections and strand positions

Standard U beams: Sections and strand positions Standard U beams: Link shapes

Standard U beams: Section properties Standard U beams: Span recommendations

Section 9 4 6 3 6 3
U1 800 466450 355 29.88 67.18 84.13 11.66
U3 900 499450 402 41.56 83.75 103.00 12.49
U5 1000 532450 449 56.04 101.70 124.80 13.31
U7 1100 565450 497 73.28 121.00 147.00 14.14
U8 1200 598450 544 92.79 141.50 170.50 14.96
U9 1300 631450 592 115.56 163.50 195.10 15.79
U10 1400 664450 641 141.50 186.30 220.90 16.61
U11 1500 697450 689 170.76 210.50 247.90 17.44
U12 1600 730450 737.5 203.14 235.90 275.00 18.26

Standard U beams: Additional information Standard U beams: Typical deck section

─ Y1770S7: p = 15.2 mm Pi = 181 kN
─ Y1860S7: p = 15.2 mm Pi = 190 kN
─ Y1820S7G: p = 15.2 mm Pi = 219 kN
─ H12 or H16 reinforcement

Standard Box beams: Sections B1 to B10 Standard Box beams: Sections B11 to B17

Standard Box beams: Section properties Standard Box beams: Section properties (cont.)
D Ac Yb I Zt Zb conc D Ac Yb I Zt Zb conc
Section 9 4 6 3 6 3 Section 9 4 6 3 6 3
(mm) (mm2) (mm) (10 mm ) (10 mm ) (10 mm ) (kN/m) (mm) (mm2) (mm) (10 mm ) (10 mm ) (10 mm ) (kN/m)
B1 510 337550 251 9.78 37.80 38.91 8.44 B11 1220 604625 580 105.73 165.09 182.43 15.12
B2 585 356300 287 14.09 47.26 49.12 8.91 B12 1260 616625 598 114.82 173.47 191.99 15.42
B3 660 375050 323 19.40 57.51 60.15 9.38 B13 1310 633501 623 127.71 185.98 204.91 15.84
B4 735 396925 361 26.14 69.92 72.37 9.92 B14 1360 651001 649 141.68 199.30 218.27 16.28
B5 810 418800 400 33.96 82.75 84.99 10.47 B15 1410 667877 674 156.13 212.20 231.58 16.70
B6 885 437550 435 42.45 94.34 97.58 10.94 B16 1460 682876 697 170.41 223.44 244.38 17.07
B7 960 456300 471 52.16 106.59 110.83 11.41 B17 1510 697876 720 185.54 235.01 257.52 17.45
B8 1035 478175 510 63.93 121.68 125.43 11.95
B9 1110 500050 548 76.99 137.10 140.38 12.50
B10 1220 527550 600 97.29 157.00 162.06 13.19

Standard Box beams: Typical transverse section Standard I beams: Sections I1 to I6

of a box-beam bridge

Standard I beams: Sections I7 to I11 Standard I beams: Sections I12 to I15

Standard I beams: Sections I16 to I20 Standard I beams: Section properties

Section 9 4 6 3 6 3
I1 710 176375 318 9.55 24.38 30.01 4.41
I2 760 194375 357 12.39 30.73 34.73 4.86
I3 840 206375 395 16.27 36.54 41.23 5.16
I4 915 254625 391 23.06 44.02 58.95 6.37
I5 965 272625 427 28.12 52.32 65.80 6.82
I6 1040 283875 461 34.47 59.56 74.76 7.10
I7 1120 295875 497 42.12 67.67 84.68 7.40
I8 1220 369375 492 58.75 80.75 119.32 9.23
I9 1295 380635 523 69.11 89.55 132.11 9.52
I10 1370 391875 554 80.51 98.71 145.25 9.80

Standard I beams: Section properties (cont.) Standard I beams: Typical transverse section of
D Ac Yb I Zt Zb conc an I beam bridge
Section 9 4 6 3 6 3
I11 1425 411675 595 93.92 113.14 157.87 10.29
I12 1420 423050 668 93.58 124.36 140.19 10.58
I13 1475 445600 707 106.61 138.81 150.79 11.14
I14 1550 460600 744 122.02 151.34 164.07 11.52
I15 1600 508600 725 145.22 165.98 200.29 12.72
I16 1675 523600 760 164.39 179.76 216.18 13.09
I17 1725 554100 767 182.18 190.22 237.46 13.85
I18 1830 598475 793 221.90 214.03 279.77 14.96
I19 1905 613475 827 247.40 229.58 299.05 15.34
I20 1980 628475 862 274.65 245.57 318.73 15.71

Standard U-M beams: Sections Standard U-M beams: Section properties

D Ac Yb Yc I Zt Zb conc
Section 9 4 6 3 6 3
(mm) (mm2) (mm) (mm) (10 mm ) (10 mm ) (10 mm ) (kNm)
UM2 720 351400 256.6 439 14.56 31.4 56.8 8.79
UM3 800 375400 287.9 436 20.02 39.1 69.5 9.39
UM4 880 399400 320.4 432 26.59 47.5 83.0 9.99
UM5 960 423400 353.7 429 34.43 56.8 97.3 10.59
UM6 1040 447400 387.7 427 43.58 66.8 112.4 11.19
UM7 1120 471400 422.3 425 54.14 77.6 128.2 11.79
UM8 1200 495400 457.4 423 66.15 89.1 144.6 12.39
UM9 1280 519400 493.0 421 79.75 101.3 161.8 12.99
UM10 1360 543400 529.0 419 95.00 114.3 179.6 13.59
Note: Yc is the distance from the right vertical face to the centroid.
Standard U-M beams: Span recommendations Design equations for the prestressed concrete
beam at transfer stage
 Design equations for prestressed concrete beams at
transfer stage
'  Pi  Pi e Mi '
f t,beam     f min ,beam (1a)
Ac,beam Z t,beam Z t,beam
'  Pi  Pi e Mi '
f b,beam     f max ,beam (1b)
Ac,beam Z b,beam Z b,beam
where Mi is the bending moment due to the self-weight of the
prestressed concrete beam.
Stress limits for the beam at transfer stage Stress limits for the beam at transfer stage
 Allowable compressive stresses for the prestressed  Allowable tensile stresses for the prestressed concrete
concrete beam at transfer, f 'c,max,beam (5.10.2.2(5)) beam at transfer, f 'c,min,beam
̶ For post-tensioned members ̶ For characteristic combination of loads
f 'c,max,beam = 0.6 fck(t) (5.42) f 'c,min,beam = – fctm(t )
̶ For pre-tensioned members ̶ For normal conditions (UK practice)
f 'c,max,beam = 0.7 fck(t) f 'c,min,beam = – 1.0 MPa
̶ Combination of loads ̶ For quasi-permanent combination of loads
(decomposition, Table 7.1N)
G
j 1
k,j " " P " (6.14b of EC)
f 'c,min,beam = 0
Design equations for the prestressed concrete Stress limits for the beam at service stage
beam supporting the slab at service stage  Allowable compressive stresses at service, fc,max,beam
 Design equations for the prestressed concrete beam (7.2(2))
supporting the slab weight at service stage ─ To avoid longitudinal cracks under the characteristic
combination of loads, the compressive stress should be
 Pi  Pi e Md
f t,beam     f max ,beam (1c) limited to a value k1fck(t) in areas exposed to environments
Ac,beam Z t,beam Z t,beam of exposure classes XD, XF and XS (see Table 4.1). The
 Pi  Pi e Md
f b,beam     f min ,beam (1d) fc,max,beam = 0.6 fck (5.42)
─ Combination of loads
where Md is the bending moment due to the self-weight of the
PC beam and the in-situ fresh concrete for the slab.
G
j 1
k,j " " P " (6.14b of EC)

Stress limits for the beam at service stage (cont.) Requirements for initial sizing of section
 Allowable tensile stresses for the prestressed concrete  Md   Mi
beam at service, fc,min,beam Z t,beam  '
(2a)
 f max   f min
 Md   Mi
fc,min,beam = – fctm Z b,beam  '
(2b)
 f max   f min
̶ For quasi-permanent combination of loads
(decomposition, Table 7.1N)
fc,min,beam = 0

Feasible zones for Pi and e using Magnel diagram Design equations for the composite structure at
 The feasible zones for Pi and e should be determined for all service stage
sections of the beam by using Magnel diagram as:  Design equations for the prestressed concrete beam for
the composite structure at service stage
emin  e  emax (3a)
  Pi  Pi e M d  M imp yt,beam
Pi,min  Pi  Pi,max f t,beam       f max,beam (4a)
(3b)  Ac,beam Z t,beam Z t,beam  I comp
 
1   Pi  Pi e M d  M imp yb,beam
f b,beam       f min,beam (4b)
 Ac,beam Z b,beam Z b,beam 
(1 / N )
Pi
  I comp
‐e Permissible zone where Mimp = Ms – Md is the moment due to the imposed load and
+e
Ms is the moment due to the total service loads, calculated from
Permissible cable zone
e (mm) G
j 1
k,j " " P " " Qk,1 " " 
i 1
0,i Qk,i (6.14b of EC)

Stress limits for the beam at service stage Stress limits for the beam at service stage (cont.)
 Allowable compressive stresses at service, fc,max,beam  Allowable compressive stresses at service, fc,max (7.2(3))
(7.2(2))
̶ If the stress in the concrete under the quasi-permanent
─ To avoid longitudinal cracks under the characteristic loads is less than k2 fck(t), linear creep may be assumed. If
combination of loads, the compressive stress should be the stress is larger than k2 fck(t), non-linearity should be
limited to a value k1fck(t) in areas exposed to environments considered. The recommended value for k2 is 0.45.
of exposure classes XD, XF and XS (see Table 4.1). The
recommended value for k1 is 0.6. Thus, fc,max,beam = 0.45 fck
fc,max,beam = 0.6 fck (5.42) ̶ Quasi-permanent combination
─ Characteristic combination of loads G " " P " "  Qk,i (6.16b of EC)
  0,i Qk,i
k,j 2,i
Gk,j " " P " " Qk,1 " " (6.14b of EC) j 1 i 1
j 1 i 1
Stress limits for the beam at service stage (cont.) Design equations for the composite structure at
service stage
 Allowable tensile stresses for the prestressed concrete
beam at service, fc,min,beam  Design equations for the reinforced concrete slab in the
composite structure at service stage
( M s  M d ) yt,slab M imp yt,slab
fc,min,beam = – fctm f t,slab     f max,slab (4c)
I comp I comp
(decomposition, Table 7.1N) ( M s  M d ) yb,slab M imp yb,slab  f max,slab
f b,slab    (4d )
fc,min,beam = 0 I comp I comp  f min,slab
where Mimp is the bending moment due to the imposed loads
only and is equal to Ms – Md.

Stress limits for the slab at service stage Stress limits for the slab at service stage (cont.)
 Allowable compressive stresses at service, fc,max,slab  Allowable compressive stresses at service, fc,max (7.2(3))
(7.2(2))
̶ If the stress in the concrete under the quasi-permanent
─ To avoid longitudinal cracks under the characteristic loads is less than k2 fck(t), linear creep may be assumed. If
combination of loads, the compressive stress should be the stress is larger than k2 fck(t), non-linearity should be
limited to a value k1fck(t) in areas exposed to environments considered. The recommended value for k2 is 0.45.
of exposure classes XD, XF and XS (see Table 4.1). The
fc,max,slab = 0.45 fck
fc,max,slab = 0.6 fck (5.42) ̶ Quasi-permanent combination
─ Characteristic combination of loads G " " P " "  Qk,i (6.16b of EC)
  0,i Qk,i
k,j 2,i
Gk,j " " P " " Qk,1 " " (6.14b of EC) j 1 i 1
j 1 i 1
Stress limits for the slab at service stage (cont.) Design bending moment resistance at ULS, MRd
 Allowable tensile stresses for the reinforced concrete  Compressive force in the concrete, FC
slab at service, fc,min,slab FC = (0.8 x) b (0.567 fck)
̶ For characteristic combination of loads  Tensile force in the prestressing steel, FP
fc,min,slab = – fctm FP = min[(p + P,fav p0) Es, fpd] Ap (P,fav = 0.9 in the UK)
 Equilibrium for force
(decomposition, Table 7.1N) FC = FP
fc,min,slab = 0

Design bending moment resistance at ULS, MRd Composite M beams: Sections

 The design value of bending moment resistance at the ULT,
MRd, can be calculated as:
MRd = RP z = RC z
 Design criterion for bending
MRd > MEd
where
MEd is the design value
of the bending
moment.

Composite M beams: Section properties Composite U beams: Sections

D Ac Yb I Zt,slab Zt,beam Zb,slab Zb,beam
Section 9 4 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 3
(mm) (mm2) (mm) (10 mm ) (10 mm ) (10 mm ) (10 mm ) (10 mm )
Comp M2 850 467650 429.31 42.98 102.16 147.84 164.86 100.11
Comp M3 930 499650 474.37 54.49 119.59 167.33 184.31 114.86
Comp M4 1010 531650 517.98 67.69 137.57 186.98 203.87 130.68
Comp M5 1090 506050 553.00 81.82 152.37 201.04 217.04 147.96
Comp M6 1170 538050 601.21 98.80 173.70 225.16 241.69 164.34
Comp M7 1250 570050 649.10 135.79 225.97 288.36 307.98 209.20
Comp M8 1330 544450 675.84 135.31 206.84 258.14 273.81 200.20
Comp M9 1410 576450 727.29 158.56 232.25 286.87 303.34 218.01
Comp M10 1490 608450 777.92 183.41 257.57 315.09 332.22 235.77

3.1 DESIGN OF COMPOSITE PC-RC STRUCTURES TO EC2
Composite U beams: Section properties

D Ac Yb I Zt,slab Zt,beam Zb,slab Zb,beam
Section 9 4 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 3
(mm) (mm2) (mm) (10 mm ) (10 mm ) (10 mm ) (10 mm ) (10 mm )
Comp U1 960 786450 568.62 82.87 211.75 358.17 358.17 145.75
Comp U3 1060 819450 627.71 107.40 248.45 394.44 394.44 171.10
Comp U5 1160 852450 685.87 136.30 287.49 433.91 433.91 198.73
Comp U7 1260 885450 743.83 169.29 327.98 475.32 475.32 227.59
Comp U8 1360 918450 800.43 206.42 368.89 516.61 516.61 257.89
Comp U9 1460 951450 857.03 248.12 411.49 560.11 560.11 289.51
Comp U10 1560 984450 913.72 294.22 455.25 605.04 605.04 322.00
Comp U11 1660 1017450 969.23 345.59 500.29 651.10 651.10 356.56
Comp U12 1760 1050450 1024.62 401.49 545.95 697.77 697.77 391.84

3. DESIGN OF COMPOSITE PC – RC STRUCTURES
Job title: Composite Construction MHH223204
George Moore Building Example 3.2: Design of composite bridge deck
Cowcaddens Road
1. DESIGN DATA
The composite bridge deck shown in Figure Ex.3.2a has a span of 15 m

and is composed of inverted T7-beams at 500 mm centres, with an overall
depth of 845 mm. C40/50 concrete with cement CEM 42.5 R (Class R) is
used to produce these post-tensioned prestressed concrete beams.
Transfer occurs at 7 days. An exposure class of XD3 is assumed. The
following geometric properties for the beams are known as
Ac,beam = 147075 mm2 Ibeam = 7.79 × 109 mm4
yt,beam = 406 mm yb,beam = 289 mm
Zt,beam = 19.20 × 10 mm
6 3
Zb,beam = 26.91 × 106 mm3
γc = 25 kN/m 3
α = 1 – 0.12 = 0.88 β = 1 – 0.25 = 0.75
Using the data provided,

(i) determine the feasible zone for Pi and e using Magnel diagram and
the corresponding upper and lower limits for both;
(ii) determine the distribution of stresses in the composite structure at
different stages under an imposed load of 24 kN/m2 and check their
suitability if 7 No Y1820S7G 15.2 mm 7-wire strands are equally
placed in the beams at a spacing of 45 mm and a distance of 90 mm
to the soffit with C30/37 in situ concrete for the slab; and
(iii) check the ultimate moment capacity of the composite section if
assume Es = 200 kN/mm2.
Figure Ex.3.2a  Sectional properties of a composite structure
Prof. Ben Zhang: Advanced Structural Engineering  Design of PC – RC Composite Structures 1

Cowcaddens Road
2. SOLUTION EC2-1-1:
2.1 Design parameters for the prestressed concrete beams

For C40/50 concrete, the compressive strengths are
fck = 40 N/mm2 fcu = 50 N/mm2 fcm = 48 N/mm2 Table 3.1
Cement type coefficient for CEM 42.5R (Class R) s = 0.2 3.1.2(6)

Age coefficient for t = 7 days
βcc(7) = exp{s [1 – (28/t)0.5]} = exp{0.2 × [1 – (28/7)0.5]} = 0.819 Eq.(3.2)
Mean concrete strength at 7 days
fcm(7) = βcc(7) fcm = 0.819 × 48 = 39.3 N/mm2 Eq.(3.1)
fck(7) = fcm(7) – 8 MPa = 39.3 – 8 = 31.3 N/mm2 Table 3.1

transfer, f 'max, is calculated as
f 'max = 0.6 fck(7) = 0.6 × 31.3 = 18.8 N/mm2 Eq.(5.42)
The maximum allowable tensile concrete stress for members at transfer,
f 'min, is assumed as f 'min = – 1.0 N/mm2 UK Practice

service, f max, is calculated as
f max = 0.6 fck = 0.6 × 40 = 24.0 N/mm2 Eq.(5.42)
The maximum tensile stress allowed in concrete for members with
decompression, fmin, is assumed as fmin = 0 N/mm2
Now we can put all parameters together as

Ac,beam = 147075 mm2 Ac,comp = 500×845 = 422500 mm2
α = 1 – 0.12 = 0.88 β = 1 – 0.25 = 0.75
γconc = 25 kN/m 3
L = 15 m
f 'max = 18.8 N/mm2 fmax = 24.0 N/mm2
f 'min = -1.0 N/mm2 fmin = 0.0 N/mm2
2.2 Design loads for the prestressed concrete beams

UDL at transfer due to self-weight of the beam, wi
wi = γconc Ac,beam = 25×147075×10-6 = 3.677 kN/m
UDL at service due to self-weight of the composite structure, wd
wd = γconc Ac,comp = 25×422500×10-6 = 10.563 kN/m

Mi = wi L2 / 8 = 3.67 × 152 / 8 = 103.412 kNm
Bending moment at service due to self-weight of composite structure, Md
Md = wd L2 / 8 = 10.563 × 152 / 8 = 297.070 kNm

Cowcaddens Road
2.3 Elastic sectional moduli for the prestressed concrete beams

α Md − β Mi 0.88 × 297.070 ×106 − 0.75 ×103.412 ×106
Z t,beam ≥ =
' 0.88 × 24.0 − 0.75 × (−1)
182.863 ×106
= =8.407 ×106 mm3 (< Z t,beam =19.20 ×106 mm3 OK!)
21.87
α Md − β Mi 0.88 × 297.070 ×106 − 0.75 ×103.412 ×106
Z b,beam ≥ =
β f max
'
− α f min 0.75 ×18.8 − 0.88 × 0
183.863 ×106
= =
13.04 ×106 mm3 (< Z b,beam =26.19 ×106 mm3 OK!)
14.1
2.4 Determination of prestress force and eccentricity for the beams

1 α ( Z t,beam / Ac,beam − e) 0.88 × (19.20 ×106 /147075 − e)
≤ =
Pi '
( Z t,beam f min − Mi ) 19.20 × 106 × (−1) − 103.412 × 106
0.88 × (130.546 − e) −(0.7177 e − 93.69) × 10−8
= = 1/N
−122.612 × 106 −1
108 / Pi ≥ 0.7177 e − 93.69 1/N (i)

1 α ( Z b,beam / Ac,beam + e) 0.94 × (26.91×106 /147075 + e)
≥ =
Pi '
( Z b,beam f max + Mi ) 26.91×106 ×18.8 + 103.412 ×106
0.88 × (182.968 + e)
= = (0.1444 e + 26.42) ×10−8 1/N
609.32 ×10 6
i.e. 108 / Pi ≥ 0.1444 e + 26.42 1/N (ii)

1 β ( Z t,beam / Ac,beam − e) 0.75 × (19.20 ×106 /147075 − e)
≥ =
Pi ( Z t,beam f max − Md ) 19.20 ×106 × 24 − 297.07 ×106
0.75 × (130.546 − e)
= =−0.4581 e + 59.80 1/N
163.73 ×106
i.e. 108 / Pi ≥ −0.4581 e + 59.80 1/N (iii)

Cowcaddens Road
2.4 From Inequality (6d), we get

1 β ( Z b,beam / Ac,beam + e) 0.75 × (26.91×106 /147075 + e)
≤ =
Pi ( Z b,beam f min + M d ) 26.91×106 × 0 + 297.07 ×106
0.75 × (182.97 + e)
= = (0.2525 e + 46.19) ×10−8 1/N
297.07 ×10 6
i.e. 108 / Pi ≤ 0.2525 e + 46.19 1/N (iv)
Now we can put all four Inequalities together as

108 / Pi ≥ 0.7177 e − 93.69 1/N (i)
10 / Pi ≥ 0.1444 e + 26.42 1/N
8
(ii)
108 / Pi ≥ −0.4581 e + 59.80 1/N (iii)
108 / Pi ≤ 0.2525 e + 46.19 1/N (iv)
140
Ine(6a)
120 Ine(6b)
Ine(6c)
Ine(6d)
100 Soffit
Limits for Pi
108/Pi (1/N)
80
60
40
20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
e (mm)
Figure Ex.3.2b  Magnel diagram

Cowcaddens Road
2.4 The upper limit (the maximum value) of the eccentricity, emax, can be
obtained by letting Inequality (i) be equal to Inequality (iv) as follows
0.7177 e – 93.69 = 0.2525 e + 46.19
which gives
emax = (93.69 + 46.19) / (0.7177 – 0.2525) = 300.69 mm.
The lower limit (the minimum value) of the eccentricity, emin, can be
obtained by letting Inequality (iii) be equal to Inequality (iv) as follows
–0.4581 e + 59.80 = 0.2525 e + 46.19
which gives
emin = (59.80 – 46.19) / (0.4581 + 0.2525) = 19.15 mm.
Thus, the feasible range for the eccentricity e can be given as

emin ≤ e ≤ emax
or 19.15 mm ≤ e ≤ 300.69 mm.
In this case, the distance from the neutral axis of the prestressed concrete
beam to its soffit, yb,beam, is 289 mm. If we reasonably take the distance
from the centre of the prestressing steel to the soffit, c', as 90 mm, the
maximum possible value of eccentricity for the permissible zone is
e = yb,beam - c' = 289 – 90 = 199 mm
which is within the feasible range of e mentioned above.
The minimum and maximum values of the prestreesing forces, Pmin and
Pmax, can be calculated by setting e = 199 mm in Inequalities (iv) and (ii).
From Inequalities (iv),

108/Pi = 0.2525 × 199 + 46.19 = 96.44 N-1
or Pi,min = (108 / 96.44) × 10-3 = 1036.9 kN
From Inequalities (ii),
108/Pi = 0.1444 × 199 + 26.42 = 55.16 N-1
or Pi,max = (108 / 55.16) × 10-3 = 1812.9 kN
Thus, the feasible range for the initial prestressing force Pi can be given as
1036.9 kN ≤ Pi ≤ 1812.9 kN.

Preq = Pi / 0.75 = 1036.9 / 0.75 = 1382.5 kN

Cowcaddens Road
2.5 Here we assume use of Y1820S7G 15.2 mm 7-wire drawn strands, each
having
Pyk,strand = 300 kN
with a nominal strength fpk = 1820 N/mm2 and a cross-sectional area of
Ap,strand = 165 mm2.
The minimum number of the required strands is

Pmin,req / Pu,strand = 1382.5 / 300 = 4.6 strands
In a composite structure, the prestressing force in the beam has to cancel

the tensile stresses in the whole structure caused by not only the self-
weight of the beam and but also the self-weight of the in situ concrete
slab. Thus, a much larger initial prestressing force will be needed instead
of the corresponding lower limit, but this force should be smaller than the
corresponding upper limit.
Try 7 No. Y1820S7G 7-wire drawn strands of 15.2 mm nominal diameter.

Ppk = 300 × 7 = 2100 kN
Ap = Ap,strand × 7 = 165 × 7 = 1155 mm2

Pi = Pi,strand × 7 = 219 × 7 = 1533 kN
Here 1036.9 kN ≤ Pi = 1533 kN ≤ 1812.9 kN.
2.6 Concrete stresses in the prestressed concrete beam at transfer

From Inequality (1a), the stress at the top fibre ft' is calculated as
α Pi α Pi e Mi
'
f t,beam = − +
0.88 ×1533 ×103 0.88 ×1533 ×103 ×199 103.412 ×106
= − + OK!
147075 19.20 ×106 19.20 ×106
=
9.17 − 13.98 + 5.39 =
0.58 N/mm 2 > f min
'
=
−1 N/mm 2
From Inequality (1b), the stress at the bottom fibre fb' is calculated as
α Pi α Pi e Mi
'
f b,beam = + −
0.88 ×1533 ×103 0.88 ×1533 ×103 ×199 103.412 ×106
= + − OK!
147075 26.91×106 26.91×106
= 9.17 + 9.98 − 3.84 = 15.31 N/mm 2 < f max
'
= 18.8 N/mm 2

Cowcaddens Road
2.7 Concrete stresses in the prestressed concrete beam at service

From Inequality (1c), the stress at the top fibre ft,beam,d is calculated as
β Pi β Pi e Md
f t,beam,d = − +
0.75 ×1553 ×103 0.75 ×1553 ×103 ×199 297.07 ×106
= − + OK!
147075 19.20 ×106 19.20 ×106
=7.82 − 11.92 + 15.47 =11.37 N/mm 2 < f max =24.0 N/mm 2
From Inequality (1d), the stress at the bottom fb,beam,d is calculated as

β Pi β Pi e Md
f b,beam,d = + −
0.75 ×1553 ×103 0.75 ×1553 ×103 ×199 297.07 ×106
= + − OK!
147075 26.91×106 26.91×106
= 7.82 + 8.50 − 11.04 = 5.28 N/mm 2 > f min = 0 N/mm 2
2.8 Design parameters for the composite structure at service
2.8.1 Geometric properties of the composite structure

First we put all geometric properties of the composite structure together as
Ac,comp = 500 × 845 = 422500 mm2
Ic,comp = 500 × 8453 / 12 = 25.14 × 109 mm4
yt,beam = 845/2 – 150 = 272.5 mm
yb,beam = 845/2 = 422.5 mm
yt,slab = 845/2 = 422.5 mm
yb,slab = 845/2 – 100 = 322.5 mm
2.8.2 Concrete strengths for the prestressed concrete beam EC2-1-1:
Allowable compressive stresses at service, fc,max Cl. 7.2(2)

To avoid longitudinal cracks under the characteristic combination of
loads, the compressive stress should be limited to a value k1 fck(t) in areas
exposed to environments of exposure classes XD, XF and XS. The Table 4.1
allowable compressive stress of C40/50 concrete at service is
fc,max = 0.6 fck = 0.6 × 40 = 24.0 N/mm2 Eq.(5.42)
Allowable tensile stresses at service, fc,min

The allowable tensile stress for the beam at service, fmin, is
fmin = – fctm = – 3.5 N/mm2 Table 3.1

Cowcaddens Road
2.8.3 Concrete strengths for the in situ C30/37 concrete slab EC2-1-1:
Allowable compressive stresses at service, fc,max

For serviceability state, the compressive strength for the in situ concrete
slab, a similar value can be taken for fmax as
fc,max = 0.6 fck = 0.6 × 30 = 18.0 N/mm2 Eq.(5.42)
Allowable tensile stresses at service, fc,min

The allowable tensile stress for the beam at service, fmin, is
fmin = – fctm = – 2.9 N/mm2 Table 3.1
2.8.4 Imposed loads on the composed structure at service

UDL at service due to the imposed load, wimp, is known as
wimp = 24 × 0.5 = 12 kN/m
Bending moment at service due to the imposed load, Mimp
Mimp = wimp L2 / 8 = 12 × 152 / 8 = 337.5 kNm
2.9 Concrete stresses in the prestressed concrete beam at service

The stress at the top fibre of the beam ft,beam,s is calculated as
M imp yt,beam 337.5 ×106 × 272.5
f t,beam,s =
f t,beam,d + =
11.37 +
I comp 25.14 ×109 OK!
= 11.37 + 3.66 = 15.03 N/mm 2 < f max = 24 N/mm 2
The stress at the bottom fibre of the beam fb,beam,s is calculated as

M imp yb,beam 337.5 ×106 × 422.5
f b,beam,s =
f b,beam,d − =
5.28 −
I comp 25.14 ×109 OK!
=
5.28 − 5.67 =
−0.39 N/mm 2 > f min =
−3.5 N/mm 2
2.10 Concrete stresses in the C30/37 in situ concrete slab at service

The stress at the top fibre of the slab ft,slab is calculated as
M imp yt,slab 337.5 ×106 × 422.5
= f t,slab =
I comp 25.14 ×109 OK!
= 5.67 N/mm 2 <=
f max 18.0 N/mm 2
The stress at the bottom fibre of the slab fb,slab is calculated as

M imp yb,slab 337.5 ×106 × 322.5
f b,slab = = −
I comp 25.14 ×109 NOT OK!
=
−4.33 N/mm 2 < f min =
−2.9 N/mm 2

Cowcaddens Road
2.10 From the UK practice (see cl. 5.4.6.2.1 of former BS 8110-1), the
maximum tensile stress in the in situ concrete can exceed the allowable
tensile stress by up to 50%, provided the design tensile stress in the
prestressed concrete unit is reduced by the same numerical amount. In this
case, the allowable tensile stress for the C30/37 in situ concrete slab, fmin,
can be increased from 2.9 N/mm2 to 4.4 N/mm2, up by 2.9 × 0.5 = 1.5
N/mm2. Thus, we have
f b,slab =
−4.33 N/mm 2 > f min = −4.4 N/mm 2 OK!
Meanwhile, the allowable tensile stress for the prestressed concrete beam,
fmin, will be reduced by 1.5 N/mm2, from 3.5 N/mm2 down to 3.5 – 1.5 =
2.0 N/mm2. Even so, we still have
f b,beam,s =
−0.39 N/mm 2 > f min =−2.0 N/mm 2 OK!
2.11 Distribution of concrete stresses with the composite section

+5.67 +5.67
+0.58 +11.37 +15.03

+3.66 +3.66
+
+
+ + + =
+
- -4.33
+15.31 +5.28 -5.67 -0.39

(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) Concrete stresses in the beam at transfer
(b) Concrete stresses in the beam caused by the self-weight of the
composite structure at service
(c) Concrete stresses in the composite structure under imposed load
(d) Concrete stresses in the beam (solid line) and in the slab (dashed
line) at service
Ex.3.2c  Distribution of concrete stresses in the composite structure

Cowcaddens Road

The initial stress in tendons is fpi = Pi / Ap = 219×103/165 = 1327 N/mm2
The stress-strain curve for Y1820S7G prestressing steel used is shown in

Figure Ex.3.2d with the following three typical points:
• transition point from linearly elastic to non-linear hardening
σp,1 = fp,0.1k / γS = 1560 / 1.15 = 1356 N/mm2
εp,1 = σp,1 / Es = 1356 / (200×103) = 0.00678
• transition point at the maximum design strain
σp,2 = σp,1 + (σp,3 - σp,1) (εp,2 - εp,1) / (εp,3 - εp,1)
= 1356 + (1583 – 1356) (0.02 – 0.00678) / (0.02222 – 0.00678)
= 1550 N/mm2
εp,2 = εpd = 0.02
• transition point at failure for the prestressing steel
σp,3 = fpk / γS = 1820/1.15 = 1583 N/mm2
εp,3 = εpd / 0.9 = 0.02/0.9 = 0.02222
2000
1583
1550
1500
1356
Maximum design steel strain
σp (N/mm2)
Failure steel strain
1000
500
0
0.00678 0.02 0.02222
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025
εp
Ex.3.2d  Stress-strain curve for tendons
The stress and strain distributions are shown in Figure Ex.3.2e. The strain
in the prestressing steel at the ultimate limit state due to prestress only,
εp0, is given by
εp0 = fpi / Es = 1327/(200×103) = 0.00664

Cowcaddens Road
2.12 The total strain at the ultimate limit state in the steel, εp, is calculated as
Here, εp is the strain in tendons due to flexure and is calculated from

0.0035 ∆ε p
=
x 755 − x
0.0035 × (755 − x)
or ∆ε p =
x
ε c = 0.0035 (0.567 fck)slab

FC,slab,1
150
x 0.8 x FC,slab,2 FC,beam
y
d = 755 (0.567 fck)beam

zslab,1
zslab,2 = zbeam
0.00664 ∆ εp fp FT
Figure Ex.3.2e  Strain and stress diagrams
500
205
0.8 x 150
x
y
845
Figure Ex.3.2f  Compression zone for concrete

in the composite structure

Cowcaddens Road
2.12 The stress in the steel can be found from the stress-strain curve and the
tensile and compressive forces in the steel and concrete, FP and FC, can
then be determined according to the principles for the design of
prestressed concrete sections. Here, we assume 0.8 x > 150 mm, so we
can get
FP = fp Ap = εp Es Ap = (∆εp + γp,fav εp0) Es Ap
and FC = FC,slab,1 + FC,slab,2 + FC,beam
= b×150×(0.567 fck)slab + (0.8 x – 150)×(b–205)×(0.567 fck)slab
+ (0.8 x – 150)×205×(0.567 fck)beam
We need to try different values of y or x to make sure FP = FC first and

then calculate the ultimate bending moment resistance.
The following table shows these forces for different values of y and x.
Table Ex.3.2a  Neutral axis depth for slab in Coursework

y x ∆εp εp fp FP FC
2
(mm) (mm) (N/mm ) (kN) (kN)
30 225.0 0.00824 0.01422 1465.39 1692.5 1565.8
40 237.5 0.00763 0.01360 1456.34 1682.1 1662.4
41.84 239.8 0.00752 0.01350 1454.91 1680.4 1680.2
When y = 41.84 mm,

x = (y+150) / 0.8 = (41.84 + 150) / 0.8 = 239.8 mm
∆εp = (755-239.8) × 0.0035 / 239.8 = 0.00752
εp = 0.00752 + 0.00598 = 0.01350
fp = 1356 + (1550-1356) × (0.01350-0.00678) / (0.02-0.00678)
= 1356 + 194 × 0.00672 / 0.01322 = 1454.6 N/mm2
FP = fp Ap = 1454.6 × 1155 × 10-3 = 1680.06 kN

FC = FC,slab,1 + FC,slab,2 + FC,beam
= b×150×(0.567 fck)slab + (0.8 x – 150)×(b-205)×(0.567 fck)slab
+ (0.8 x – 150)×205×(0.567 fck)beam
= 500×150×0.567×30×10-3
+ (0.8×239.8 – 150)×(500-205)×0.567×30×10-3
+ (0.9×239.8 – 150)×205×0.567×40×10-3
= 1275.75 + 209.95 + 194.53
= 1680.23 kN
The neutral axis depth x may thus be taken with sufficient accuracy to be
240 mm. In this case, the prestressing steel has yielded.

Cowcaddens Road
2.12 From Figure Ex.3.2e, the ultimate moment of resistance, MRd, can be
calculated as
MRd = FC,slab,1 zslab,1 + FC,slab,2 zslab,2 + FC,beam zbeam
where zslab,1, zslab,2 and zbeam are the distances between the sectional centres
for the compressive forces FC,slab,1, FC,slab,1 and FC,beam and the centre of
the prestressing steel, respectively, and
zslab,1 = 755 – 150/2 = 680 mm
zslab,2 = zbeam = 755 – 150 – (0.8×239.8-150)/2 = 584.08 mm
Thus, the ultimate moment of resistance, MRd, can be calculated as

MRd = FC,slab,1 zslab,1 + FC,slab,2 zslab,2 + FC,beam zbeam
= 1275.75×680×10-3 + 209.95×584.08×10-3
+ 194.53×584.08×10-3
= 867.51 + 122.63 + 113.62
= 1103.76 kNm
2.13 Maximum bending moment due to applied loads EN 1990:

wd = ξ γG wG + γQ wQ Eq.(6.10b)
= 0.925×1.35×10.563 + 1.5×12 = 31.191 kN/m
Maximum design bending moment at the ULS, MEd, can be calculated as

MEd = wd L2 / 8
= 31.191 × 152 / 8
= 877.234 kNm
2.14 Summary
Here, the bending moment resistance, MRd, is larger than the maximum
bending moment due to applied loads, MEd, by 25.8%, so the present
design is adequate to resist the ultimate bending moment.

(MHH223204/MHH225189)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS
4.1 Basic Concepts

4.2 Equation of Motion and Natural Frequency
BSc ENVIRONMENTAL CIVIL ENGINEERING
MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering: 4. Structural Dynamics - SDOF
Section 4.1 Basic Concepts
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
MHH223204: IV Structural Dynamics

 Single Degree of Freedom (SDOF)
SECTION 4.1  BASIC CONCEPTS
4.1.1 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS
Dynamic: Time dependent
Structural dynamics:
 Analysis and design of structures to resist the effects introduced
by time dependent forces or motions
Applications:
 Response bridges to moving vehicles
 Effects of wind gusts, ocean waves and blast pressures on
structures
 Effects of landing impact on aircraft
 Effects on structures, e.g. buildings and hydraulic dams, whose
foundations are subject to earthquake excitation
 Response of structures subjected to alternating forces caused by
oscillating machinery
Main dynamic parameters:

 Maximum deflections
 Maximum stresses
 Maximum strains
 ……
1
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Practical examples:
Figure 4.1.1  Failure of at pile-superstructure in a bridge,

Loma Prieta earthquake, California, 1989
Figure 4.1.2  Damage in the port of Kobe, Japan, 1995
2
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 4.1.3  A fault passed through the Shinkhang dam, Taiwan,

in 1995, causing the vertical displacement of 9 m
Figure 4.1.4  Collapse of the ground-storey (soft-storey)

of the building in Erzincan, Turkey, 1992
3
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure VI-1.5  Collapse of Pinot Suarez building (steelwork),

Mexico City, 1995
Figure 4.1.6  Response of a masonry arch to strong earthquakes

in Gujarat, India, 2001
4
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 4.1.7  RC dome-shaped containment structures, housing the

nuclear reactors of the San Onofre plant in California, USA.
T = 0.15 s for fixed base and T = 0.50 s for soil flexibility.
Figure 4.1.8  Morrow Point Dam, a 142 m high arch dam

on the Gunnison River, Colorado, USA.
T = 0.268 s for partially full and T = 0.303 s for a full reservoir.
5
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.1.2 TYPES OF DYNAMIC LOADS
Response of structures to dynamic loads:

 Deterministic response: to prescribed loading
 Nondeterministic response: to random loading
Types of dynamic loads:

 Prescribed loading:
Magnitude, application point and time variation are completely
known
 Random loading:
Time variation and other characteristics are not completely
known but can be defined only in a statistical sense
Repeatability of dynamic loads:

 Periodic loading:
Repeat themselves at equal time intervals, each called the
period T0
 Non-periodic loading:
Do not repeat themselves at equal time intervals
Harmonic dynamic loads:

 Harmonic loading:
Can be represented by a sine function
 Non-harmonic loading:
Cannot be represented by a single sine function but in most
cases represented by summing a sufficient number of harmonic
terms in a Fourier series
6
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(a) Simple harmonic (a) periodic, non-harmonic
(c) Non-periodic, short duration (d) Non-periodic, long duration
Figure 4.1.9  Types of dynamic loadings
7
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.1.3 SOURCES OF DYNAMIC LOADS
Sources of dynamic loads on structures:

 Environmental:
Wind loads: wind velocity, height, shape and stiffness
characteristics of the structure
earthquake loads:acceleration of the structure’s base by
highly irregular and complex earthquake
ground motion
wave loads: hydrodynamic loads on the structure due
to drag, inertia, lift, and buoyancy
 Machine induced:
Reciprocating and rotating engines, turbines, and conveyer
mechanisms, usually periodic
 Vehicle induced:
Internal - take-offs, landings or in-flight turbulence on
aircraft
External - vehicular dynamic load on highway bridges
from travelling trucks, lorries
 Blast induced:
Explosive devices
Accidental explosions
8
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 4.1.10  Typical wind velocity recorded
Figure 4.1.11  Typical ground motion records produced

by an underground explosion
9
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.1.4 DISTINGUISHING FEATURES

OF A DYNAMIC PROBLEM
Key differences between dynamic and static behaviour:

 Dynamic excitation (applied loads) and response (resulting
deflections, stresses, strains, etc.) are time dependent but static
problems are not;
 Inertia forces occur when the loading is dynamically applied.
(a) To a static load (b) To a dynamics load
Figure 4.1.12  Cantilever structure subjected to different

types of loads
10
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.1.5 METHODOLOGY FOR DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
Basic steps for dynamic analysis:

 Identification of the physical problem;
 Definition of the mechanical model;
 Solution of the mechanical model.
Figure 4.1.13  Methodology for conducting a dynamic analysis
11
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(a) Physical representation
Distributed mass: m(y)
Displacement: x(y,t)
Distributed stiffness: k(y)
(b) Continuous model

(analytical or numerical)
Localised mass: m
Displacement: x(t)
Discrete stiffness: k
(c) SDOF discrete model

(lumped mass)
(analytical)
Localised masses: m1, m2, m3
Displacements: x1(t), x2(t), x3(t)
Discrete stiffnesses: k1, k2, k3
(d) MDOF discrete model

(lumped masses)
(numerical, e.g. FEM)
Figure 4.1.14  Mechanical models for multi-storey building structure
12
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.1.6 TYPES OF STRUCTURAL VIBRATION
Types of structural vibration:

 Initial conditions (energy input)
Velocity imparted to the mass of the structure
(kinetic energy)
Displacement configuration imposed on the structure
(potential energy)
 Free vibration (without external applied forces)
Diminish with time or damped out
 Forced vibration (with external applied forces)
Steady-state response
Transient response
Resonance
4.1.7 SYSTEMS OF UNITS
13
Section 4.2  Equation of Motion and Natural Frequency for SDOF Systems
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

SECTION 4.2  EQUATION OF MOTION AND

NATURAL FREQUENCY FOR SDOF SYSTEMS
Basic assumptions:
 Material assumptions:
Homogeneity (isotropic)
Linearity (elasticity)
 Loading assumptions:
Concentrated force applied at a geometric point
Forces applied suddenly
External forces to be constant or periodic
 Geometric assumptions:
Beams, frames and trusses to be unidirectional elements (1-D)
Plates and shells to be two-dimensional elements (2-D)
Continuous structures assumed to be analysed as discrete
systems by specifying locations (nodes) and directions for
displacements (node coordinates) in the structures
Structure’s configuration:
 Geometric location of all the masses of the structure or system.
Degrees of freedom:
 Number of independent coordinates necessary to satisfy the
configuration or position of a system at any time
Single degree of freedom (SDOF):

 Those with a single displacement coordinate, which can be
described by a single, second-order ordinary differential
equation
1
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Multi-degree of freedom (MDOF):

 Those with more than one displacement coordinate
Equation of motion:
 Mathematical expression defining the dynamic equilibrium of a
system, in which the displacement-time history of a structure
subjected to a prescribed time-varying load is a key solution
Basic methods for formulating equation of motion for SDOFs:

 Newton’s law of motion
 D’Alembert’s principle of dynamic equilibrium
 Energy method
 Principle of virtual displacements
2
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.2.1 FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENTS

OF A VIBRATING SYSTEM
Figure 4.2.1  Mechanical model for a simple SDOF system
Basic parameters (elements) for SDOF vibration:

 Mass element m
Representing the mass and inertial characteristic of the
structure
 Spring element k
Representing the elastic restoring force and potential
energy storage of the structure
 Damping element (damper or dashpot) c
Representing the frictional characteristics and energy
dissipation of the structure
 Exciting force F(t)
Representing the external forces or damping
Free vibration:
No exciting force, i.e. F(t) = 0 (2.1)
3
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 4.2.2  Force-deformation relationship for a linear spring
Force in spring, FS, in N, lb, etc. FS = k x (2.2)

x is the spatial coordinate of the mass in m, mm, in, ft, etc.
k is the spring constant in N/m, kN/mm, lb/in, lb/ft, etc.
Potential energy (strain energy) V, in J or Nm, lb-in, etc.

1
V= k x2 (2.3)
2
Damping force, FD, in N, lb, etc.: FD = c x (2.4)

x is the velocity of the mass in m/sec, in/sec, ft/sec, etc.
c is the viscous damping coefficient in N-sec/m, lb-sec/in, etc.
Inertia force, FI, in N, lb, etc.: FI = - m x (2.5)

 2 2 2
x is the acceleration of the mass in m/sec , in/sec , ft/sec , etc.
m is the mass of the rigid body in kg, lb, etc.
The negative sign means that the inertia force opposes the
acceleration of the mass.
Undamped vibration:
 No damping force, i.e. FD = 0 (2.6)
4
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4.2.2 NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION
 
Newton’s Second Law of Motion: F =ma (2.7)

F is the resultant force acting on a particle
m

is the mass of the particle
a is the resultant acceleration
Eq.(2.7) can be rewritten in equivalent form in terms of its

components along x, y and z axes as:
ΣFx = m ax (2.8a)
ΣFy = m ay (2.8b)
ΣFz = m az (2.8c)
For plane motion of a rigid body with finite dimensions (x-y

plane), Newton’s Law of Motion yields:
ΣFx = m (aG)x (2.9a)
ΣFy = m (aG)y (2.9b)
ΣMG = IG α (2.9c)
(aG)x is the acceleration component, along the x-axis, of the
centre of mass G of the body
(aG)y is the acceleration component, along the y-axis, of the
centre of mass G of the body
α is the angular acceleration
IG is the mass moment of inertia of the body with respect to
an axis through the centre of mass G of the body
ΣMG is the sum of the moments of all the forces acting on the
body, with respect to an axis through G, perpendicular to
the x-y plane,
Eq.(2.9c) can also be applicable to the motion of a rigid body

in pure rotation about a fixed axis, i.e.
ΣM0 = I0 α (2.10)
5
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From a free body diagram (FBD) for a SDOF system as

shown in Figure 4.2.3, the Newton’s Law of Motion in the x-
direction gives:
- FS – FD + F(t) = m 
x (2.11a)
or - k x - c x + F(t) = m 
x (2.11b)
i.e. m 
x + c x + k x = F(t) (2.12)
mg

x
FS = k x
F(t)
FD = c x
(a) SDOF system (b) Showing only external forces
Figure 4.2.3  Free body diagram (FDS) in SDOF system

for Newton’s Law of Motion
6
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4.2.3 D’ALEMBERT’S PRINCIPLE
D’Alembert’s principle:
A system may be set in a state of dynamic equilibrium by adding
to the external forces a fictitious force that is commonly known as
the inertial force.
mg
FS = k x
FI = m 
x
F(t)
FD = c x
N
(a) SDOF system (b) Showing external and inertial forces
Figure 4.2.4  Free body diagram (FDS) in SDOF system

for D’Alembert’s principle
From Σ Fx = 0 (2.13)
we have - FS – FD – FI + F(t) = 0 (2.14a)
or - k x - c x - m 
x + F(t) = 0 (2.14b)
i.e. m 
x + c x + k x = F(t) (2.12)
c k F (t )
⇒ 
x+ x + x = (2.15)
m m m
c F (t )
⇒ 
x+ x + ω 2 x = (2.16)
m m
where ω is the natural circular frequency of the system, given by

k
ω = in rad/sec (2.17)
m
7
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EXAMPLE 4.2.1
Show that the same differential equation is obtained for a body in

undamped free vibration along a horizontal axis or for the same body
moving vertically, as shown in Figure 4.2.5.
x x W = mg
k
m kx m
x
N
(a) (b)
k x0
k (x0 + x) = W + k x
x0 k
x0
m m x
x
m
W = k x0
W = k x0
(c) (d) (e)
Figure 4.2.5  Two representations of the simple oscillator

and corresponding free body diagrams (FBDs)
8
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SOLUTION FOR EXAMPLE 4.2.1
For the SDOF system along the horizontal axis, Eq.(2.12) gives
m 
x + c x + k x = F(t) (1)
Notice c = 0 and F(t) = 0 for undamped free vibration, then we have
m 
x +kx = 0 (2)
For the SDOF system along the vertical axis, the equilibrium equation
in the static equilibrium position (Figure 4.2.5(d)) can be written as
k x0 = W (3)
When the body is displaced a distance x downward from this position

of equilibrium, the force in spring FS becomes
FS = k (x0 + x) = W+kx (4)
Using D’Alembert’s principle, the equilibrium equation in the new

position (Figure 4.2.5(e)) can be written as
- FS + W - m 
x = - (W + k x) + W - m 
x = - k x - m 
x =0 (5)
or m 
x +kx = 0 (6)
Eq.(6) is the same as Eq.(2).
Q.E.D.
9
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EXAMPLE 4.2.2
A simply supported beam having a concentrated weight W at its

midspan is shown in Figure 4.2.6. Consider the mass of the beam to be
negligible in comparison to the mass of the concentrated weight, and
neglect the effects of damping in the system. Determining the equation
of motion for the system and calculate its natural circular frequency.
Let W = 445 kN, the moment of inertia I = 8400 cm4, Young’s modulus
for the beam E = 210 GPa, and the beam length L = 6 m.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4.2.6  Simply supported beam with concentrated weight

at midspan and idealisations of the SDOF system
10
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Application of d’Lambert’s principle gives equation of motion for the

SDOF system shown in Figure 4.2.6(c) as
m 
x + k x = F(t) = 0 (1)
k
or 
x+ x = 0 (2)
m
The natural frequency of the system can be determined directly from

Eq.(2.17).
The mass term m is given as

m = W / g = 44.5 × 103 / 9.81 = 4536.19 kg (3)
The stiffness term k is calculated as

48 EI 48 × 210 × 109 × 8400 × 10-8
= k =
L3 63 (4)
= 3.92 × 106 N/m
Therefore, the natural circular frequency ω can be determined as

k 3.92×106
ω
= = = 29.3966 rad/sec (5)
m 4536.19
Q.E.D.
11
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EXAMPLE 4.2.3
A uniform rigid rod having mass m and length L is restrained to move

vertically at one end by a translational spring with a stiffness k and a
rotational spring with a stiffness kr at the other end as shown in Figure
4.2.7. Determine the equation of motion for this system and calculate
its natural circular frequency.
Figure 4.2.7  Elastically restrained rigid rod
Figure 4.2.8  Free-body diagram of elastically restrained rigid rod
12
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Note that the system exhibits a rotational degree of freedom θ about

point A and apply the dynamic equilibrium equation of moment
ΣM - I OAθ = 0 (1)
with θ as the rotational acceleration, and I O as the mass moment of A
inertia of the rod with the axis of rotation at end A.
From Figure 4.2.8, we have
− k R θ − k L ∆ − I OAθ = 0 (2)
or I θ + k L ∆ + k θ =
OA 0 R (3)
The mass moment of inertia of the rod, I O , is given as A
I OA = m L2 / 3 (4)
The vertical deflection at point B, ∆ , is approximately calculated as
=∆ L sin θ ≈ Lθ (5)
Eq.(3) can now be rearranged as
mL2 
θ + k L2 θ + k R θ =0 (6)
3
 3 (k L2 + k R )
i.e. θ+ θ=0 (7)
mL2
3 (k L2 + k R )
ω = rad/sec (8)
m L2
Q.E.D.
13
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Table 4.2.1  Expressions for calculating mass moment of inertia

for several common shapes
14
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Table 4.2.1  Expressions for calculating mass moment of inertia

for several common shapes (cont.)
4.2.4 THE ENERGY METHOD
Energy Conservation:
In a conservative system in motion, the total mechanical energy,
the sum of the kinetic energy T and the potential energy V, is
constant at any instant of time and its time derivative is zero, i.e.
T + V = constant (2.18)
d
and (T + V ) = 0 (2.19)
dt
Kinetic energy T : Due to the velocity of the mass
15
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Potential energy V :
Due to the position of the mass or the strain energy of the spring
when it sustains deformation
EXAMPLE 4.2.4
A simple massless pendulum of length L has the mass m attached to its

end as shown in Figure 4.2.9. Determine the equation of motion for the
system and calculate the natural circular frequency. Assume the mass
of the pendulum is negligible compared to the attached mass m.
Figure 4.2.9  Simple Figure 4.2.10  Free-body diagram of

Pendulum simple pendulum
16
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Assume small rotations θ of the mass about the pivot and refer to the
free-body diagram in Figure 4.2.10.
The kinetic energy, T, is expressed as
1 1 1
=T = m x 2 ( Lθ) 2
m= m L2 θ 2 (1)
2 2 2
The potential energy, V, is expressed as
= g ∆ m g L (1 − cos θ )
V m= (2)
Substituting Eqs.(1) and (2) into Eq.(2.19) yields
d
(T + V )
dt
d 1 
=  m L2 θ 2 + m g L (1 − cos θ ) 
dt  2 
= m L2 θ θ + m g L (sin θ ) θ
(3)
≈ m L2 θ θ + m g Lθ θ
=0
Dividing Eq.(3) by m L θ gives

2
g
θ + θ=
0 (4)
L
g
ω = rad/sec (5)
L
Q.E.D.
17
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EXAMPLE 4.2.5
A simple pendulum is connected to a mass m and a translational spring

with stiffness k as shown in Figure 4.2.11. Determine the equation of
motion for the system and calculate the natural circular frequency.
Assume the mass of the pendulum is negligible compared to the
attached mass m.
Figure 4.2.11  Elastically Figure 4.2.12  Free-body diagram of

restrained pendulum elastically restrained pendulum
Assume small rotations θ of the mass about the pivot and refer to the
free-body diagram in Figure 4.2.12.
The kinetic energy, T, is expressed as
1 1
=T = m x 2 m ( L θ) 2 (1)
2 2
18
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The potential energy, V, is expressed as
1
=V k ∆h 2 + m g ∆ v
2
1
= k (a sin θ ) 2 + m g L (1 − cos θ )
2 (2)
1 2 2
= k a sin θ + m g L (1 − cos θ )
2
Substituting Eqs.(1) and (2) into Eq.(2.19) yields
d
(T + V )
dt
d 1 2 2 1 2 2 
= m L θ + k a sin θ + m g L (1 − cos θ )
dt  2 2 
m L2 θ θ + k a 2 sin θ cos θ θ + m g L (sin θ ) θ
= (3)
≈ m L θ θ + k a θ θ + m g Lθ θ
2 2
= m L2 θ θ + (k a 2 + m g L) θ θ
=0
Dividing Eq.(3) by m L θ gives

2
 m g L + k a2
θ+ θ=
0 (4)
m L2
m g L + k a2
ω = rad/sec (5)
m L2
Q.E.D.
19
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4.2.5 PROBLEMS
4.2.1 A massless cantilever beam with flexural rigidity EI supports a weight with a
mass 1.5m as shown in Figure P4.2.1. Determine the equation of motion by
d’Alembert’s principle and calculate the natural circular frequency.
Figure P4.2.1
4.2.2 A simply supported beam support a mass m as shown Figure P4.2.2. Determine
the equation of motion by d’Alembert’s principle and calculate the natural
circular frequency. Assume the beam has flexural rigidity EI and neglect its
mass.
Figure Problem 4.2.2
4.2.3 For the structural frame shown in Figure P4.2.3, determine the equation of
motion by d’Alembert’s principle and calculate the natural circular frequency.
Assume the horizontal member to be rigid and support a mass 2.5m. Here, E =
210 GPa, I = 6250 cm4, L = 3.65 m, and m = 175 kg.
Figure Problem 4.2.3
20
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4.2.4 Use d’Alembert’s principle to determine the equation of motion for the structural
frame shown in Figure P4.2.4, and calculate the natural circular frequency.
Assume that the horizontal member is rigid and supports a total mass m. The
vertical members have flexural rigidity EI.
Figure P4.2.4
4.2.5 The rigid bar of mass m shown in Figure P4.2.5 in pinned at its left end, where it
is partially restrained from rotation by a rotational spring of stiffness kR. It is also
restrained by a translational spring of stiffness 1.5k. Use d’Alembert’s principle
to determine the equation of motion and calculate the natural circular frequency.
Assume small rotations.
Figure P4.2.5
4.2.6 Use d’Alembert’s principle to determine the equation of motion for the system
shown in Figure P4.2.6, and calculate the natural circular frequency. The rod is
rigid and has a total mass 1.5m. Assume small rotations.
1.5m
Figure P4.2.6
21
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4.2.7 A rigid, massless pendulum of length L has a mass m attached

at its free end as shown in Figure P4.2.7. It is partially
restrained from rotation at its pivot point by a rotational spring
kR. Use d’Alembert’s principle to determine the equation of
motion for the system, and calculate its natural circular
frequency. Assume small rotations.
Figure P4.2.7
4.2.8 Repeat Problem 4.2.6 using the energy method.
4.2.9 The rigid pendulum shown in Figure P4.2.9 is partially

restrained from rotating at its pivot point by a rotational
spring kR and has a translational spring of stiffness k
attached to its supported mass m. Use the energy
method to determine the equation of motion and
calculate the natural circular frequency. Assume small
oscillations.
Figure P4.2.9
4.2.11 A rigid, massless pendulum shown in Figure P4.2.11

has a mass m2 and supports a mass m1 at its end. It is
partially restrained at its pivot point by a rotational
spring kR and has a translational spring of stiffness k
attached to the mass m1. Use the energy method to
determine the equation of motion for the system and
calculate its natural circular frequency.
Figure P4.2.11
22
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4.2.12 The rigid bar of mass m shown in Figure 4.2.12 is subject to a time-varying
uniformly distributed force F0 (t ) . Use d’Alembert’s principle to derive the
equation of motion and calculate the natural circular frequency. Assume small
angles of rotation.
Figure P4.2.12
4.2.14 The rigid beam shown in Figure 4.2.14 has a uniform mass per unit length m .
Derive the equation of motion by the PVD and calculate the natural circular
frequency. Assume small angles of rotation.
Figure P4.2.14
23
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4.2.6 SOLUTIONS FOR PROBLEMS
EI rad EI rad
4.2.1 ω = 0.9541 4.2.2 ω = 7.8338
mL3 sec mL3 sec
rad EI rad
4.2.3 ω = 70.4967 4.2.4 ω = 3.4641
sec mL3 sec
4.2.5 ω=
(
3 0.735 k L2 + kR ) rad 4.2.6 ω=
(
2 k L2 + kR ) rad
mL2 sec mL2 sec
4.2.7 ω=
m g L + kR rad
4.2.8 ω=
(
2 k L2 + kR ) rad
m L2 sec mL2 sec
mg L + k L2 + kR rad m g L + kR rad
4.2.9 ω= 4.2.10 ω =
mL2 sec m L2 sec
4.2.11 ω =
( m1 + 0.5 m2 ) g L + k L2 + kR rad
4.2.12 ω =
k rad
[ m1 + (1/ 3) m2 ] L2 sec m sec
4.2.13 ω =
k rad
4.2.14 ω =
(
3 0.25 k1 L2 + k2 L2 + kR rad )
m sec m L3 sec
4.2.15 ω =
(
3 0.25 k1 L2 + k2 L2 + kR rad )
m L3 sec
24
Section 4.3  Undamped Free Vibration
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

SECTION 4.3  UNDAMPTED FREE VIBRATION
Vibration classifications:
 Forced vibrations: F(t) ≠ 0
 Free vibrations: F(t) = 0
Forced vibrations:
 Transient excitation (short duration): ω → ω0
 Oscillatory excitation (periodically repetitive): ω → Ω
 Resonance: ω0 → Ω
→ amplitudes ↑↑
→ structural damage
Damped vibrations:
 Caused by frictional resistance or material hysteresis
 Little effect on ω
 Significant effect on amplitude, in particular at resonance
4.3.1 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Equation of motion for viscously damped system subjected to
externally applied time-varying force:
x + c x + k x
m  = F(t) (3.1)
Equation of motion for undamped system in free vibration

with c = 0 and F(t) = 0:
m 
x +kx = 0 (3.2)
1
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Simple harmonic vibrations (undamped free vibrations):

 Can be expressed by a sine or cosine function
(a) Viscously damped system subject (b) Undamped system

to externally applied time-varying force in free vibration
Figure 4.3.1  Mechanical model for SDOF systems
Rearranging Eq.(3.2) gives a second-order, homogeneous,

ordinary differential equation with constant coefficients as:
k

x+ x=0 (3.3)
m
or x + ω2 x = 0
 (3.4)
k
where ω = is the natural circular frequency in rad/sec.
m
Assume the solution as linear exponential function:
x (t ) = C e st (3.5)
so we have x (t ) = C s e st (3.6)
and 
x (t ) = C s 2 e st (3.7)
2
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Substituting Eqs.(3.5) and (3.7) into Eq.(3.3) yields:
k
C s 2 e st + C e st = 0 (3.8)
m
 2 k
 s + Ce =0
st
(3.9)
 m
Noting e st ≠ 0 and C≠0 yields:
k
s2 + =0 (3.10)
m
k k
or s= ± - =
±i (3.11)
m m
k
yielding s1 = i (3.12a)
m
k
and s2 = - i (3.12b)
m
with i = -1 .
Thus, the general solution for x(t):
x (t ) = C1 e s1 t + C 2 e s2 t (3.13)
k k
i t -i t
or x (t ) = C1 e m
+ C2 e m
(3.14)
with C1 and C2 as the complex conjugates.
Euler’s functions give:
e i α = cos α + i sin α (3.15a)

iα
e - e = cos α - i sin α (3.15b)
3
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
k
with α = t as a real function.
m
Expanding Eq.(3.15) yields:

k
i
m
t k k
e = cos t + i sin t (3.16a)
m m
k
−i t k k
m
e = cos t - i sin t (3.16b)
m m
Substituting Eq.(3.16) to Eq.(3.14) yields:
 k k   k k 
x (t ) = C1  cos t + i sin t  + C 2  cos t - i sin t 
 m m   m m 
k k
=( C1 + C 2 ) cos t + i ( C1 − C 2 ) sin t
m m (3.17)
k k
= A sin t + B cos t
m m
= A sin ω t + B cos ω t
i.e. x (t ) A sin ω t + B cos ω t

= (3.18)
with A = i ( C1 − C 2 ) and B = C1 + C 2 as real numbers.
Initial conditions:
x (= = x0
t 0) (3.19a)
x (= = x 0
t 0) (3.19b)
Applying Eq.(3.19a) into Eq.(3.18) yields
x (0) = A × 0 + B ×1 = x0 (3.20)
i.e. B = x0 (3.21)
4
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Differentiating Eq.(3.18) yields
=x (t ) A ω cos ω t − B ω sin ω t (3.22)
Applying Eq.(3.19b) into Eq.(3.22) yields
x (t )= A ω ×1.0 − B ω × 0= x 0 (3.23)
x 0
i.e. A= (3.24)
ω
Thus, the equation of motion Eq.(3.18) can be rewritten as
x 0
=x (t ) sin ω t + x0 cos ω t (3.25)
ω
Figure 4.3.2  Undamped free vibration of a SDOF system

subject to initial displacement x0 and initial velocity x 0
Natural period of vibration, T
2π
T= (3.26)
ω
5
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4.3.2 INTERPRETATION OF THE SOLUTION
Let A = X cos φ and B = X sin φ (3.27)
where X is the amplitude of free vibration

φ is the phase angle
Applying Eq.(3.27) into Eq.(3.18) yields
=x (t ) A sin ω t + B cos ω t
= X cos φ sin ω t + X sin φ cos ω t
= X ( cos φ sin ω t + sin φ cos ω t ) (3.28)
= X sin (ω t + φ )
i.e. =x (t ) X sin (ω t + φ ) (3.29)
Eq.(3.27) also yields
( X cos φ ) + ( X sin φ)
2 2
A2=
+ B2 = X2 (3.30)
 x 
2
or X= A +B =
2 2
x0 +  0 
2
(3.31)
ω
B x0 x ω
and tan φ= = = 0 (3.32)
A x 0 / ω x 0
 x0 ω 
or φ = tan −1   (3.33)
 x 0 
Natural frequency f : the number of cycles of oscillation per unit time
ω 1
=
f = in cycles per sec (cps) or Hz (3.34)
2π T
6
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Figure 4.3.3  Simple harmonic motion illustrated by a rotating vector
Displacement of the mass at any time
=x (t ) X sin (ω t + φ ) (3.29)
Initial displacement: x0 = X sin φ

Maximum displacement: xmax/min = ± X for sin (ω t + φ ) =
±1
Velocity of the mass at any time
=x (t ) X ω cos (ω t + φ ) (3.35)
Initial velocity: x 0 = X ω cos φ

Maximum velocity: x max/ min = ± X ω for cos (ω t + φ ) =
±1
Acceleration of the mass at any time
 − X ω 2 sin (ω t + φ )
x (t ) = (3.36)
Initial acceleration: 
x0 = - X ω2 sin φ
Maximum acceleration: 
xmax/ min = ± X ω2 for sin (ω t + φ ) =
1
7
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Figure 4.3.4  Phase difference between displacement x(t), velocity

x (t ) and acceleration 
x (t ) for simple harmonic motion
8
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXAMPLE 4.3.1
Consider a simply supported beam of Example 4.2.2 shown again

shown Figure 4.3.5. The beam supports a concentrated weight W at
midspan, and its natural circular frequency is 29.3966 rad/sec. If the
midspan of the beam is displaced downward from its static equilibrium
position through a distance of 50 mm and suddenly released with an
upward velocity of 75 mm/sec, determine
(a) the natural frequency f

(b) the natural period T
(c) the maximum midspan displacement xmax
(d) the maximum midspan velocity x max
(e) the maximum midspan acceleration  xmax
(f) the phase angle φ .
Plot the resulting displacement, velocity and acceleration as function of

time in the first second.
Figure 4.3.5  Simply supported beam of Example 4.2.2
9
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The differential equation of motion is given by Eq.(3.2)

k

x+ x = 0 (1)
m
with initial conditions x(0) = x0 = 0.05 m and x (0) = x 0 = -0.075 m/sec.
(a) The natural frequency f is given by Eq.(3.34) as

ω 29.3966 rad/sec
=f = = 4.6786 Hz (2)
2π 2 π rad
(b) The natural period T is given by Eq.(3.26) as

1 2π 2 π rad
= =
T = = 0.2137 sec (3)
f ω 29.3966 rad/sec
(c) The displacement as a function of time x(t) is given by Eq.(3.29) as

= x (t ) X sin (ω t + φ ) (4)
The maximum midspan displacement xmax is determined as

 x 
2
 −0.075 
2
xmax =
X=x0 +  0  =0.052 +  2
 =
0.0501 m (5)
ω  29.3966 
(d) The velocity as a function of time x (t ) is given by Eq.(3.35) as

= x (t ) X ω cos (ω t + φ ) (6)
The maximum midspan velocity x max is determined as

Xω =
x max = 0.0501× 29.3966 = 1.4717 m/sec (7)
(e) The acceleration as a function of time 

x (t ) is given by Eq.(3.36) as
 − X ω 2 sin (ω t + φ )
x (t ) = (8)
The maximum midspan acceleration 

xmax is determined as
 X ω2 =
xmax = 0.0501× 29.39662 = 43.2643 m/sec (9)
10
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(f) The phase angle φ is given by Eq.(3.33) as

−1  x0 ω  −1  0.05 × 29.3966 
= φ tan=   tan  
 x 0   −0.075 
(10)
 19.5978  −1
= tan  = =
 272.92 ° 4.7634 rad
 −1 
0.06
0.04
Displacement (m)
0.02
0.00
-0.02
-0.04
-0.06
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Time (sec)
1.5
1.0
Velocity (m/sec)
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Time (sec)
60
Acceleration (m/sec )
40
2
20
-20
-40
-60
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Time (sec)
Figure 4.3.6  Free vibration response for beam of Example 4.3.1

Q.E.D.
11
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EXAMPLE 4.3.2
A 6.8 kg mass is suspended by a linear spring. The mass receives an

impact such that its motion begins with an initial velocity but no initial
displacement. In the ensuring motion, the natural period of the system
is measured to be 0.25 sec, and the displacement amplitude of the
system is 50 mm.
Determine
(a) the spring constant for the system, k
(b) the initial velocity imparted to the mass, x 0
(c) the displacement, velocity and acceleration of the mass at time t
= 0.63 sec.
The displacement, velocity and acceleration as a function of time, x(t),

x (t ) and 
x (t ) , are given by Eqs.(3.29), (3.35) and (3.36) respectively as
=x (t ) X sin (ω t + φ ) (1)
=x (t ) X ω cos (ω t + φ ) (2)
 − X ω 2 sin (ω t + φ )
x (t ) = (3)
The vibration amplitude X is given by Eq.(3.31) as
 x 
2
=
X x0 +  0  = 50 mm
2
(4)
ω
The natural circular frequency ω is determined from Eq.(3.26) as
2π 2π
ω
= = = 25.1327 rad / sec (5)
T 0.25
(a) From the expression for natural circular frequency ω
12
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
k
ω= (6)
m
the spring constant k can be determined as
=k ω=
2
m 25.1327 2 ×=
6.8 4295.25 N/m (7)
(b) By noting x0 = 0, the initial velocity x 0 can be determined from

Eq.(4) as
X ω 50 × 25.1327 =
x 0 == 1256.64 mm/s (8)
(c) The phase angle φ is given by Eq.(3.33) as
 x0 ω  −1  0 × 25.1327 
=φ tan −1 =


 tan  =  =
tan −1
( 0 ) 0 rad (9)
 0 
x  1256.64 
Thus, the required displacement, velocity and acceleration at t = 0.63

sec can be determined using Eqs.(1) to (3) as
50 sin ( 25.1327 × 0.63 + 0 ) =

x (0.63) = −6.267 mm (10)
x (0.63) =50 × 25.1327 cos ( 25.1327 × 0.63 + 0 )

(11)
= 1246.73 mm / sec

x (0.63) =−50 × 25.1327 2 sin ( 25.1327 × 0.63 + 0 )
(12)
= 3958.37 mm / sec 2
13
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4.3.3 EQUIVALENT STIFFNESS

Equivalent stiffness ke for springs in parallel
(a) Original system (b) Equivalent system
(c) FBD of original system (d) FBD of equivalent system
Figure 4.3.7  Springs in parallel
The equilibrium equation for the free body diagrams in original two-
spring system and equivalent system yields
ke ∆ = k1 ∆ + k2 ∆ = (k1 + k2) ∆ = W = m g (3.37)
or ke = k1 + k2 (3.38)
In general, the equivalent stiffness for n springs in parallel ke is given by
n
k = ∑ ki (3.39)
i=1
14
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Equivalent stiffness ke for springs in series
Figure 4.3.8  System with springs in series
The total displacement of the mass in the two-spring system is given by
∆ = ∆1 + ∆2 (3.40)
W W W
or = + (3.41)
ke k1 k2
1 1 1
i.e. = + (3.42)
ke k1 k2
In general, the equivalent stiffness for n springs in series, ke, can be

determined from
n
1 1
=∑ (3.43)
ke i=1 ki
1
or ke = n (3.44)
1
∑i=1 ki
15
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Equivalent stiffness ke for cantilever beam with tip load
Figure 4.3.9  Cantilever beam with tip load
The deflection at the loading tip
F L3
∆= (3.45)
3E I
The equivalent stiffness for cantilever beam with tip load, ke, can be
determined from
F 3E I
k= = (3.46)
e
∆ L3
Some of commonly encountered cases of equivalent stiffness are

summarised in Table 4.3.1.
Table 4.3.1  Equivalent spring constant
16
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Table 4.3.1  Equivalent spring constant (cont.)
17
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
18
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
19
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
For systems with spring elements both in parallel and in series, as

shown in Figure 4.3.10, the equivalent stiffness ke can be calculated as
Figure 4.3.10  System with springs

in parallel and in series
1 1 1 1  1 1 
= + = + + 
ke ( ke )p ( ke )s ( k1 + k2 )  k3 k4  (3.47)
1
or ke = (3.48)
 1   1   1 
 + + 
k +
 1 2   k 3   k4 
k
20
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXAMPLE 4.3.3
For the system shown in Figure 4.3.11, determine

(a) the differential equation of the motion of the mass m
(b) the natural circular frequency of vibration of the mass m .
Figure 4.3.11  System of Example 4.3.3
Springs k1 and k2 in parallel to each other and in series with spring k3.
The equivalent stiffness of the system ke can be determined as
1 1 1 1 1 k + k + k3
= + = + = 1 2
ke ( ke )p ( ke )s ( k1 + k2 ) k3 k3 ( k1 + k2 )
(1)
k3 ( k1 + k2 )
i.e. ke = (2)
k1 + k2 + k3
(a) The equation motion is expressed as

k

x+ e x = 0 (3)
m
Substituting Eq.(2) into Eq.(3) yields

k3 ( k1 + k2 )

x+ x=
0 (4)
m ( k1 + k2 + k3 )
(b) The natural circular frequency ω is calculated as

ke k3 ( k1 + k2 )
=ω =
m ( k1 + k2 + k3 )
rad/sec (5)
m
Q.E.D
21
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXAMPLE 4.3.4
A spherical container of weight W is supported at the tip of a cantilever

beam with flexibility rigidity EI and length L as shown in Figure
4.3.12. The container is also supported by a spring of stiffness k. By
neglecting the mass of the beam and the spring, determine
(a) the equivalent spring stiffness for this system ke
(b) the natural circular frequency of vibration.
Figure 4.3.12  Cantilever beam of Example 4.3.4
(a) The equivalent stiffness of the system ke can be determined as
3 E I k L3 + 3 E I
ke =
k + kbeam =
k+ = 3 (1)
L3 L
(b) The natural circular frequency is expressed as
ke k L3 + 3 E I W
ω
= = (2)
m L3 g
ω=
(
g k L3 + 3 E I )
i.e. rad/sec (3)
W L3
Q.E.D
22
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXAMPLE 4.3.5
For the steel shear frame structure shown in Figure 4.3.13, determine
the natural circular frequency of vibration for oscillations in the
horizontal direction. The horizontal girder is assumed to be infinitely
rigid with respect to the column, and it supports a total dead weight W
of 135 kN uniformly distributed along its length. Neglect the mass of
column that bend about their strong axis.
W = 135 kN
4.5 m UC203×203×46 UC203×203×71 UC203×203×46
1.5 m
6m 6m
Three columns represent springs in parallel.
For UC 203×203×46, Ixx = 4565 cm4; and for UC 203×203×71,

Ixx = 7634 cm3. E = 210 GPa for steel.
For UC 203×203×46, the transverse stiffness k1 is
3 E I 3 × 210 ×109 × 4565 ×10−8

=
k1 = = 315605 N/m (1)
L3 4.53
For UC 203×203×71, the transverse stiffness k2 is
12 E I 12 × 210 ×109 × 7634 ×10−8

=k2 = = 890633 N/m (2)
L3 63
23
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The equivalent stiffness of the system ke can be determined as
ke =2 k1 + k2 =2 × 315605 + 890633 =1521843 N/m (3)
The mass m is calculated as
W 135 ×103
=
m = = 13761.47 kg (4)
g 9.81
The natural circular frequency ω is now determined as
ke 1521843
ω
= = = 10.516 rad/sec (5)
m 13761.47
Q.E.D
4.3.4 RAYLEIGH METHOD

Energy Conservation:
In a conservative system in motion, the total mechanical energy,
the sum of the kinetic energy T and the potential energy V, is
constant at any instant of time and its time derivative is zero, i.e.
T + V = Total mechanical energy = constant (3.49)
d
and (T + V ) = 0 (3.50)
dt
Kinetic energy T : Due to the velocity of the mass
Potential energy V :
Due to the position of the mass or the strain energy of the spring
when it sustains deformation
For any two instantaneous times, Eq.(3.49) can be rewritten as
T1 + V1 = T2 + V2 = constant (3.51)
24
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
If T1 and V1 are considered at the instant of time when the mass is

passing through its static equilibrium position, then there is no elastic
deformation or strain energy in the spring, which yields V1 = 0.
If T2 and V2 are considered at the instant of time corresponding to the

maximum displacement of the spring, the velocity of the mass at this
time is zero, which yields T2 = 0.
Thus, for these two instantaneous times, Eq.(3.51) becomes
T1 + 0 = 0 + V2 = constant (3.52)
For a system undergoing harmonic motion, T1 and V2 are maximum

values, i.e.
Tmax = Vmax (3.53)
This is called Rayleigh method, which leads directly to the calculation of

natural frequency to a conservative system.
EXAMPLE 4.3.6
A simply supported beam of length L and flexural rigidity EI supports

a mass m as shown in Figure 4.3.14. The mass of the beam is negligible
with respect to the mass m. Determine the natural circular frequency
of vertical vibration of the beam-mass system by the Rayleigh method.
Figure 4.3.14  Simply supported beam of Example 4.3.6
25
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The maximum potential energy Vmax is given by

1
Vmax = ke xmax 2 (1)
2
The maximum kinetic energy Tmax is given by

1
Tmax = m x max 2 (2)
2
From Table 4.3.1, the equivalent stiffness ke is given by

3E I L
ke = 2 2 (3)
a b
For harmonic motion, the displacement and velocity are given by

Eqs.(3.29) and (3.35) as
= x (t ) X sin (ω t + φ ) (4)
=x (t ) X ω cos (ω t + φ ) (5)
so xmax = X (6)
and x max = X ω (7)
Substituting Eq.(6) into Eqs.(1) and (2) yields

1
Vmax = ke X 2 (8)
2
1
and Tmax = m X 2ω 2 (9)
2
Letting Eq.(8) be equal to Eq.(9) yields
ke 3E I L
ω
= = (10)
m a 2 b2m
Q.E.D
26
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXAMPLE 4.3.7
A uniform rigid rod of mass m and length L, as shown in Figure 4.3.15,

is restrained by two translational springs of stiffness k1 and k2 and by a
rotational spring of stiffness kR. Determine the natural circular
frequency of angular oscillation of the rob by the Rayleigh method.
Assume small angles of rotation, θ .
Figure 4.3.15  Uniform rigid rod of Example 4.3.7
1 1 1
Vmax =kR θ max 2 + k1 ( Lθ max ) + k2 ( Lθ max )
2 2
2 2 2
(1)
=
1
2
(
kR + k1 L2 + k2 L2 θ max 2 )
1m 
( )
L 2
Tmax = ∫   x θ max dx
0 2 L 
1m  2 L 2 m L2  2 (2)
= =  θ max ∫0 x dx θ max
2 L  6
27
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
For harmonic motion, the rotational displacement θ (t ) and velocity

θ(t ) are given by Eqs.(3.29) and (3.35) as
θ (t ) β sin (ω t + φ )
= (3)
and=θ(t ) β ω cos (ω t + φ ) (4)
where β is the amplitude of rotational vibration.
Thus, θ max = β (5)
and θmax = β ω (6)
Substituting Eq.(6) into Eqs.(1) and (2) yields
Vmax =
1
2
(
kR + k1 L2 + k2 L2 β 2 ) (7)
m L2 2 2
and Tmax = β ω (8)
6
Letting Eq.(7) be equal to Eq.(8) yields
ω = 2 (
3 kR + k1 L2 + k2 L2 )
2 (9)
mL
ω=
(
3 kR + k1 L2 + k2 L2 )
i.e. (10)
m L2
Q.E.D
28
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Application of the Rayleigh method on structures with

distributed mass and distributed stiffness properties
Consider the beam shown in Figure 4.3.16, with flexural rigidity EI and
uniform mass per length equal to m = m / L .
Figure 4.3.16  Flexible beam with uniformly distributed mass

1 L 2 1 2 L 2
2 ∫0 2 ∫0
= Tmax = 
y dm ω y dm (3.54)

1 L
Vmax = ∫ M dθ (3.55)
2 0
where M is the bending moment and θ is the slope of the elastic curve
as shown in Figure 4.3.17.
The following relationships exist as

dy dy
θ
= ≈ (3.56)
ds dx
and ρ dθ= ds ≈ dx (3.57)
Eqs.(3.57) and (3.56) yields

1 dθ d 2 y
= = (3.58)
ρ dx dx 2
29
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 4.3.17  Differential segment of beam elastic curve
For conventional beam theory, the follow relationship exists

1 M
= (3.59)
ρ EI
Noting Eq.(3.58) yields

dx
dθ = (3.60)
ρ
Combining Eqs.(3.58), (3.59) and (3.60) into Eq.(3.55) yields

2
1 L M 1 L M2 1 L  d2 y 
2 ∫0 ρ 2 ∫0 EI 2 ∫0
=Vmax = dx = dx EI  2  dx (3.61)
 dx 
Equating Tmax given by Eq.(3.54) with Vmax given by Eq.(3.61) and

solving for ω2 yields
2
L  d2 y 
∫ 0
EI  2  dx
 dx 
ω = 2
L (3.62)
∫ 0
y 2 dm
The deflection y must be known as a function of x !!!
30
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXAMPLE 4.3.8
The displacement function representing the static deflection of a

uniformly loaded cantilever beam is give as
y( x) =
(
A x 4 − 4 L3 x + 3 L4 )
3 L4
Determine the natural circular frequency of the cantilever beam shown

in Figure 4.3.18 by the Rayleigh method. The beam has uniform mass
per length m and flexural rigidity EI.
y=
(
A x 4 − 4 L3 x + 3 L4 )
(1)
3 L4
dy A 4 x − 12 L
=
3 3
( )
(2)
dx 3 L4
d 2 y 4 Ax 2
= (3)
dx 2 L4
31
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Eq.(1) satisfies the following geometric boundary conditions:
( y )x=L = 0 (4)
 dy 
  =0 (5)
 dx x=L
 d2 y 
( )x=0
=M =
E I  2 0 (6)
 dx  x=0
d2 y
Substituting the expressions for y and given by Eqs.(1) and (3) into
dx 2
Eq.(3.62) yields
2 2
 d2y  L L  4 Ax 2 
∫0 EI  dx 2  dx ∫ 0
EI  4  dx
 L 
=ω 2
=
( ) 
L 2
∫ y dm  A x 4 − 4 L3 x + 3 L4
2
L
0
∫ 0

 3 L4 
dm
 
L
 144 E I 
=
∫ 0
x 4 dx

 m 
∫ (x )
L 2
4
− 4 L3 x + 3 L4 dx (7)
0
L
 144 E I 
=
∫ 0
x 4 dx

 m 
∫ (x )
L
8
+ 16 L x + 9 L − 8 L3 x 5 − 24 L7 x + 6 L4 x 4 dx
6 2 8
0
 144 E I   L5 / 5  162 E I
=  =
 m   416 L /180  13 m L
9 4
162 E I EI
or =ω = 4
3.53 (8)
13 m L m L4
Q.E.D
32
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.3.5 PROBLEMS
4.3.1 A mass of 10 kg is attached to a linear spring. The mass is impacted such that
the motion is instigated with an initial velocity with no initial displacement. In
the resulting motion, the period is determined to be 0.2 sec and the amplitude of
vibration is 60 mm. Determine
(a) the spring constant, and
(b) the initial velocity.
4.3.2 A simple spring-mass system undergoing free vibration reaches a maximum

acceleration of 1.25 m/s2 and exhibits a natural frequency of 100 Hz. Determine
(a) the amplitude of vibration, and
(b) the maximum velocity of the mass.
4.3.3 A mass m is attached to a linear spring of stiffness of k. The natural period of

free vibration is observed to be 0.35 sec. When a mass of 1.0 kg is added to the
system, the period increases by 10%. Determine the mass m and the stiffness k
for the original system.
4.3.4 The maximum velocity attained by the mass in a simple spring-mass system is
0.5 m/sec, and the natural period of free vibration is 1.5 sec. If the mass was
released with an initial displacement of 0.075 m, determine
(a) the amplitude of free vibration,
(b) the maximum of acceleration of the mass,
(c) the initial velocity, and
(d) the phase angle.
4.3.5 The simple 6 m long beam shown in Figure P4.3.5 supports a weight of 4.5 kN.
The midspan of the beam is displaced downward 0.04 m with an initial velocity
of 0.12 m/s in the same direction. Assume E = 210 GPa and I = 76000 cm4.
Determine
(a) the natural period of vibration,
(b) the maximum displacement of the mass,
(c) the maximum velocity of the mass,
(d) the maximum of acceleration of the mass, and
(e) the phase angle.
W = 4.5 kN
3m 3m
Figure P4.3.5
33
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.3.6 The cantilever beam shown in Figure P4.3.6 is given an initial displacement at
its free end of 0.05 m with a velocity of 0.075 m/sec in the same direction.
Assume E = 210 GPa, I = 104000 cm4, L = 3 m and W =3.5 kN. Determine
(a) the natural frequency of free vibration,
(b) the maximum displacement, velocity and acceleration of the mass, and
(c) the phase angle.
W = 3.5 kN
3m
Figure P4.3.6
4.3.7 A 45 kg body is sustained by a linear spring. The body is subjected to an impact

that results in motion with an initial velocity but no initial displacement. In the
ensuring motion the period is measured to be 0.15 sec and the amplitude of
oscillation is 0.04 m. Determine
(a) the spring constant,
(b) the initial velocity of the mass, and
(c) the velocity and acceleration of the mass at t = 0.45 sec.
4.3.8 A 25 kg weight is attached to a linear spring. The body is subjected to an initial

velocity of 0.05 m/sec with no initial displacement. The natural period of
vibration is observed to be 0.3 sec. Determine
(a) the spring constant,
(b) the amplitude of vibration, and
(c) the velocity and acceleration of the mass at t = 0.5 sec.
4.3.9 The beam and springs supporting the weight W which are shown in Figure
P4.3.9 are assumed to be massless. The following values are given as: L = 2.5 m,
EI = 300 kNm2, W = 13.5 kN, and k = 350 kN/m. The weight W has an initial
displacement of 0.025 m and an initial velocity of 0.5 m/sec. Determine
(a) the natural period of the system, and
(b) the displacement and velocity at t = 1.5 sec.
L
x
Figure P4.3.9
34
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.3.10 The beam fixed at both ends carries a concentrated weight W at its centre, as
shown in Figure P4.3.10. The following values are given as: L = 3 m, EI = 3000
kNm2 and W = 22.5 kN, with an initial displacement of 0.0125 m and an initial
velocity of 0.4 m/sec. By neglecting the mass of the beam, determine
(a) the natural frequency of the fixed beam, and
(b) the displacement, velocity and acceleration of the weight at t = 2 sec.
W EI
L/2 L/2
x
Figure P4.3.10
4.3.11 Consider the simple pendulum of weight W as shown in Figure P4.3.11. The
initial angular displacement and initial angular velocity are θ0 and θ0 ,
respectively. Assume the angle θ is small. If the cord length is L, determine the
motion of the pendulum and its natural circular frequency.
Note: A simple pendulum is a particle of concentrated weight that oscillates in a

vertical arc and it is supported by a weightless cord. The only forces acting are
those of gravity and the cord tension, i.e. frictional resistance is neglected.
W
Figure P4.3.11
4.3.12 Assuming small oscillations and neglecting

the mass of the rod, write the differential
equation of motion for the inverted
pendulum shown in Figure P4.3.12 and
determine its natural frequency.
Figure P4.3.12
35
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.3.13 For the systems shown in Figure P4.3.13, determine

(a) the equivalent stiffness,
(b) the equation of motion, and
(c) the natural frequency of vibration.
Figure P4.3.13
36
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.3.14 For the systems shown in Figure P4.3.14, determine

(a) the equivalent stiffness,
(b) the equation of motion, and
(c) the natural frequency of vibration.
Figure P4.3.14
37
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.3.15 A mass m is attached to the tip of a cantilever beam of length L, also with mass
m which is uniformly distributed over its entire length as shown in Figure
P4.3.15. The flexural rigidity of the beam is EI. The static deflection curve for
the beam is y(x) = (A/2L3)(3Lx2 - x3). Determine the natural frequency of the
beam by the Rayleigh method.
Figure P4.3.15
4.3.16 The fixed-end beam shown in Figure P4.3.16 has flexural rigidity EI and a total
mass m which is uniformly distributed over its entire length L. The static
deflection curve for the beam is y(x) = 16A(x/L)2[1 - (x/L)]2. Determine the
natural frequency of the beam by the Rayleigh method.
Figure P4.3.16
4.3.17 Repeat Problem 4.3.16 using a static deflection curve for the beam given by
y(x) = A [1 – cos (πx/2L)].
4.3.18 Repeat Problem 4.3.16 using a static deflection curve for the beam given by
y(x) = (4A x2 / L3)(3L – 4x), x ≤ L/2.
4.3.19 A pin-ended column of length L is subject to an axial P as

shown in Figure P4.3.19. The mass of the column m is
uniformly distributed along the length. By the Rayleigh
method, determine the natural frequency of the column and
maximum value of P for stability. Assume flexural rigidity EI
and assume a static deflection curve y(x) = A sin (π x/L).
Figure P4.3.19
4.3.20 Repeat Problem 4.3.19 using a static deflection curve for the
column given by
y ( x) =
(
A x 4 − 4 L3 x + 3 L4
.
)
3 L4
38
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

N mm
4.3.1 (a) k = 9869.60 (b) x0 = 1884.96
m sec
mm
=
4.3.2 (a) X 3.1663 ×10−3 mm (b) xmax = 1.9894
sec
N
4.3.3 m = 4.7619 kg k = 1534.63
m
m
4.3.4 (a) X = 0.1194 m (b) 
xmax = 2.0944
sec 2
m
(c) x0 = 0.3890 =
(d) φ 0.6794
= rad 38.9262°
sec
4.3.5 (a) T = 0.0226 sec (b) xmax= X= 0.040002 m
m m
(c) xmax = 11.1230 (d) 
xmax = 3092.87
sec sec 2
(e) φ 1.5600
= = rad 89.3819°
rad
4.3.6 (a) ω = 260.7988
sec
m m
(b) xmax= X= 0.050001 m xmax = 13.0402 
xmax = 3400.86
sec sec 2
(c) φ 1.5650
= = rad 89.6705°
N m
4.3.7 (a) k = 78956.8352 (b) x0 = 1.6755
m sec
m m
(c) x (0.45) = 1.6755 
x(0.45) ≈ 0
sec sec 2
N
4.3.8 (a) k = 10966.2271 (b)=X 2.3873 ×10−3 m
m
m m
(c) x (0.5) = −0.0250 
x(0.5) = 0.9069
sec sec 2
4.3.9 (a) T = 0.2678 sec
m m
(b) x(1.5) = −0.03277 x (1.5) = −0.05281
sec sec
rad
4.3.10 (a) ω = 96.4434
sec
m m
−7.8814 ×10−3 m
(c) x(2.0) = x (2.0) = 1.0176 
x(2.0) = 73.3072
sec sec 2
g rad
θ (t ) β sin(ω t + φ ) rad
4.3.11 = ω=
L sec
k a 2 − mg L rad
4.3.12 ω=
mL2 sec
39
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(k1 + k2 ) (k3 + k4 ) (k1 + k2 ) (k3 + k4 )

4.3.13 (a) ke = 
x+ x=
0
k1 + k2 + k3 + k4 m (k1 + k2 + k3 + k4 )
(k1 + k2 ) (k3 + k4 ) rad
ω=
m (k1 + k2 + k3 + k4 ) sec
k1 + 4k2 k + 4k2 rad
(b) ke= k1 + 4k2 x= 0 ω= 1

x+
m m sec
k + 9k2 k + 9k 2 k + 9k2 rad
(c) ke = 1 
x+ 1 x= 0 ω= 1
9 9m 9 m sec
k1 k2 k6 (k3 + k4 + k5 )
ke =
(d) (k1 k2 + k2 k6 + k1 k6 ) (k3 + k4 + k5 ) + k1 k2 k6
k1 k2 k6 (k3 + k4 + k5 )

x+ x=0
m [(k1 k2 + k2 k6 + k1 k6 ) (k3 + k4 + k5 ) + k1 k2 k6 ]
k1 k2 k6 (k3 + k4 + k5 ) rad
ω=
m [(k1 k2 + k2 k6 + k1 k6 ) (k3 + k4 + k5 ) + k1 k2 k6 ] sec
k1 k2 a 2 k1 k2 a 2
k1 k2 a 2 rad
4.3.14 (a) ke = x =
x+
0 ω =
k1 a 2 + k2 L2 m (k1 a 2 + k2 L2 ) m (k1 a 2 + k2 L2 ) sec
A E (2 L1 + L2 ) k A E (2 L1 + L2 ) k
(b) ke = 
x+ x= 0
A E (2 L1 + L2 ) + k L1 L2 m [ A E (2 L1 + L2 ) + k L1 L2 ]
A E (2 L1 + L2 ) k rad
ω=
m [ A E (2 L1 + L2 ) + k L1 L2 ] sec
256 E I k 256 E I k
4.3.14 (c) ke = 
x+ x=
0
256 E I k + 3 k L2 m [256 E I k + 3 k L2 ]
256 E I k rad
ω=
m [256 E I k + 3 k L ] sec 2
15 E I + k L3 15 E I + k L3 15 E I + k L3 rad
(d) ke = 
x+ x=
0 ω=
L3 m L3 m L3 sec
3 E I A + 2 mg L2 rad E I rad
4.3.15 ω = 0.8996 = 3
ω 1.5581 3
(if EIA >> mg L2 )
mL A sec m L sec
E I rad E I rad
4.3.16 ω = 22.4499 4.3.17 ω = 1.5752
m L3 sec m L3 sec
E I rad E I rad
4.3.18 ω = 22.7359 4.3.19 ω = 9.8696
m L3 sec m L3 sec
E I rad
4.3.20 ω = 9.8767
m L3 sec
40
Section 4.4  Damped Free Vibration
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

SECTION 4.4  DAMPTED FREE VIBRATION
Damping:
 The process of energy dissipation in a vibrating system
Forms of damping:
 Viscous damping – most popular one and easily simulated
mathematically
 Coulomb (or dry friction) damping
 Hysteresis damping
4.4.1 FREE VIBRATION WITH VISCOUS DAMPING

Damping force on the mass for viscous damping:
FD = c x (4.1)
where x is the velocity of the mass, and c is the viscous damping

coefficient.
Figure 4.4.1  Viscously damped SDOF system
1
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Equation of motion for damped system in free vibration with

F(t) = 0:
m 
x + c x + k x = 0 (4.2)
Rearranging Eq.(4.2) gives a differential equation as:
c k

x+ x + x =
0 (4.3)
m m
A solution for displacement of the mass can be assumed as
x ( t ) = C e st (4.4)
which gives the auxiliary equation for Eq.(4.4) as:
c k
s2 + s+ =0 (4.5)
m m
with the roots
1  c k 
2 2
c  c  c  k
s1,2 = - ±   −4 =- ±   −  (4.6)
2 m m m 2m  2m   m 
 
2
 c  k
In particular, for   −  =0 (4.7)
 2m   m 
c
or s1 = s2 = − (4.8)
2m
c k
we can get = = ω2 (4.9)
2m m
or c = 2mω (4.10)
2
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
x (t ) = ( A + B t ) e - ωt
( A + B t ) e -(c/2m)t = (4.11)
Let the critical damping constant Cc be
Cc = 2mω (4.12)
Eq.(4.6) can be rewritten as
 
( )
2
 c  c 
s1,2 = - ±   − 1  ω = -ζ ± ζ 2 − 1 ω (4.13)
 Cc  Cc  
 
The damping factor (damping ratio) ζ is defined as
c c
ζ = = (4.14)
Cc 2 m ω
Cases for damped vibration
< 1 underdamped

ζ = 1 critically damped (4.15)
> 1
 overdamped
3
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.4.1.1 Case 1: Underdamped Vibration (c < Cc or ζ < 1)
The roots of the auxiliary equation represented by Eq.(4.6) are both

imaginary and are given by
(
s1,2 = -ζ ± i 1 − ζ 2 ω ) (4.16)
Thus, we have
x (t ) = C1 e s1 t + C 2 e s2 t
= C1 e
(-ζ+i 1−ζ )ωt + C e (-ζ−i 1−ζ )ωt
2 2
1−ζ ωt
= C1 e - ζωt e i + C 2 e - ζωt e − i 1−ζ 2 ωt
2
= e - ζωt C1 e i ( 1−ζ 2 ωt
+ C2 e −i 1−ζ 2 ωt
)
= e - ζωt ((C + C ) cos 1 − ζ ω t + (C − C ) sin
1 2
2
1 2 1− ζ 2ω t )
=e - ζωt ( A sin 1 − ζ ω t + B cos 1 − ζ ω t ) 2 2
i.e. x (t ) = (
e - ζωt A sin 1 − ζ 2 ω t + B cos 1 − ζ 2 ω t ) (4.17)
From A = X cos φ and B = X sin φ we have
(
x (t ) e - ζωt A sin 1 − ζ 2 ω t + B cos 1 − ζ 2 ω t
= )
= X e - ζωt cos φ sin 1 − ζ 2 ω t + sin φ cos 1 − ζ 2 ω t ( )
= X e - ζωt sin ( 1− ζ 2ω t + φ )
= X e - ζωt sin (ωd t + φ )
i.e. =x (t ) X e - ζωt sin (ωd t + φ ) (4.18)
4
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
where X is the maximum amplitude of free vibration

φ is the phase angle of the damped oscillations
ωd is the damped natural circular frequency, defined as
ω=
d 1− ζ 2ω (4.19)
Figure 4.4.2  Damped natural frequency as a function

of undamped natural frequency and damping ratio

x (t ) = e - ζωt ( A sin ωd t + B cos ωd t ) (4.20)
Initial conditions:
x (= = x0
t 0) (4.21a)
x (= = x 0
t 0) (4.21b)
Applying Eq.(4.21a) into Eq.(4.20) yields

x (0) =1× ( A × 0 + B ×1) = x0 (4.22)
i.e. B = x0 (4.23)
Differentiating Eq.(4.20) yields

x (t ) e - ζωt (−ζω ) ( A sin ωd t + B cos ωd t )
=
(4.24)
+ e - ζωt ωd ( A cos ωd t - B sin ωd t )
5
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Applying Eq.(4.21b) into Eq.(4.24) yields
−ζ ω B + A ωd =
x (t ) = −ζ ω x0 + A ωd =
x 0 (4.25)
x + ζ ω x0
so A= 0 (4.26)
ωd
 x + ζ ω x0 
x (t ) = e - ζωt  0 sin ωd t + x0 cos ωd t  (4.27)
 ωd 
The amplitude X and phase angle φ can now be obtained as
( x + ζ ω x0 )
2
X= A2 + B 2 = x2+ 0 (4.28)
0
ωd 2
B x0 x0 ωd
tan φ= = =
and
A ( x 0 + ζ ω x0 ) / ωd x 0 + ζ ω x0
(4.29)
 x0 ωd 
or φ = tan −1   (4.30)
 x 0 + ζ ω x0 
Figure 4.4.3  Free vibration response of underdamped system (ζ < 1.0)
6
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.4.1.2 Case 2: Critical Vibration (c = Cc or ζ = 1)
) ( A + B t ) e - ωt
x (t= (4.11)
For initial conditions: x (= = x0 and

t 0) x (= = x 0
t 0)
we have A = x0 (4.31)
Differentiating Eq.(4.11) and letting t = 0 yields
(
x (0) =e - ωt (−ω ) ( A + B t ) + e - ωt B ) t=0
=−ω A + B =x 0 (4.32)
so B =x 0 + ω A =x 0 + ω x0 (4.33)
x (t ) =  x0 + ( x 0 + ω x0 ) t  e - ωt (4.34)
Figure 4.4.4  Free vibration response for system with critical

damping (ζ = 1.0)
7
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.4.1.3 Case 3: Overdamped Vibration (c > Cc or ζ > 1)
The roots of the auxiliary equation are both real and are given by
(
s1,2 = -ζ ± ζ 2 − 1 ω ) (4.35)
From ζ > 1 ⇒ ( -ζ ± ζ 2 −1 < 0 ) (decaying exponential indices)
Thus, we have
= =
x (t ) Ae + Be s1 t s2 t
Ae
(-ζ+ )
ζ 2 −1 ωt
+ Be
(-ζ− )
ζ 2 −1 ωt
(4.36)
For initial conditions: x (= = x0 and x (=

t 0) = x 0 ,
t 0) we have
A=
(
x 0 + ζ + ζ 2 − 1 ω x0 ) (4.37)
2ω ζ 2 −1
and B=
(
− x 0 − ζ − ζ 2 − 1 ω x0 ) (4.38)
2ω ζ 2 −1
Eqs.(4.37) and (4.38) are left for students to prove.
Figure 4.4.5  Free vibration response of overdamped system (ζ > 1.0)
8
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXAMPLE 4.4.1
The damped spring-mass system shown in Figure 4.4.1 has a mass m =

1.0 kg, stiffness k = 2 kN/m, and a damping coefficient c = 0.02 kN-
sec/m. If the mass is subject to an initial displacement of x(0) = 0.04 m
and suddenly released with zero initial velocity, determine the
amplitude of free vibration of the mass after 5, 10 and 20 oscillations,
and evaluate the response using Eq.(4.18).
The undamped natural frequency ω is calculated as

k 2.0 ×1000
ω == = = 2000 44.7214 rad/sec (1)
m 1.0
The critical damping coefficient Cc is calculated from Eq.(4.12) as

Cc =2 m ω =2 ×1.0 × 44.7214
(2)
= 89.4427
= N-sec/m 0.0894 kN-sec/m
The system damping factor ζ is then calculated from Eq.(4.14) as

c 0.02
ζ =
= = 0.2236 (3)
Cc 0.08944
The damped natural circular frequency is evaluated from Eq.(4.19) as

ωd =1 − ζ 2 ω =1 − 0.22362 × 44.7214 =43.5890 rad/sec (4)
The damped natural period for the system can be determined as

2π 2π
=Td = = 0.1404 sec (5)
ωd 44.7214
9
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Applying the initial conditions to Eqs.(4.28) and (4.30) yields

( x + ζ ω x0 )
2
X=
x + 0 2
=
0
ωd 2
(6)
( ) =
2
0 + 0.2236 × 44.7214 × 0.04
= 0.042 + 2
0.04104 m
43.5890
 x0 ωd 
φ = tan −1  
 x 0 + ζ ω x0 
−1  0.04 × 43.5890 
= tan  
and  0 + 0.2236 × 44.7214 × 0.04  (7)
= tan −1 ( 4.3589
= ) 1.3453= rad 77.0790°
From Eq.(5), we have

 2π 
=x (t ) X e - ζωt sin
= (ωd t + φ ) X e -ζωt sin  t + φ  (8)
 Td 
After n oscillations or t = n Td, Eq.(8) becomes

 2π 
= x (nTd ) X e - ζω n Td sin  nTd + φ 
 Td 
sin ( 2π n + φ ) X e - ζω n Td sin φ
= X e - ζω n Td =
or x (nTd ) = x0 e - ζω n Td (9)
so 0.04 × e -0.2236×44.7214×5×0.1441 =
x5 = 2.965 ×10−5 m (10)
and 0.04 × e -0.2236×44.7214×10×0.1441 =

x10 = 2.197 ×10−8 m (11)
and 0.04 × e -0.2236×44.7214×20×0.1441 =

x20 = 1.207 ×10−14 m (12)
Q.E.D.
10
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
For most structural and mechanical systems,
0.01 ≤ ζ ≤ 0.20 (4.39)
Small damping ⇒ Amplitude ↓↓
Damping ⇒ Frequency
Figure 4.4.6  General effect of damping on free vibration response
EXAMPLE 4.4.2
A weight of 50 N is suspended from a spring with a stiffness of 6.0

kN/m, and the system is critically damped. The weight is given an
initial displacement of 0.05 m from its equilibrium position, held there
momentarily and suddenly released with zero velocity. Determine the
damping coefficient c for the system and the displacement of the mass
x(t) from its equilibrium position after 0.01, 0.1 and 1.0 sec.
11
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(a) Fundamental dynamic parameters
The mass of the system, m, is given by

W 50
m == = 5.0968 kg (1)
g 9.81
The undamped natural frequency ω is calculated as

k 6.0 ×1000
ω=
= = = 1177.2 34.3103 rad/sec (2)
m 5.0968
The system damping ratio for a critically damped system, c, is

calculated from Eqs.(4.10) and (4.12) as
c= 2 mω =
Cc = 2 × 5.0968 × 34.3103
(3)
= 349.75 = N-sec/m 0.3498 kN-sec/m
The system damping factor ζ for a critically damped system is

c
ζ = 1.0
= (4)
Cc
(b) Displacements of the mass at different times
The solution for x(t) is given from Eq.(4.34) as
x (t ) =  x0 + ( x 0 + ω x0 ) t  e - ωt
= 0.05 + ( 0 + 34.3103 × 0.05 ) t  e -34.3103t (5)
= [0.05 + 1.7155 t ] e -34.3103t
Thus, we have
x (t =0.01sec) =[ 0.05 + 1.7155 × 0.01] e -34.3103×0.01 =0.04765 m
x (t =0.1sec) =[ 0.05 + 1.7155 × 0.1] e -34.3103×0.1 =7.168 ×10−3 m (6)
x (t =1.0sec) =[ 0.05 + 1.7155 ×1.0] e -34.3103×1.0
=2.219 ×10 −15
m
Q.E.D.
12
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.4.2 LOGARITHMIC DECREMENT
For an underdamped system (ζ < 1),
Damping ↑ ⇒ Rate of decay ↑
The logarithmic decrement δ is defined as

the natural logarithm of the ratio of any two successive
displacement amplitudes in the same direction, i.e.
 X1   X e - ζωt1 sin (ωd t1 + φ ) 

=δ ln=   ln  
 d( 1 D) 
- ζω( t1 + TD )
 2
X  X e sin ω t + T + φ  

 X e - ζωt1 sin (ωd t1 + φ ) 
= ln 
 X e - ζωt1 e - ζωTD sin [ω t + 2π + φ ] 
 d 1 
 X e - ζωt1 sin (ωd t1 + φ )  (4.40)
= ln 
 X e - ζωt1 e - ζωTD sin (ω t + φ ) 
 d 1 
 1 
= ln =
e
- ζωTD 

ln= e ζωTD ζ ω TD ( )
Figure 4.4.7  Rate of decay of damped oscillations

measured by logarithmic decrement
13
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The damped natural period TD may be expressed as

2π 2π
=
T = (4.41)
D
ωd ω 1-ζ 2
Substituting Eq.(4.41) into Eq.(4.40) yields

ζ ω 2π 2π ζ
=δ ζ=
ω TD = (4.42)
ω 1-ζ 2 1-ζ 2
For small values of ζ, 1-ζ 2 → 1 (this is true for ζ ≤ 0.2, see

Figure 4.4.8), which yields
δ = 2π ζ (4.43)
Eq.(4.42)
Eq.(4.43)
Figure 4.4.8  Logarithmic decrement as a function of damping factor
Logarithmic decrement of the ratio of two nonconsecutive

amplitudes, Xi and Xi+n, can be expressed from Eq.(4.40) as
 Xi   1 
ln =
  ln  =

- nζωTD 

e nζωTD
ln = ζ ω TD n δ
n= ( ) (4.44)
 i+n 
X e

δ
ζ = (4.45)
( 2π ) +δ 2
2
14
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXAMPLE 4.4.3
For a viscously damped system, a particular vibration displacement

amplitude in a free vibration trace is measured as 75% of the
immediately preceding amplitude. Determine the damping factor for
the system.
The ratio of two successive vibration amplitudes Xi and Xi+1 yields
Xi 1 4
= = (1)
X i+n 0.75 3
The logarithmic decrement can be determined from Eq.(4.40) as

 X1  4
= δ ln =  ln=
  0.2877 (2)
 X2  3
The damping factor is calculated from Eq.(4.45) as

δ 0.2877
= ζ = = 0.04574 (3)
( 2π ) +δ ( 2π ) +0.28772
2 2 2
Q.E.D.
15
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXAMPLE 4.4.4
For a certain viscously damped system, measurement of a free

vibration trace show that the vibration amplitude reduction is 80% in
15 cycles. The critical damping constant Cc for the system is 60 N-
sec/m. Determine the damping factor ζ and the damping coefficient c
for the system.
The ratio of two nonsuccessive vibration amplitudes Xi and Xi+15 yields

Xi 1
= = 5 (1)
X i+15 1 − 0.8

 Xi 
= δ ln  = ( 5) 15 0.1073
 n ln= (2)
 X i+15 

δ 0.1073
= ζ = = 0.01707 (3)
( 2π ) +δ ( 2π ) +0.10732
2 2 2
The system damping coefficient is calculated from Eq.(4.14) as

c= ζ C c= 0.01707 × 60= 1.0245 N-sec/m (3)
Q.E.D.
16
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXAMPLE 4.4.5
A bridge girder is deflected at midspan (by winching the bridge down

with a crane) and suddenly released. After the initial disturbance, the
oscillations were found to decay exponentially from an amplitude of
0.1 m to 0.07 m after 5 cycles of free vibration. Determine the damping
factor for the bridge.
The ratio of two nonsuccessive vibration amplitudes Xi and Xi+5 yields

Xi 0.1 10
= = (1)
X i+5 0.07 7

 Xi   10 
= δ ln =  n ln=
  5 0.07133 (2)
 X i+5  7

δ 0.07133
= ζ = = 0.01135 (3)
( 2π ) +δ ( 2π ) +0.071332
2 2 2
Q.E.D.
17
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
EXAMPLE 4.4.6
To determine the dynamic characteristics of a large-scale model

concrete dolos armour unit, a drop test is conducted as illustrated in
Figure 4.4.9. In the drop test, the vertical fluke of the unit is raised a
special height h from its seated equilibrium and suddenly released. The
subsequent impact of the bottom of the fluke with the concrete base
induces vibrations in the dolos. The dolos armour unit is instrumented
with strain gauges at various locations on its surface. A typical strain
gauge trace of the vibration oscillations after the unit impacts the
concrete base is presented in Figure 4.4.10. If the concrete armour unit
weighs approximately 0.5 kN, determine
(a) the natural damped period of vibration,
(b) the natural damped frequency of vibration, and
(c) the damping factor and damping coefficient.
Figure 4.4.9  Schematic of dolos drop test
18
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 4.4.10  Strain gauge trace recorded

on surface of dolos after impact
(a) From Figure 4.4.10, the damped period Td is estimated as

0.005
Td ≈ =0.00125 sec (1)
4
(b) The damped natural frequency fd is given by

1 1
f=
d = = 800 Hz (2)
Td 0.00125
and the damped natural circular frequency ωd is calculated as

ωd =2π f d =2π × 800 =5026.5482 rad/sec (3)
(c) From Figure 4.4.10, the vibration amplitude after 7 and 16 cycles,
X7 and X16, are estimated as
= X 7 40 = με and X16 20 με (4)
19
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The logarithmic decrement δ can be determined from Eq.(4.44) as

 X7   40 
= δ ln=  n ln=   9 0.07702 (5)
 X16   20 
The damping factor ζ is calculated from Eq.(4.45) as

δ 0.07702
= ζ = = 0.01226 (6)
( 2π ) +δ ( 2π ) +0.077022
2 2 2
or approximately from Eq.(4.43) for a small δ as

δ 0.07702
=ζ = = 0.01226 (7)
2π 2π
The undamped natural circular frequency ω is given from Eq.(4.19) by

ωd 5026.5482
= ω = = 5026.9259 rad/sec (8)
1− ζ 2
1 − 0.012262
The mass of the system, m, is given by

W 0.5 ×1000
=
m = = 50.9684 kg (9)
g 9.81
The critical damping constant Cc is calculated from Eq.(4.12) as

2 m ω 2 × 50.9684 × 5026.9259
C c ==
(10)
= 512428.74
= N-sec/m 512.4287 kN-sec/m
Finally, the system damping coefficient c can be calculated from

Eq.(4.14) by
c= ζ Cc =0.01226 × 512.4287 =
6.2811 kN-sec/m (11)
Q.E.D.
20
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.4.3 HYSTERESIS DAMPING

Hysteresis damping (structural damping)
the energy dissipation within the material due primarily to
internal friction caused by the slipping and sliding of particles at
internal planes during deformation
Hysteresis loop (Figure 4.4.11)

the curve for the phase lag between the damping force and
deformation
Figure 4.4.11  Hysteresis loop
Dissipated energy (energy loss) per cycle, ∆U

the area enclosed by the loading-unloading-reloading curve
∫ FD dx
∆U = (4.46)
21
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Empirically, ∆U can be expressed as
πη k X2
∆U = (4.47)
where η is a dimensionless structural damping coefficient for the material

k is the equivalent stiffness of the system
X is the displacement amplitude
π is a convenient proportionality constant
Dissipated energy (energy loss) per cycle, ∆U, by the viscous

damping force FD = c x
X
4 ∫ c x dx
∆U = (4.48)
0
Assuming harmonic motion and x(t) = X sin ωt for the complete cycle,
then the velocity is obtained as
x = ω X cos ω t (4.49)
and dx = ω X cos ω t dt (4.50)
with an integration interval of [0, 2π/ω] for t.
Substituting Eqs.(4.49) and (4.50) into Eq.(4.48) yields
π 2ω
4∫
∆U = c ω 2 X 2 cos 2 ω t dt
0
1 + cos 2ω t π 2ω
dt = 4cω2 X 2 ∫
0 2
 π 2ω 1 π 2ω cos 2ω t 
= 4 c ω 2 X 2 ∫ dx + ∫ dt  (4.51)
 0 2 0 2 
π
( sin 2ω t )0  =
1 π/2ω
4cω2 X 2 
= + π cω X 2
 4ω 4ω 
22
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
An equivalent viscous damping coefficient ce can be determined by

equating Eq.(4.51) and Eq.(4.47) as follows
π ce ω X 2 = π η k X 2 (4.52)
This yields the following expression for ce as
ηk
ce = (4.53)
ω
Now rewriting Eq.(4.14) and letting η = 2ζ yields
2ζ mω 2 2ζ m k 2ζ k ηk
=c 2ζ =
mω = = = (4.54)
ω ω m ω ω
The same form of equation as Eq.(4.53) has been obtained.
Figure 4.4.12  Free vibration motion for system

with structural damping
The energy dissipation for a half cycle of vibration from point a to

point b can be expressed as
k X12 π η k X12 π η k X1.5 2 k X1.5 2

− − = (4.55)
2 4 4 2
23
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Rearranging Eq.(4.55) step by step yields
k X12 π η k X12 k X1.5 2 π η k X1.5 2

− = +
2 4 2 4
X1 1 − (π η / 2 )  =X1.5 1 + (π η / 2 )
2 2
X12 1 + (π η / 2 )
=
X1.5 2 1 − (π η / 2 )
i.e. (4.56)
Similar expression can be deduced for the next half cycle of motion
from point b to point c as
X1.5 2 1 + (π η / 2 )
=
X 2 2 1 − (π η / 2 )
(4.57)
Multiplying Eq.(4.56) and Eq.(4.57) yields
X12  1 + (π η / 2 ) 
2
= 
X 2 2  1 − (π η / 2 ) 
(4.58)
X1 1 + (π η / 2 )
=
X 2 1 − (π η / 2 )
or (4.59)
For very small values of η, Eq.(4.59) can be approximated by
1 + (π η / 2 ) 
2
X1
=
X 2 1 − (π η / 2 )  1 + (π η / 2 ) 
1 + 2 (π η / 2 ) + (π η / 2 )
2 (4.60)
= ≈ 1+ π η
1 − (π η / 2 )
2
The logarithmic decrement δ is then given as
(π η ) (π η )
2 3
X 
δ = ln  1 = ln (1 + π η )= (π η ) − + −  ≈ π η (4.61)
 X2  2 3
24
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.4.4 COULOMB DAMPING

Coulomb damping (dry friction damping)
the energy dissipation when relative motion occurs at interfaces
or joints between the adjacent members due to friction forces
which are independent of vibration amplitude and frequency.
Friction forces (Figure 4.4.13)

always oppose the motion of mass but with essentially constant
magnitude
Figure 4.4.13  SDOF system with Coulomb damping
Friction damping force Fd
FD = µ N (4.62)
where µ is the coefficient of friction

N is the normal force on the contact surface
Differential equation of motion for motion from left to right ( x > 0 )
m 
x+k x =
− Fd (4.63)
Differential equation of motion for motion from right to left ( x < 0 )
m 
x+k x =
Fd (4.64)
25
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Solution for motion from left to right ( x > 0 )

F
x (t ) = A1 sin ω t + B1 cos ω t − d (4.65)
k
Solution for motion from right to left ( x < 0 )

F
x (t ) = A2 sin ω t + B2 cos ω t + d (4.66)
k
where the constants, A1, B1, A2 and B2, can be determined from the
initial conditions for motion.
The initial conditions for the motion from right to left ( x < 0 ) become
x (0) = x0 and x (0) = 0 (4.67)
From Eq.(4.66), the constants A2 and B2 are determined as

F
A=2 0 and B=2 x0 − d (4.68)
k
Thus, Eq.(4.66) can be rewritten as

 Fd  Fd
 x0 − k  cos ω t + k
x (t ) = (4.69)
 
The half cycle motion from right to left ceases when

 F 
−ω  x0 − d  sin ω t =
x (t ) = 0 or ωt = π (4.70)
 k 
with the maximum displacement for the motion to the left as

 π  F  F  2F 
x  t = =  x0 − d  cos π + d = −  x0 − d  (4.71)
 ω  k  k  k 
i.e. the displacement is 2Fd/k less than the initial displacement x0.
For motion from left to right ( x > 0 ), the initial conditions are
 π  2F   π
x  t = = −  x0 − d  and x = t =
ω 
0 (4.72)
 ω  k  
From Eq.(4.65), the constants A1 and B1 are determined as

3F
A=1 0 and B=
1 x0 − d (4.73)
k
26
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Thus, Eq.(4.65) can be rewritten as

 3Fd  Fd
x (t ) =
 0 − ω −
k 
x cos t (4.74)
 k
The second half cycle motion from right to left ceases when
 3F 
−ω  x0 − d  sin ω t =
x (t ) = 0 or ω t = 2π (4.75)
 k 
with the maximum displacement for the motion to the right as

 2π   3Fd  F  4F 
xt =  =  x0 −  cos 2π − d =  x0 − d  (4.76)
 ω   k  k  k 
i.e. the displacement is 2Fd/k further less than the initial displacement
on the left;
For the full cycle of motion, the displacement amplitude loses by 4Fd/k.
Figure 4.4.14  Free vibration motion of system with Coulomb damping
Figure 4.4.14 shows the following phenomena

 The decay of the oscillations is linear;
 The magnitude of the natural period (frequency) is unaffected;
 The mass need not return the original rest equilibrium position
once the vibrations have ceased, unless the restoring force in the
spring kXs is larger than the frictional damping force Fd.
27
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The energy dissipation per cycle of Coulomb damping can be

approximately represented by
∆U =
4 Fd X (4.77)
An equivalent viscous damping coefficient ce for Coulomb damping

can be determined by equating Eq.(4.77) and Eq.(4.51) as follows
π ce ω X 2 = 4 Fd X (4.78)
This yields the following expression for ce as
4 Fd
ce = = (4.79)
πωX
28
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.4.5 PROBLEMS
4.4.1 A viscously damped SDOF system exhibits a static deflection of 0.02 m due to
its own weight of 250 N. Determine the value of the critical damping constant
for the system.
4.4.2 A viscously damped system has a total weight of 250 N, a spring stiffness k =
8 kN/m, and a damping coefficient c = 0.08 kN-sec/m. Determine the
displacement, velocity, and acceleration of the mass as a function of time if it is
disturbed from its equilibrium position with an initial velocity of 0.25 m/sec with
no initial displacement. Calculate the displacement, velocity and acceleration of
the mass at t = 1.75 sec.
4.4.3 The water level meter shown in Figure P4.4.3 consists of a rigid, massless arm
of length L = 0.5 m and a floating cylinder of diameter of 0.075 m. The weight
of the cylinder is 6.7 N and the special weight of the water γw = 98.1 kN/m3.
Determine the value of the damping coefficient c of the dashpot required for
critical damping.
Figure P4.4.3
4.4.4 Write the equation of motion for small oscillation, and determine expressions for
critical damping and damped natural frequency for the system in Figure P4.4.4.
Assume the rod is rigid and weightless and pivots about its left end.
Figure P4.4.4
29
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.4.5 A vehicle weighing 25 kN is supported by four identical springs and four

identical viscous dampers. The static deflection of the vehicle under its own
weight is 0.3 m. Determine the required damping coefficient for each of dampers
to achieve critical damping in the vehicle.
4.4.6 An overdamped system has a weight of 110 N, a spring constant k = 17.5 kN/m,
and a damping coefficient c = 1.75 kN-sec/m. The system is set in motion with
an initial velocity of x = 30 m/sec. Determine
(a) an expression for the displacement of the mass as a function of time,
(b) the maximum displacement of the mass from its static equilibrium position,
and
(c) the time at which the maximum displacement occurs.
4.4.7 An underdamped system has a weight of 22.2 N, a spring constant k = 3.5 kN/m,
and a damping coefficient c = 0.035 kN-sec/m. The system is displaced from its
equilibrium position by 0.05 m and suddenly released. Determine the vibration
amplitude after 10 and 20 oscillations. Determine the time at which the system
comes to rest.
4.4.8 Determine the ratio of successive amplitudes of vibration for a viscously damped
system with the damping factor ζ = 0.3.
4.4.9 In a certain viscously damped system, a particular vibration amplitude was

measured to be 80% of the amplitude immediately preceding it. Determine the
damping factor ζ for the system.
4.4.10 A vibrating system is connected to an adjustable viscous damping apparatus. At

a particular setting, the ratio of successive amplitudes of vibrations is 1 to 5. If
the amount of damping is doubled, determine the resulting ratio of successive
amplitudes.
4.4.11 A viscously damped system with a weight of 180 N has a spring constant k =
17.5 kN/m and a damping coefficient c = 14 N-sec/m. The system is set into free
vibration by sudden release from an initial displacement of 0.1 m. Determine the
amplitude of vibration after 10, 15 and 20 cycles.
4.4.12 The design for a shock absorber must be limited to 15% overshoot (displacement
beyond the static equilibrium position) when displaced from equilibrium and
released. Calculate the required damping factor ζ.
4.4.13 Measurements indicate that the amplitude reduction for a particular viscously
damped system is 75% in 15 cycles of free vibration. Determine the damping
factor ζ for the system.
4.4.14 A viscously damped system has a mass of 10 kg and a stiffness k = 60 N/m.

When the mass is given an initial displacement and released, the overshoot is
20%. Determine the damping factor and damping coefficient for the system.
30
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.4.15 A viscously damped system weighing 0.5 kN exhibits a static deflection of 10.0
mm due to its own weight. The mass is given an initial displacement x0 = 5.0
mm and suddenly. After 3 cycles of free vibration the amplitude is measured to
be 2.0 mm. Determine
(a) the logarithmic decrement,
(b) the damping factor ζ,
(c) the damping coefficient c, and
(d) the frequency of damped vibration.
4.4.16 Given the following values of logarithmic decrement δ for four different
materials, determine the corresponding damping factor ζ
(a) δ = 0.004 for material A,
(b) δ = 0.25 for material B,
(c) δ = 0.05 for material C, and
(d) δ = 0.10 for material D.
4.4.17 A viscously damped structure is set into free vibration with an initial velocity.
The resulting damped oscillations are shown in Figure 4.4.17. Determine
(b) the logarithmic decrement, and
(c) the damping factor ζ .
15.0
13.0
11.0
9.0
7.0
Displacement (mm)
5.0
Displacement (mm)
3.0
1.0
-1.0
-3.0
-5.0
-7.0
-9.0
-11.0
-13.0
-15.0
Figure P4.4.17
31
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

kN-sec
4.4.1 Cc = 1.1288
m
m m
4.4.2 −4.6061×10−4 m
x(1.75) = x (1.75) = 0.01454 
x(1.75) = 0.09894
sec sec 2
N-sec
4.4.3 Cc,req = 137.6365
m
k rad
4.4.4 Cc = 3 k m ωd = 1.4524
m sec
kN-sec
4.4.5 creq = 7.2864
m
−10.7389 t
=
4.4.6 (a) x(t ) 0.2229 e − 0.2229 e−145.3292 t m
(b) xmax = 0.1677 m (c) t = 0.01936 sec
4.4.7 x(10 =Td ) 1.6843 ×10-7 m =
x(20 Td ) 5.6740 ×10-13 m
n π nTd
x 0)
t (= = = = 0.081475 n sec (n= 0, 1, ... )
ωd 2
Xi
4.4.8 = 7.2136
X i+1
4.4.9 ζ = 0.03549
Xi
4.4.10 = 36.2965
X i+1
4.4.11 x(10Td ) = 0.0460 m x(15Td ) = 0.0312 m x(20Td ) = 0.0212 m
4.4.12 ζ req = 0.02224
4.4.13 ζ = 0.01471
N-sec
4.4.14 ζ = 0.02901 c = 1.4210
m
4.4.15 (a) δ = 0.3054 (b) ζ = 0.04855
N-sec rad
(c) c = 155.0191 (d) ωd = 31.2840
m sec
ζ A 6.3662 ×10−4
4.4.16 (a)= (b) ζ B = 0.03976
ζ C 7.9575 ×10−3
(c)= (d) ζ D = 0.01591
4.4.17 (a) Td = 0.17 sec (b) δ = 0.4142
(c) ζ = 0.06577
32
Section 4.5  Revision Questions
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Q.1 The rigid beam shown in Figure Q.1 has a uniform mass per unit length m .
(a) Determine the equation of motion using d’Alembert’s principle and calculate
the natural circular frequency of the system. Assume small angles of rotation.
(b) Determine the natural circular frequency using the alternate energy method.
(c) Let m = 400 kg/m, k = 200 kN/m, kR = 15 MNm/rad, c = 10 kN-sec/m, F0 (t )
= 20 kN/m and L = 10 m. Calculate the natural circular frequency ω.
 c 4k + kL2 7 F0 (t ) 4kR + kL2 rad 
θ + θ + R 3 = θ ω
= = 11.5470 
 1.5mL 1.5 mL 12mL 1.5 mL3 sec 
 
mass
m= F0 (t )
Rigid kR length
θ
c k
L L L L
2 2 4 4 Figure Q.1
Q.2 The simply supported 6 m long beam shown in Figure Q.2 supports a weight of
4.5 kN. The midspan of the beam is displaced downward 0.04 m with an initial
velocity of 0.12 m/s in the same direction. Assume E = 200 GPa and I = 76000
cm4. Determine
(b) the maximum displacement of the mass,
(c) the maximum velocity of the mass,
(d) the maximum of acceleration of the mass, and
(e) the phase angle.
[ω = 271.3587 rad/sec; (a) T = 0.02315 sec; (b) xmax = 0.04002 m;
(c) xmax = 10.8550 m/sec; (d) xmax = 2945.60 m/sec ; (e) φ = 1.5597 rad]
2
W = 4.5 kN
EI
W
3m 3m
Figure Q.2
Q.3 A mass m is attached to the tip of a cantilever beam of length L, also with mass m
which is uniformly distributed over its entire length as shown in Figure Q.3. The
flexural rigidity of the beam is EI. The static deflection curve for the beam is y(x)
= (A/2L3)(3Lx2 - x3). Determine the natural frequency of the beam by the Rayleigh
 3EIA + 2mgL3 rad 
method. ω = 0.8996 
 mL3 A sec 

EI, m m
y(x)
A
x
L Figure Q.3
213
Section 4.5  Revision Questions
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Q.4 A viscously damped system has a total weight of 250 N, a spring stiffness k = 8
kN/m, and a damping coefficient c = 0.08 kN-sec/m. Determine the displacement,
velocity, and acceleration of the mass as a function of time if it is disturbed from
its equilibrium position with an initial velocity of 0.25 m/sec with no initial
displacement. Calculate the displacement, velocity and acceleration of the mass at
t = 1.75 sec.
[x(1.75) = −0.0004606 m; x (1.75) = 0.01454 m/sec; x(1.75) = 0.09894 m/sec2]
Q.5 The shear frame shown in Figure Q.5 is subjected to damped free vibration. The
outer flexural steel columns are constructed from UC305×305×137 with a second
moment of area about the major axis I = 32770 cm4. The inner column is
constructed from UC305×305×158 with a second moment of area about the major
axis I = 38690 cm4. The elastic modulus is E = 200 GPa. The damping factor for
the structure is ζ = 0.1. The initial conditions give x(0) = 75 mm and x (0) = 0.
(a) For the damped free vibration, by ignoring the self-weight of the columns,
determine
(i) the undamped and damped circular frequencies of the rigid girder,
(ii) the displacement amplitude of the rigid girder,
(iii) the vibration phase angle of the rigid girder.
(b) Determine the expression for the displacement of the rigid girder as a
function of time and calculate the displacements of the rigid girder after 5, 10
and 20 oscillations, respectively.
[(a) (i) ω = 16.0666 rad/sec; ωd = 15.9860 rad/sec;
(ii) X = 75.3778 mm; (iii) φ = 1.4706 rad;
(b) x(t) = X e sin(ωd t + φ) = 75.3778 e-1.6067 t sin(15.9860 t + 1.4706) mm;
-ζωt
x(5Td) = 3.1902 mm; x(10Td) = 0.1357 mm; x(20Td) = 2.4551×10-4 mm]
Rigid girder W = 10 kN/m
7m 7m 7m
ζ
10 m 10 m
Figure Q.5
214
Section 4.6  Solutions for Problems
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.2 Equation of Motion and Natural Frequency for SDOF Systems

EI rad EI rad
4.2.1 ω = 0.9541 4.2.2 ω = 7.8338
mL3 sec mL3 sec
rad EI rad
4.2.3 ω = 70.4967 4.2.4 ω = 3.4641
sec mL3 sec
4.2.5 ω=
(
3 0.735 k L2 + kR ) rad 4.2.6 ω=
(
2 k L2 + kR ) rad
2 sec 2 sec
mL mL
4.2.7 ω=
m g L + kR rad
4.2.8 ω=
(
2 k L2 + kR ) rad
2
m L2 sec mL sec
mg L + k L2 + kR rad m g L + kR rad
4.2.9 ω= 4.2.10 ω =
mL2 sec m L2 sec
4.2.11 ω =
( m1 + 0.5 m2 ) g L + k L2 + kR rad
4.2.12 ω =
k rad
[ m1 + (1/ 3) m2 ] L2 sec m sec
4.2.13 ω =
k rad
4.2.14 ω =
(
3 0.25 k1 L2 + k2 L2 + kR ) rad
m sec m L3 sec
4.2.15 ω =
(
3 0.25 k1 L2 + k2 L2 + kR ) rad
3 sec
mL

N mm
4.3.1 (a) k = 9869.60 (b) x0 = 1884.96
m sec
mm
=
4.3.2 (a) X 3.1663 ×10−3 mm (b) xmax = 1.9894
sec
N
4.3.3 m = 4.7619 kg k = 1534.63
m
m
4.3.4 (a) X = 0.1194 m (b) 
xmax = 2.0944
sec 2
m
(c) x0 = 0.3890 =
(d) φ 0.6794
= rad 38.9262°
sec
4.3.5 (a) T = 0.0226 sec (b) xmax= X= 0.040002 m
m m
(c) xmax = 11.1230 (d) 
xmax = 3092.87
sec sec 2
(e) φ 1.5600
= = rad 89.3819°
rad
4.3.6 (a) ω = 260.7988
sec
m m
(b) xmax= X= 0.050001 m xmax = 13.0402 
xmax = 3400.86
sec sec 2
1
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(c) φ 1.5650
= = rad 89.6705°
N m
4.3.7 (a) k = 78956.8352 (b) x0 = 1.6755
m sec
m m
(c) x (0.45) = 1.6755 
x(0.45) ≈ 0
sec sec 2
N
4.3.8 (a) k = 10966.2271 (b)=X 2.3873 ×10−3 m
m
m m
(c) x (0.5) = −0.0250 
x(0.5) = 0.9069
sec sec 2
4.3.9 (a) T = 0.2678 sec
m m
(b) x(1.5) = −0.03277 x (1.5) = −0.05281
sec sec
rad
4.3.10 (a) ω = 96.4434
sec
m m
−7.8814 ×10−3 m
(c) x(2.0) = x (2.0) = 1.0176 
x(2.0) = 73.3072
sec sec 2
g rad
θ (t ) β sin(ω t + φ ) rad
4.3.11 = ω=
L sec
k a 2 − mg L rad
4.3.12 ω=
mL2 sec
(k1 + k2 ) (k3 + k4 ) (k1 + k2 ) (k3 + k4 )
4.3.13 (a) ke = 
x+ x=
0
k1 + k2 + k3 + k4 m (k1 + k2 + k3 + k4 )
(k1 + k2 ) (k3 + k4 ) rad
ω=
m (k1 + k2 + k3 + k4 ) sec
k1 + 4k2 k + 4k2 rad
(b) ke= k1 + 4k2 x= 0 ω= 1

x+
m m sec
k + 9k2 k + 9k 2 k + 9k2 rad
(c) ke = 1 
x+ 1 x= 0 ω= 1
9 9m 9 m sec
k1 k2 k6 (k3 + k4 + k5 )
ke =
(d) (k1 k2 + k2 k6 + k1 k6 ) (k3 + k4 + k5 ) + k1 k2 k6
k1 k2 k6 (k3 + k4 + k5 )

x+ x=0
m [(k1 k2 + k2 k6 + k1 k6 ) (k3 + k4 + k5 ) + k1 k2 k6 ]
k1 k2 k6 (k3 + k4 + k5 ) rad
ω=
m [(k1 k2 + k2 k6 + k1 k6 ) (k3 + k4 + k5 ) + k1 k2 k6 ] sec
k1 k2 a 2 k1 k2 a 2
k1 k2 a 2 rad
4.3.14 (a) ke = x = 0 ω

x+ =
k1 a + k2 L
2 2
m (k1 a + k2 L )
2 2
m (k1 a + k2 L )
2 2 sec
A E (2 L1 + L2 ) k A E (2 L1 + L2 ) k
(b) ke = 
x+ x=0
A E (2 L1 + L2 ) + k L1 L2 m [ A E (2 L1 + L2 ) + k L1 L2 ]
2
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
A E (2 L1 + L2 ) k rad
ω=
m [ A E (2 L1 + L2 ) + k L1 L2 ] sec
256 E I k 256 E I k
4.3.14 (c) ke = 
x+ x=
0
256 E I k + 3 k L 2
m [256 E I k + 3 k L2 ]
256 E I k rad
ω=
m [256 E I k + 3 k L ] sec 2
15 E I + k L3 15 E I + k L3 15 E I + k L3 rad
(d) ke = 
x+ x=
0 ω=
L3 m L3 m L3 sec
3 E I A + 2 mg L2 rad E I rad
4.3.15 ω = 0.8996 = 3
ω 1.5581 3
(if EIA >> mg L2 )
mL A sec m L sec
E I rad
4.3.16 ω = 22.4499
m L3 sec
E I rad
4.3.17 ω = 1.5752
m L3 sec
E I rad
4.3.18 ω = 22.7359
m L3 sec
E I rad
4.3.19 ω = 9.8696
m L3 sec
E I rad
4.3.20 ω = 9.8767
m L3 sec

kN-sec
4.4.1 Cc = 1.1288
m
m m
4.4.2 −4.6061×10−4 m
x(1.75) = x (1.75) = 0.01454 
x(1.75) = 0.09894
sec sec 2
N-sec
4.4.3 Cc,req = 137.6365
m
k rad
4.4.4 Cc = 3 k m ωd = 1.4524
m sec
kN-sec
4.4.5 creq = 7.2864
m
−10.7389 t
=
4.4.6 (a) x(t ) 0.2229 e − 0.2229 e−145.3292 t m
(b) xmax = 0.1677 m (c) t = 0.01936 sec
4.4.7 x(10 =Td ) 1.6843 ×10-7 m =
x(20 Td ) 5.6740 ×10-13 m
n π nTd
x 0)=
t (= = = 0.081475 n sec (n= 0, 1, ... )
ωd 2
3
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Xi
4.4.8 = 7.2136
X i+1
4.4.9 ζ = 0.03549
Xi
4.4.10 = 36.2965
X i+1
4.4.11 x(10Td ) = 0.0460 m x(15Td ) = 0.0312 m x(20Td ) = 0.0212 m
4.4.12 ζ req = 0.02224
4.4.13 ζ = 0.01471
N-sec
4.4.14 ζ = 0.02901 c = 1.4210
m
4.4.15 (a) δ = 0.3054 (b) ζ = 0.04855
N-sec rad
(c) c = 155.0191 (d) ωd = 31.2840
m sec
ζ A 6.3662 ×10−4
4.4.16 (a)= (b) ζ B = 0.03976
ζ C 7.9575 ×10−3
(c)= (d) ζ D = 0.01591
4.4.17 (a) Td = 0.17 sec (b) δ = 0.4142
(c) ζ = 0.06577
4
(MHH223204/MHH225189)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5.1 Introduction to Yield Line Analysis

5.2 The Work Method of Analysis
5.3 Standard Formulae for RC Slabs
5. YIELD LINE ANALYSIS 5.1 INTRODUCTION TO YIELD LINE ANALYSIS
 5. YIELD LINE ANALYSIS
 5.1 Introduction to Yield Line Analysis
Professor Ben Zhang and Ms. Jill Sutcliffe
Prof Ben Zhang & Ms. Jill Sutcliffe 1 Prof Ben Zhang & Ms. Jill Sutcliffe 2
5. YIELD LINE ANALYSIS 5. YIELD LINE ANALYSIS
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO YIELD LINE ANALYSIS 5.1 INTRODUCTION TO YIELD LINE ANALYSIS
Symbols Symbols (cont.)

A Area of column cross-section m2 mr Ultimate moment of resistance (based on the steel
a, b, c Plan dimensions of slab supported on several sides m provided) kNm/m
ar, br Reduced sides dimensions m
n Ultimate distributed load g gk + q qk kN/m2
D Dissipation of internal energy kNm
E Expenditure of energy by external loads kNm
n* Adjusted ultimate distributed load (adjusted for light line
g Ultimate distributed dead load kN/m2 loads through factors α and β) kN/m2
gk Characteristic distributed dead load kN/m2 pa, pb Ultimate line loads kN/m
H1, H2 … Holding down reaction at slab corner kN q Ultimate distributed live load kN/m2
h1, h2 … Yield line pattern defining dimension m qk Characteristic distributed live load kN/m2
i, i1, i2 …Ratio of negative support moment to positive mid-span q1, q2 … Ultimate support reactions kN/m
moment, i.e. i1 = m1'/m S Ultimate column reaction from slab tributary area kN
L Span (commonly edge to edge), distance, m s1, s2 Distances to point of contraflexure from support m
l Length of a yield line (projected onto a region’s axis of rotation) m
x1, x2 Distances to section of maximum positive moment from
m Positive moment, i.e. the ultimate moment along the yield line
(bottom fibres of slab in tension) kNm/m
support m
m',m1',m2' Negative moment, i.e. the ultimate moment along the yield line ∆, δmax Deflection, maximum deflection (usually taken as unity) m
(top fibres of slab in tension) kNm/m θ Angle of rotation m/m
Legends General
 Main purpose of structural analysis
Supports to ensure the structure to be fit for use under both ultimate and
Free edge Continuous support serviceability conditions
Simple support Column support
 Limitations of elastic theory
Elastic theory gives no accurate indication of the safety factor
Yield lines against failure, because of nonlinearity or plasticity of the materials;
Positive (sagging) Axis of rotation For certain types of intermediate structures, complex differential
yield line, kNm/m equations and boundary conditions other than elastic theory are
Negative (hogging) Plastic hinge (in sectional needed to estimate the bending moments induced by the loading.
yield line, kNm/m elevation or in plan)
 Yield Line Theory
Loads As a plastic theory, Yield line analysis is an ultimate load method
Line load, kN/m Gravity centre of load, kN and can be used to assess the ultimate load capacity of a slab when
Point load, kN it fails. This method can cope with non-uniform slab shapes and is a
powerful, invaluable design tool for finding the behaviour of slabs.
History of Yield Line Theory Practical application of Yield Line design
 Ingerslev A. (Russian, 1922): presented a paper to the IStructE in
London on the collapse modes of rectangular slabs.  Main applications of Yield Line Theory
 Johansen K.W. (Danish, 1940s): provided the initial theory and many
─ to design reinforced concrete slabs, and similar types of
practical examples, including three main parts
─ the energy or “Work” method for calculating the failure load; elements at the ultimate limit state
─ the “Equilibrium” method involving nodal forces, which gives the same ─ to investigate failure mechanisms
value of the failure load as the work method but provides additional
information;  Principle of Yield Line Theory
─ the detailed analysis of extensive tests previously carried out by the
“Deutscher Ausschuss für Eisenbeton” (German Reinforced Concrete Board), (5.1)
published between 1915 and 1932, and conducted by Bach and Graf at
Stuttgart and by Gehler and Amos at Dresden.
 Two popular methods of application
 Later developments: to make Yield Line Theory a formidable
international design tool, in particular in the 1960s, 70s and 80s, much ─ the ‘Work Method’
theoretical work on the application of Yield Line Theory to slabs and slab- ─ the use of standard formulae
beam structures was carried out.
Main issues of Yield Line Design Other features of Yield Line design
 Key advantages of Yield Line Design  Advantages of Yield Line Theory
─ Economy (quick) ─ Individual slabs can be judged on its merits and assessed.
─ Simplicity (easy)
─ Complex slabs are allowed to be looked at in a simple way for
─ Versatility (multi-functional, powerful)
checking or designing.
 Familiarity with failure patterns, i.e. knowledge of slabs’ ─ This can satisfy the need to impart greater understanding
failure modes and remind designers that reinforced concrete does not
necessarily behave in an elastic manner.
─ Experience
─ Engineering judgement
─ Confidence
Other features of Yield Line design Economy and simplicity

 Disadvantages of Yield Line Theory  European in-situ Concrete Building Project at Cardington
Table 5.1 — Reinforcement for the EU project
─ It does not deal with serviceability issues such as deflection,
but this can be dealt with by simple formulae based on the yield
moment, e.g. in compliance with span-to-depth criteria.
─ Column moments cannot be derived directly, but this can be
done using separate elastic sub-frame analyses.
─ Yield Line Design has been only disadvantaged by half-
truths and misrepresentations. Taking reasoned and pragmatic
measures to overcome them easily dispels theoretical problems
such as ‘upper bound theory therefore unsafe’.
─ Yield Line Design: T12@200 B (565 mm2/m)
─ Elastic Design: T16@175 B (1148 mm2/m)
Economy and simplicity Economy and simplicity

 European in-situ Concrete Building Project at Cardington  Advantage of Yield Line Design in the project:
─ Regular layouts: minimum numbers of bar marks and often
stock lengths;
─ Quick drawings, easy detailing and easy reading on site;
─ Quick fixing due to regular arrangements of reinforcement;
─ Easy prefabrication of steel into welded mats and to
contractor detailing;
─ Less chance of errors occurring;
─ Easy checking.
Figure 5.1  4th floor during construction

Each half of the slab performed well, with virtually identical deflection.
Versatility Versatility
 Typical applications  Typical applications
─ An irregularly supported flat slab as shown in Figure 5.2(a), may,
as illustrated by Figure 5.2(b), be analysed by considering yield line ─ Yield Line Theory can be used very effectively in
patterns in the form of folded plates or worst-case quadrilaterals. refurbishment work, e.g. existing slabs, amended
support system, new holes. Yield Line Theory can be
2 1 used to estimate the ultimate load capacity of such slabs
7 and so optimise and/or minimise structural works on site.
6
3
─ Yield Line Theory can be used to analyse slabs with
5 beams, e.g. composite T and L beams. Yield Line Theory
4
is used effectively in the design and assessment of slabs
in bridges.
(a) Illustration of an irregular flat slab (b) Slab analysed by Yield Line Design
Figure 5.2 — An irregular flat slab analysed using Yield Line Design
Versatility Basic concepts of Yield Line Design

 Typical applications  Yield Line
─ Yield Line Theory can also be applied to slabs resting on ─ A yield line is a crack in a reinforced concrete slab across
soil, i.e. industrial ground floor slabs, foundation rafts, etc. The which the reinforcing bars have yielded and along which plastic
piled raft foundation illustrated in Figure 5.3 was analysed and rotation occurs.
designed using Yield Line Theory - simply and by hand.
Figure 5.4 — Onset of yielding

of bottom reinforcement at
Figure 5.3 — A pilled raft point of maximum deflection
dealt with using Yield in a simply supported two-
Line Theory and Design way slab under UDL
Basic concepts of Yield Line Design Basic concepts of Yield Line Design
 Yield Line  Yield Line Theory
─ The work (energy) dissipated by the hinges in the
yield lines rotating is equated to the work expended
by loads on the regions moving.
─ Under this theory, elastic deformations are ignored. All the
deformations are assumed to be concentrated in the yield
lines and, for convenience, the maximum deformation
is given the value of unity.
Figure 5.5 — The formation of a mechanism in a simply supported two-

way slab with the bottom steel having yielded along the yield lines
 Yield Line Pattern  Rules for yield lines and axes of rotation
─ When a slab is loaded to failure, yield lines form in Table 5.2 — Rules for yield line pattern
the most highly stressed areas and these develop
into continuous plastic hinges, which develop into a
mechanism forming a yield line pattern.
─ Yield lines divide the slab up into individual rigid
regions, which rotate about their axes of rotation.
 Yield Line solution  Aim of investigating Yield Line patterns
─ Yield line pattern giving the highest applied moments or ─ to find the one pattern that gives the critical moment (the
the least load capacities at failure. highest moment or the least load capacity), but in practice,
 Ways for finding critical pattern and ensuring safe design absolute dimensional accuracy is unnecessary for
engineering purposes.
─ From first principles, e.g. by using The Work Method
─ Using formulae for standard situations.
 ‘Upper bound solutions’
─ Yield line patterns give results that are either correct or
theoretically unsafe, but this can be overcome by testing
different patterns and by making suitable allowances,
normally by 10% (see 10% rule).
 Yield Line patterns  Fan mechanism
─ derived mainly from the position of the axes of rotation, ─ For slabs subjected to heavy concentrated loads may fail,
which conform to the rules in Table 5.2, i.e. the lines of with positive Yield Lines radiating from the load and a
support, and by ensuring that the yield lines themselves are negative circular Yield Line centred under the point load.
straight, go through the intersection of axes of rotation and end The mechanism for a slab supported by a column is the same
at the slab boundary. shape but with the positive and negative yield lines reversed.
Figure 5.7 — Fan collapse pattern

Figure 5.6 — Simple for a heavy concentrated load onto
Yield Line patterns a reinforced slab
 The Work Method (or Virtual Work Method)  The Work Method (or Virtual Work Method)
─ The fundamental principle is that work done internally and
externally must balance. In other words, at failure, the
expenditure of external energy induced by the load on the slab
must be equal to the internal energy dissipated within the yield
lines, i.e. (5.2)
N is the load(s) acting within a particular region [kN]
 is the vertical displacement of the load(s) N on each region expressed
as a fraction of unity [m]
m is the moment in the slab or the moment of resistance of the slab per
metre run [kNm/m]
l is the length of yield line or its projected length onto the axis of rotation
(5.2) for that region [m]
θ is the rotation of the region about its axis of rotation [m/m].
 Two-way simply supported slab due to a UDL  Formulae for one-way spanning slabs supporting UDL
─ Triangular regions A, B, C and D rotate about their support lines.
─ The loads on the regions have moved vertically and rotation has taken n L2
m (5.3)
 
place about the yield lines and supports. 2
─ The uniformly distributed load on each of these regions will have 2 1  i1  1  i2
moved on average 1/3 of the maximum deflection.
where
m is the ultimate sagging moment along the yield line [kNm/m]
Figure 5.8 — Deformed m' is the ultimate support moment along the yield line [kNm/m]
shape at failure n is the ultimate load [kN/m2]
L is the span [m]
─ ‘Work Method’ by letting of E = D.
i1, i2 are the ratios of support moments to mid-span moments,
─ After a yield line pattern is selected, the deflection is specified as
unity at one point, normally the point of maximum deflection, and i1= m'1/m, i2 = m'2/m
from which all other deflections and rotations can be found.
 Formulae for other cases  Application of Yield Line Theory in design codes
─ BS 8110-1:1997, Clause 3.5.2.1: “Alternatively, Johansen’s yield
─ Where slabs are continuous, the ratio of hogging to sagging line method or Hillerborg’s strip method may be used provided
moments can be freely chosen to suit any particular situation, a the ratio between support and span moments are similar to those
popular one is to make sagging moment capacity equal support obtained by the use of the elastic theory.” The basic requirement is
moment capacity. that to provide against serviceability requirements, the ratio of support
─ Failure patterns for one-way spanning slabs are easily and span moments should be similar to those obtained by elastic
visualised and the standard formulae can be used for theory. In Clauses 3.6.2 and 3.7.1.2, making the approach also
determining the span moment based on any ratio of hogging acceptable for ribbed slabs and flat slabs.
moments chosen. ─ Eurocode 2-1-1:2004: Yield Line Design is a perfectly valid method
of design. Clause 5.6.1(1) states that plastic methods of analysis
─ Formulae for two-way spanning slabs supported on two, three shall only be used to check the ultimate limit state. Eurocode 2
or four sides are also available for use, but are more indicates that the method may be extended to flat slabs, ribbed,
complicated with easily visual failure patterns for fixity ratios hollow or waffle slabs and that corner tie down forces and torsion at
chosen. free edges need to be accounted for.
 Yield Line Theory as an upper bound theory Table 5.3 — Upper and lower bound ultimate load theories
─ Yield line theory gives upper bound solutions - results that are
either correct or theoretically unsafe. However, once the possible
failure patterns that can form have been recognised, it is difficult to get
the yield line analysis critically wrong.
─ Yield Line Design is regarded as ‘Theoretically unsafe’ only by a
small amount, say well within 10%, but this can be compensated by
increasing the moments (or reinforcement) derived from calculations
by 10%.
─ Other practical factors can make Yield Line Design safer than it
appears, e.g.
 compressive membrane action in slabs (4 × ultimate capacities)
 strain hardening of reinforcement
 rounding up steel areas to the required
 Corner leaves  Corner leaves
─ ‘Corner levers’ describes the phenomenon in two-way slabs on Table 5.4 — Upper and lower bound ultimate load theories
line supports where yield lines split at internal corners,
associated with the formation of a negative yield line across the
corner which ‘levers’ against a corner reaction or holding down
force.
Figure 5.9 — The effect of

corner levers on a simply
supported square slab where
corners are held down and
prevented from lifting
 Corner leaves  The 10% rule
─ For simplicity, yield line patterns are generally assumed to go
into corners without splitting, due to three principle reasons
 the error for such a neglecting is small;
 the analysis involving corner levers is too complex;
 corner levers usually show beneficial effects of membrane action.
─ The exact amount added to the sagging moment is generally (5.4)
about 4% to 8% is assumed for rectangular two-way slabs, with ─ The only situations where allowances under this ‘10% rule’
9% at worst for simply supported square slabs. This effect in slabs
may be inadequate relate to slabs with acute corners and
supported on four sides diminishes in rectangular slabs and begin to
disappear at a ratio of sides greater than 3:1.
certain configuration of slabs with substantial point loads
or line loads, and guidance should be sought from specialist
─ In triangular slabs and slabs with acute corners, however, the
literature.
straight-line mechanism into the corners can underestimate the
positive moment by 30-35%.
 Serviceability and deflections  Serviceability and deflections
─ Yield Line Theory concerns itself only with the ultimate ─ BS 8110
limit state, but serviceability requirements, particularly the  Deflection is usually checked by ensuring that the
limit state of deflection, need to be satisfied. This may call allowable span/effective depth ratio is greater than the
for separate analysis but, more usually, deflection may be actual ratio, modified by factors for compression
checked by using span/effective depth ratios with ultimate (i.e. reinforcement (if any) and service stress in the tension
yield line) moments as the basis. reinforcement.
 Other approaches, such as the rigorous methods in BS
8110 Part 2, simplified analysis methods or finite element
methods should be used if required to accurately calculate
the deflection, but only as a secondary check after the
flexural design checks.
 Serviceability and deflections  Ductility
─ Eurocode 2 ─ Importance of ductility
 safety: warning of collapse
 Similar manner to BS 8110 to check span-to-depth ratios
 economy: through load sharing
 Accurate calculations
─ To ensure adequate ductility, restricting
─ Johansen  allowable x/d ratios
 Little point in making particularly accurate deflection  reinforcing steel type used, EC2 recommend that Class ‘B’ and
‘C’ should be used with plastic analyses such as Yield Line Theory
 Many situations covered that are difficult to analyse without
resorting to finite element methods. Table 5.5 — Minimum characteristic reinforcement strain
at maximum stress
Basic concepts of Yield Line Design Basic concepts of Yield Line Design: Terms
 Isotropy
 Flat slabs ─ An isotropic slab is the one with the same amount of bottom
reinforcement both ways by assuming the effective depths and the
─ Flat slabs on regular supports are regarded as being one-way
moment capacities in the two directions are equal, i.e. dx = dy and mx = my
spanning slabs in each of two directions. These slabs are also
checked for punching shear and deflection in the usual manner.  Orthotropy and Affine transformations
─ Orthotropic slabs have different amounts of reinforcement in the two
─ Yield Line Design produces very economic sections and directions. These slabs tend to span in the short direction and this direction
enables very rational layouts of reinforcement in flat slabs. will have the greater requirement for reinforcement.
─ Yield line methods should not be used to check deflection and ─ The moment capacity, m, in the stronger direction with the moment
capacity, µm, in the weaker direction
deflection should be checked using span/effective depth ratios. ─ All the usually available formulae and methods for two-way isotropic
─ Yield line methods should not be used to check punching shear. slabs can be used for orthotropic slabs if µ and µ are used to transform
To help with punching shear, concentrated top reinforcements the dimensions and concentrated loads.
are provided in a bay close to the column to maximise the  Superimposition of loads
allowable design concrete shear strength local to the column. ─ Unlike elastic methods, Yield Line Theory is non-linear and the principle of
superimposition of loads is strictly inapplicable.
Basic concepts of Yield Line Design: Other uses Basic concepts of Yield Line Design: Other uses
 Slabs on ground  Slabs on ground
─ Design methods
 Westergaard method: Elastic theory ─ If the resistance of the soil to the slab failure is ignored,
 Meyerhof method: Yield Line Theory then the collapse load pu can be calculated as
─ Design formula for the collapse load pu pu  2 π (m  m ') (5.6)

 σp 
pu  1  3   2π(m  m ') (5.5)
 pc 
where 
m, m′ are the sagging and hogging flexural moments of resistance of the slab;
3 σ / p represents the resistance of the soil (this term is usually ignored);
p c
σp is the plastic modulus of subgrade reaction (conservatively the elastic

modulus of subgrade reaction might be used);
pc is the stress on the slab under the contact area of the concentrated load.
Basic concepts of Yield Line Design: Other uses Basic concepts of Yield Line Design: Other uses
 Post-tensioned flat slabs  Concrete bunkers
─ Parameters for designing suspended post-tensioned flat ─ Used in the design of concrete plate elements that are required
slabs at various stages of construction and use to withstand the forces generated by explosions in both
 stresses in concrete and steel domestic and military applications
 serviceability limit states of cracking, deflection and vibration
 detail design  Steelwork connections
 ultimate limit states of flexure and punching ─ Used for the sizing steel plates in bolted connections subjected
─ Yield Line Theory may be applied when considering the to out of plane forces
ultimate limit state of flexure.
 Masonry walls
 Concrete bridges ─ Used for the design of walls subject to lateral loading, even
─ Used in the assessment of short span reinforced concrete though masonry is a brittle non-homogeneous material
and post-tensioned in-situ concrete bridges
5.2 THE WORK METHOD OF ANALYSIS 5.2 THE WORK METHOD OF ANALYSIS
 5.2 The Work Method of Analysis General

General  Stages involved in the failure of a slab
─ Collapse occurs when yield lines form a mechanism;
 Advantage of the Work Method of analysis
─ This mechanism divides the slab into rigid regions;
─ quickest way for hand calculations ─ Since elastic deformations are neglected these rigid regions
─ applicable to slabs of any configuration and loading remain as plane areas;
arrangement ─ These plane areas rotate about their rotation axes located at
─ numeric solution if necessary, iterations made their supports;
─ ‘the 10% rule’ applied ─ All deformation is concentrated within the yield lines which act
as elongated plastic hinges.
 Limitation of this class
─ Normal rectangular slabs with reinforcement in two directions
at right angles to each other and parallel with the sides of the
slab. This covers the vast majority of situations in practice.
Principles of the Work Method The Work Method of analysis:

a kinematic or energy method of analysis
 Once a valid failure pattern (or mechanism) is postulated,
either the moment, m, along the yield lines or the failure
(5.7) load of a slab, N (or n kN/m2), can be established by
applying the above equation.
where
N is the load(s) acting within a particular region [kN]
δ is the vertical displacement of the load(s) N on each region expressed
as a fraction of unity [m]
m is the moment or moment of resistance of the slab per metre run
represented by the reinforcement crossing the yield line [kNm/m]
l is the length of yield line or its projected length onto the axis of rotation
for that region [m]
θ is the rotation of the region about its axis of rotation [m/m]
Determination of the external energy E Determination of the internal energy D

 The external energy expended, E, is calculated by taking, in  The internal energy dissipated, D, is calculated by taking the
turn, the resultant of each load type (i.e. uniformly projected length of each yield line around a region onto the
distributed load, line load or point load) acting on a region axis of rotation of that region and multiplying it by the
and multiplying it by its vertical displacement measured as a moment acting on it and by the angle of rotation attributable
proportion of the maximum deflection δmax which is usually to that region.
taken as unity (one metre).
 The total energy dissipated for the whole slab is the sum of
 It can be seen that the resultant unit for the moment m acting
the dissipated energies of all the regions, E =  (m  l ).
on a yield line is kNm/m or kN.
 The total energy expended for the whole slab is the sum of
the expended energies for all the regions, E =  (N  ).
Energy conservation law E = D Example 5.1

 In the yield line mechanism, E = D.  Consider a one-way slab with span L and width w, simply
supported on two opposite sides, supporting a uniformly
 By equating these two energies the value of the unknown, distributed load of n kN/m2.
i.e. either the moment, m, or the load, N, can then be
established.
Figure 5.10 — A simply

supported one-way slab
Solution Example 5.2

 Consider a two-way spanning square slab simply supported on
E = D four sides. Increasing load will firstly induce hairline cracking on
the soffit, then large cracks will form culminating in the yield lines
(N   ) = (m  l   ) shown in Figure 5.11. Here diagonal cracks are treated as stepped
cracks, with the yield lines projected onto parallel axes of rotations
2  n  (L/2)  w  (δmax /2) = 2mw
θ = δmax /(L/2) = 2 δmax / L
n L w δmax / 2 = 4 m w δmax / L
nL/2 = 4m/L
Figure 5.11 — Yield line patter for
m = n L2 / 8 a simply supported two-way slab
Q.E.D.
Solution Rules for yield line patterns

E = D  Axes of rotation generally lie along lines of support and pass
over any columns;
(N  d ) = (m  l   )  Yield lines are straight;
4  n  [L(L/2)/2]  (δmax /3) = 4  m  L  (2δmax / L)  Yield lines between adjacent rigid regions must pass through
the point of intersection of the axes of rotation of those
Here, the length of the projected yield line, l, for each region
measured parallel to the axis of rotation is L. Thus, we have regions;
 Yield lines must end at a slab boundary;
n L2 / 3 = 8m  Continuous supports repel and simple supports attract yield
m = n L2 / 24 lines.
Q.E.D.
Rules for yield line patterns Rules for yield line patterns
Rule 5
Figure 5.13 — Invalid patterns for a two-way slab
Figure 5.12 — Valid patterns for a two-way slab
Rules for yield line patterns Rules for yield line patterns
Figure 5.14 — Valid patterns for a slab supported Figure 5.15 — An invalid pattern
on two adjacent edges and a column
General simplification General simplification

 For expended external energy, E, the max. deflection δmax = 1,
with the distance of gravity centre to the rotation line as L1/L2.
 Values of L1/L2 when dealing with uniformly distributed loads
- 1/2 for all rectangular regions
- 1/3 for all triangular regions with apex at max deflection point
- 2/3 for all triangular regions with apex on the axis of rotation
 For dissipated internal energy, D, θi = 1/L2
where
θi is the rotation of the region about its axis of rotation
L2 is the distance normal from the axis of rotation (or supported
edge) to the location of δmax of that region.
Figure 5.16 — Lengths L1 and L2
Angled yield line Design procedure

 Calculating expenditure of energy of external loads, E
─ Choose a valid failure pattern of yield lines
─ Divide the slab into rigid regions that rotate about their
respective rotation axes along the support lines
─ Set the point of maximum deflection as unity
─ Evaluate the expenditure of external loads by taking all external
loads on each region
─ Find the gravity centre of each resultant load
─ Multiplying each resultant load by the distance it travels
─ Calculate the energy expenditure of external loads,
Figure 5.17 — Simplification of angled yield lines
E = Σ (N × δ) for all regions
Design procedure Design procedure

 Calculating dissipation of energy within the yield lines, D
─ Project all the yield lines around a region onto, and at right
angles to, that region’s axis of rotation
─ Multiply these projected lengths by the moment acting on each
length and by the angle of rotation of the region
─ Calculate the dissipation of energy rotations for all regions from
D = Σ (m × l × θ)
Figure 5.18 — Principles of
expenditure of external
loads, E
Design procedure Design procedure
Figure 5.18 — Principles of Figure 5.19 — Principles of

expenditure of external dissipation of internal
loads, E loads, D
Design procedure Example 5.3 Two-way slab using the Work

Method (simple yield pattern)
 Using the Work Method, analyse and design a 250 mm thick
reinforced concrete slab spanning 9.07.5 m. The slab
occupies a corner bay of a floor, which has columns at each
corner connected by stiff beams in each direction. The slab can be
regarded as being continuous over two adjacent sides and simply
supported on the other two. Assume isotropic reinforcement
Figure 5.19 — Principles of
with equal ‘m’ in each direction. The total ultimate load is known
dissipation of internal
as 20 kN/m2. Concrete is C40 with a cover of 20 mm on both top
loads, D and bottom sides. Determine the effect of an additional
ultimate line load of 20 kN/m located at the middle of the
shorter span.
Example 5.3 Two-way slab using the Work Solution

Method (simple yield pattern)
a) First the value of m is established by omitting the line load
and letting all yield lines bisect the corners at 45.
Figure Ex.5.3(b)  All yield lines for

determining the external energy
Figure Ex.5.3(a)  Layout of a two-way slab of 9.07.50.25 m
Now the energy expenditure the external loads can be

calculated as
E = ∑ (N  δ)
Regions A & D & E = 4  20 kN/m2  [7.53.75/2] × (1/3)
Parts of B & C () = 375.0 kNm
Parts B & C ( ) E = 2  20 kN/m2  [1.53.75] × (1/2)
= 112.5 kNm
____________________________
E = 487.5 kNm
Figure Ex.5.3(c)  All yield lines for determining the internal energy
By assuming m = m', the dissipation of internal From the equity of energies exerted, we have D = E
energy in the yield lines can be determined as
D = ∑ (m  l  θ) i.e. 13.2 m = 487.5
Region A Dm = m  7.5  (1/3.75) = 2.0 m kNm m = m' = 36.93 kNm/m
Dm' = m'  7.5  (1/3.75) = 2.0 m kNm
Region B Dm = m  9.0  (1/3.75) = 2.4 m kNm
Region C Dm = m  9.0  (1/3.75) = 2.4 m kNm
Dm' = m'  9.0  (1/3.75) = 2.4 m kNm
Region D Dm = m  7.5  (1/3.75) = 2.0 m kNm
____________________________
D = 13.2 m kNm
b) Now we will add the line load of 20 kN/m parallel to the To E = 487.5 kNm, we add
longer side with crack pattern of a). The worst case is where
the line load is over the yield line otherwise expended Regions A & D E = 2  20 kN/m  3.75 × (1/2) = 75 kNm
energy would be less. Part B or C E = 1  20 kN/m  1.5  1 = 30 kNm
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
E = 105 kNm
E = 487.5 + 105 = 592.5 kNm
D is the same as before, i.e. D = 13.2 m kNm

From D = E or 13.2 m = 592.5 or m = m' = 44.89 kNm/m
Figure Ex.5.3(d)  Additional line load
acting on the central line of short span Hence, the partition line raises m from 36.93 to 44.89 kNm/m,
up by 21.55%, i.e. 21.55% extra reinforcement is needed.
Q.E.D.
Example 5.4 Two-way slab using the Work Solution

Method (precise yield pattern)
Regions A & D & E = 2  20 kN/m2  [7.5(4.78+3.38)/2]×(1/3)
 Re-analyse Example 5.3 based on the dimensioned layout of yield Parts of B & C () = 408 kNm
lines used in Example 5.4 by using formulae for this same slab. As
before, allow for an ultimate uniformly distributed load of 20 kN/m2.
Parts B & C ( ) E = 20 kN/m2  [0.84  7.5] × (1/2)
= 63 kNm
____________________________
E = 471 kNm
Figure Ex.5.4  Dimensions

of the yield lines determined
Let m' = m Accuracy of the calculated results

Region A Dm = m  7.5  (1/4.78) = 1.57 m kNm Table 5.6  Comparison of yield line methods
Dm' = m'  7.5  (1/4.78) = 1.57 m kNm
Region B Dm = m  9.0  (1/3.11) = 2.89 m kNm
Region C Dm = m  9.0  (1/4.39) = 2.05 m kNm
Dm' = m'  9.0  (1/4.39) = 2.05 m kNm
Region D Dm = m  7.5  (1/3.38) = 2.22 m kNm
_____________________________________________ Error 3D/2A 3.4% 3.1%
D = 12.35 m kNm  These results clearly demonstrate that very good results can be achieved
with simple approximate layouts.
From the equity of energies exerted, we have D = E  ‘10% rule’ applied for accuracy and safety.
 Ratios other than 1.0 may be chosen for span to support moments, m/m',
i.e. 12.35 m = 471 or m = m' = 38.14 kNm/m (3.3%) Q.E.D. but the ratio of m to m' should be limited within 0.5 and 2.0.
Orthogonal slabs Orthogonal slabs

 Affine transformations
─ The process that allows an orthotropic slab to be analysed as an
equivalent isotropic slab
─ When solved, an Affine Transformation produces a moment, m, of
the same value as that of the original orthotropic slab.
 The rules of Affine Transformation

─ Rules for converting an orthotropic slab to an equivalent isotropic
slab for determining the ultimate moment, m, are listed as follows.
Figure 5.20 — Slab with

orthogonal reinforcement
(5.8)
Orthogonal slabs Orthogonal slabs

Table 5.7  Rules for transforming orthotropic slabs to isotropic slabs Table 5.7  Rules for transforming orthotropic slabs to isotropic slabs
Transformation  m  µm
 The ‘10% rule’ is recommended in the normal way to allow for
inaccuracies and corner levers.
Example 5.5 Two-way slab using the Work Example 5.5 Two-way slab using the Work
Method (orthotropic slab) Method (orthotropic slab)
 Analyse the slab of example 5.3 again from first principles firstly
using the Work Method. Use a ratio of 0.5 for the longitudinal to
transverse steel and use a simplified yield line pattern with 45
angles for the inclined yield lines.
Secondly, analyse the same slab (again with µ = 0.5) using an
Affine Transformation. In both cases, allow for an ultimate
uniformly distributed load 20 kN/m2 and an additional ultimate line
load of 20 kN/m located at the middle of the shorter span.
Figure Ex.5.5(a)  Layout of a two-way slab of 9.07.50.25 m
Solution
Triangular areas: E = 20 kN/m27.57.5(1/3) = 375.0 kNm
 Part 1 Analysis using the Work Method
Rectangular areas:E = 20 kN/m21.57.5(1/2) = 112.5 kNm
Ends of partition: E = 20 kN/m  7.5  (1/2) = 75.0 kNm
Centre of partition:E = 20 kN/m  1.5  1 = 30.0 kNm
_____________________________________________________________________________
E = 592.5 kNm
Figure Ex.5.5(b)  All yield lines for determining the external

and internal energies
m1' = 0.5 m for 3 yield lines (one negative yield line at the From the equity of energies exerted, we have D = E
continuous support and two positive yield lines in the
span): i.e. 10.2 m = 592.5
D = 3  0.5 m  7.5  (1/3.75) = 3.0 m kNm
Thus, we have
m1' = m for 3 yield lines (one negative yield line at the
m = 592.5/10.2 = 58.09 kNm/m
continuous support and two positive yield lines in the
span): m = 0.5  58.09 = 29.05 kNm/m
D = 3  m  9.0  (1/3.75) = 7.2 m kNm m1' = i1  m = 1  0.5  58.09 = 29.05 kNm/m
____________________________________________________________________________
m2' = i2 m = 1  58.09 = 58.09 kNm/m
D = 10.2 m kNm
 Part 2 Analysis using Affine Transformation Triangular areas: E = 20 kN/m210.67.5(1/3) = 530.00 kNm
Rectangular areas:E = 20 kN/m22.137.5(1/2) = 159.75 kNm
Ends of partition: E = 20 kN/m  10.6  (1/2) = 106.00 kNm
Centre of partition:E = 20 kN/m  2.13  1 = 42.60 kNm
_____________________________________________________________________________
E = 838.35 kNm
Figure Ex.5.5(c)  All yield lines for Affine Transformation pattern

Note: Following the affine transformation, moment = m in both directions.
(m1' = 0.5 m) D = 3  m  7.5  (1/5.3) = 4.25 m kNm  Converting back

(m1' = m) D = 3m12.73(1/3.75) = 10.18 m kNm
____________________________________________________________________________
D = 14.43 m kNm
From the equity of energies exerted, we have D = E

i.e. 14.43 m = 838.35
Thus, we have m = 838.35/14.43 = 58.09 kNm/m
Figure Ex.5.5(d)  All yield lines for Affine Transformation pattern

Note: 12.73  √0.5 = 9.0 m
5.2 THE WORK METHOD OF ANALYSIS 5.3 STANDARD FORMULAE FOR RC SLABS
m = 58.09 kNm  5.3 Standard Formulae for RC Slabs

µm = 0.5  58.09 = 29.05 kNm/m One-way spanning slabs
as i1 = 1 m'1 = i1 µm = 1  0.5  58.09 = 29.05 kNm/m
as i2 = 1 m'2 = i2 m = 58.09 kNm/m
 Conclusions
─ The same solution.
─ Apply the ‘10% rule’ to allow for the effects of corner levers
because yield line theory is an upper bound solution.
Q.E.D.
Figure 5.21 — One-way spanning slab
5.3 STANDARD FORMULAE FOR RC SLABS 5.3 STANDARD FORMULAE FOR RC SLABS
One-way spanning slabs One-way spanning slabs

 General formulae
n L2
m per unit width (5.3)
 
2
2 1  i1  1  i2
where
m is the ultimate sagging moment along the yield line [kNm/m]
n is the ultimate load [kN/m2]
L is the span [m]
i1, i2 are the ratios of support moments to mid-span moments,
and i1= m'1/m, i2 = m'2/m
Figure 5.22 — Axonometric view of a simply supported one-way slab

 Proof of Eq.(5.3)  Proof of Eq.(5.3)
Eq.(5.3) may be proved from first principles using the Equilibrium
method, see Figure 5.23. Lr is the so called ‘reduced span’ of a
simply supported slab giving the same span moment m as the
continuous slab. We can now write
nLr 2 8m
m or n
8 Lr 2
Figure 5.23 — Moment
distributions of
a simply supported
one-way slab

 Proof of Eq.(5.3)  Proof of Eq.(5.3)
For Region 1,
Moment of external loads about support = n x12 / 2
From Lr 1  i1  Lr 1  i2  Lr  1  i1  1  i2  2 L
Sum of the moments in the yield lines = m + m'1
2L
Equilibrium gives m + m'1 = n x12 / 2 i.e. Lr 
m + i1 m = 8 m x12 / (2 Lr2) 1  i1  1  i 2
m (1+ i1) = 4 m x12 / Lr2 2
1+ i1 = 4 x12 / Lr2 nL 2 n  2L  nL2
m r    
 
Hence, Lr2 (1+ i1) = 4 x12
 
8 8  1  i1  1  i2 2
 2 1  i1  1  i2
Lr 1  i1  2 x1
Similarly, for Region 2 Lr 1  i2  2 x2 Q.E.D

 For simply supported slab as shown in Figure 5.24, i1 = m'1/m = 0  For simply supported slab as shown in Figure 5.24, i1 = m'1/m = 0
and i2 = m'2/m = 0 and i2 = m'2/m = 0
nL2 nL2 nL2

m   kNm/m
   
2 2 8
2 1  i1  1  i2 2 1 0  1 0
The plastic ultimate moment along the yield line is nL2/8, which is
correct.
Figure 5.24 — Loading, hinge locations and bending

moment diagram for simply supported slab
One-way spanning slabs: Design formulae One-way spanning slabs: Design formulae
 Restrictions Table 5.8 — Formulae for one-way slabs - to establish mid-span
yield line moment, m, in a span of a continuous slab
─ qk / gk < 1.25
─ qk (excluding partitions) ≤ 5 kN/m2
─ Abay > 30 m2
where
m is the ultimate moment along the yield line [kNm/m]
n is the ultimate load per unit area [kN/m2]
L is the span, either centreline-to-centreline, or with integral
supports, clear span [m]
i1, i2 are the ratios of support to mid-span moments and are chosen
by the designer
m'1, m'2 are the support moments - the values of which are chosen by
the designer. The values could be established from analysis
carried out on an adjacent bay [kNm/m]
Table 5.8 — Formulae for one-way slabs - to establish mid-span Table 5.8 — Formulae for one-way slabs - to establish mid-span
yield line moment, m, in a span of a continuous slab (cont.) yield line moment, m, in a span of a continuous slab (cont.)
Table 5.9 — Location of maximum mid-span moments Table 5.9 — Location of maximum mid-span moments
and points of contraflexure and points of contraflexure (cont.)
where
x1, x2 are the distances to maximum span moment [m]
s1, s2 are distances to points of contraflexure, i.e. zero moment points [m]
L is the span [m]
i1, i2 are the ratios of support to mid-span moments
m is the maximum mid-span moment [kNm/m]
m'1 and m'2 are the support moments [kNm/m]
One-way spanning slabs: Design formulae Two-way slabs supported on four edges
 Homework  General
Prove the locations of maximum mid-span moments and points of
contraflexure as shown in Table 5.9.
Hint
Assume m(x) = a x2 + b x + c. The coefficients a, b and c can be
obtained based on the following boundary conditions
m(0) = - i1 m, m(L) = - i2 m and m(x1) = m.
From m(s1) = m(L – s2) = 0, s1 and s2 can be solved.
Figure 5.26 — Slab supported on four sides
Two-way slabs supported on four edges Two-way slabs

 Parameters supported on
four edges
m is the ultimate moment along the yield line (sagging) [kNm/m]
m' is the ultimate moment along the yield line (hogging) [kNm/m]
pa , pb are the line loads (partitions) [kN/m]
n is the total ultimate uniformly distributed load, in general
from Eq.(6.10b) of EN 1990, (0.9251.35) gk + 1.5 qk [kN/m2]
q is the reaction [kN/m] Table 5.13a — Formulae for
a, b, h are the dimensions [m] slabs supported
H is the holding down forces at corners [kN] on four sides
i1 to i4 are the fixity, the ratios m'i /m for regions 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Note: ar and br are the
reduced side lengths.
Two-way slabs Two-way slabs supported on four edges

supported on  The simplified expression for evaluating the moment m
four edges 2
 2 
nar 2   ar  ar 
m 3   (5.9)
24   br  br 
 
This equation is only valid without line loads and for ar  br .
Table 5.13b — Formulae for

slabs supported
on four sides (cont.)
Two-way slabs supported on four edges Two-way slabs supported on four edges
 Example 5.6: Two-way slab using formulae  Solution
(with UDL and line load)
(a) Floor layout
Using the formulae given in Table 5.13, analyse and design the
same 250 mm thick reinforced concrete slab as in Examples 5.3
and 5.4. It is 9.0 m by 7.5 m and occupies a corner bay of a floor
that has columns at each corner connected by stiff beams in each
direction. Allow for a total ultimate load of 20 kN/m2. Concrete is
C40 with a cover of 20 mm for both top and bottom sides.
Establish what the effect would be on the amount of reinforcement
required if there were a need to allow for a heavy partition
weighing 20 kN/m (ultimate) to be added in any location on the
slab.
(b) Analysis, initially with UDL only  Determine the reduced side lengths
Corner bay slab supported on beams: with reference to Table 5.13a, so In this instance it was assumed that the adjoining bays are of
m'1 = i1 m similar spans so that an i value of 1.0 is considered appropriate
for the two continuous sides.
and m'2 = i2 m
Choosing i1 = i2 = 1 and i3 = i4 = 0
2a 2  7.5
ar    6.213 m
1  i2  1  i4 11  1 0
2b 2  9.0
br    7.456 m
1  i1  1  i3 11  1 0
As there is no line load, α = β = 0 therefore n* = n and br* = br
 Determine moments (c) Check dimensions
As there is no line load, α = β = 0 therefore n* = n and br* = br The values for h1 to h4 are also used in Example 5.4.
m 38.18
nar br 20  6.213  7.456 Check that h1 + h3 ≤ b h1  6 (1  i1 )  6  (1  1)  4.786 m
m   38.18 kNm/m n 20
 br ar   7.456 6.213 
8 1    8 1    h3  6 (1  i3 )
m
 6  (1  0)
38.18
 3.384 m
 ar br   6.213 7.456  n 20
4.786 + 3.384 = 8.17 m < b=9m OK!
m'1 = i1 m = 1.0  38.18 =38.18 kNm/m
ar 6.213
m'2 = i2 m = 1.0  38.18 =38.18 kNm/m Check that h2 + h4 = a h2  1  i2  1  1  4.393 m
2 2
a 6.213
h4  r 1  i4  1  0  3.107 m
2 2
4.393 + 3.107 = 7.5 m = a = 7.5 m OK!
(d) Uniformed distributed reactions  Hold-down forces at corners
1 1  1 1  H12  2m 1  i1 1  i2  2  38.18  1  1  1  1  152.72 kN
q1  4m    1  i1  4  38.18     1  1  63.73 kN/m
 ar br   6.213 7.456  H 23  2m 1  i2 1  i3  2  38.18  1  1  1  0  107.99 kN
1 1  1 1 
q2  4m    1  i2  4  38.18     1  1  63.73 kN/m H 34  2m 1  i3 1  i4  2  38.18  1  0  1  0  76.36 kN
 ar br   6.213 7.456 
H 41  2m 1  i4 1  i1  2  38.18  1  0  1  1  107.99 kN
1 1  1 1 
q3  4m    1  i3  4  38.18     1  0  45.06 kN/m
 ar br   6.213 7.456 
1 1  1 1 
q4  4m    1  i4  4  38.18     1  0  45.06 kN/m
 r
a br   6.213 7.456 
 Check loads against reactions and holding down forces (e) Design
Total load on slab: 20  9  7.5 = 1350 kN 
Total reaction on beams: 63.73  (9 + 7.5) + 45.06  (9 + 7.5)

= 1795.04 kN 
dave = 250 – 20 – 12 = 218 mm
Total holding down forces at corners: m 38.18 106
152.72 + 107.99  2 + 76.36 = 445.06 kN    0.02
bd 2 f ck 1000  2182  40
Thus 1795.04 – 445.06 = 1349.98 kN
z
d
2
 d
 
1  1  3.53K  1  1  3.53  0.02  0.982d
2

i.e. 1350 kN ≈ 1349.98 kN OK!
The lever arm is limited to 0.95d, i.e. z = 0.95d
m 38.18  106 (f) Consider additional partition load of 20 kN/m
As,req    423.8 mm 2
f yd z 435  0.95  218
From partition loads, as the line load is relatively small (β =
Provide H12 @ 250 centres (452.4 mm2/m)
each way bottom 0.133, i.e. << 0.35), use of formulae is OK.
and at the top along sides a and b where slab is continuous. The supporting beams have been defined as stiff so that the slab
This is slightly less than the 10% increase usually recommended, can be regarded as being supported on all four sides and
but in practice an increase of 7% would be adequate to allow for therefore, at ultimate load, only the slab will fail leaving the beams
corner levers. intact.
452.4/423.8  1.07 OK!

or Provide H12 @ 240 centres (471.2 mm2/m) each way bottom
and at the top along sides a and b where slab is continuous,
which gives 471.2/423.8  1.11 OK!
 First try partition parallel with side b  Check for partition parallel with side a
pb 20
α=0     0.133
na 20  7.5
n*  n (1  α  2β)  20  (1  0  2  0.133)  25.33 kNm/m
ar = 6.213 m as before
1  α  2β 1  0  2  0.133
br *  br  7.456   7.092 m
1  3β 1  3  0.133 pa 20
Then     0.111 =0
n*ar br 25.33  6.213  7.092 nb 20  9.0
m   46.24 kNm/m
 b *
a   7.092 6.213  n*  n (1  α  2β)  20  (1  0.111  2  0)  22.22 kNm/m
8 1  r  r*  8 1   
 ar br   6.213 7.092 
As 22.22 kNm/m < 25.33 kNm/m, partition parallel with side b is
i.e. m' = m'1 = m'1 = 46.24 kNm/m critical.
 Required reinforcement area for design with partition  Conclusion
m 46.24  10 6 Due to the addition of a line load of 20 kN/m in the most

As,req    513.3 mm 2 onerous location on the slab, the reinforcement has to be
f yd z 435  0.95  218
increased from H12 @ 250 (240) mm to H12 @ 200 mm in
Provide H12 @ 200 mm centres (565.5 mm2/m), which gives all locations.
565.5/513.3  1.10 OK! Q.E.D.
MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering: 5. Yield Line Analysis
Revision Questions
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5.1 Design of a two-way reinforced concrete edge slab using Yield Line Analysis
(a) Using the formulae for the yield line theory and considering bending only, analyse
and design the reinforced concrete edge slab, as shown in Figure 5.1(a). The slab
has columns at each corner connected by stiff beams in each direction.
(b) Considering bending only, evaluate the effects of the current arrangement on the
amount of reinforcement required if there is a need to allow for a heavy partition
to be added in the direction parallel to the longer edge, as indicated in Figure
5.1(b).
(c) Discuss the effect of the heavy partition on the provided bending reinforcement.
Design Data:
Longer slab span L = 9.0 m
Shorter slab span B = 7.5 m
Slab depth hs = 280 mm
Diameter of main reinforcing bars φs = 12 mm
Nominal concrete cover cnom = 30 mm
Characteristic compressive strength of concrete fck = 40 MPa
Characteristic yield strength of reinforcement fyk = 500 MPa
Design value of uniformly distributed load for floor qd = 28 kN/m2
Design value of uniformly distributed load for partition pd = 25 kN/m
Redistribution of bending moment 15%
251
Revision Questions
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
A A
B
m B = 7.5 m
qd = 28 kN/m2
B Section B-B
L = 9.0 m
280 mm
Section A-A
Figure 5.1(a)
qd = 28 kN/m2
3.75 m
pd = 25 kN/m
B = 7.5 m
3.75 m m
m
L = 9.0 m
Figure 5.1(b)
252
Revision Questions
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5.2 Design of a two-way reinforced concrete corner slab using Yield Line Analysis
(a) Using the formulae for the yield line theory and considering bending only, analyse
and design the reinforced concrete corner slab, as shown in Figure 5.2(a). The slab
has columns at each corner connected by stiff beams in each direction.
(b) Considering bending only, evaluate the effects of the current arrangement on the
amount of reinforcement required if there is a need to allow for a heavy partition
to be added in the direction parallel to the longer edge, as indicated in Figure
5.2(b).
(c) Discuss the effect of the heavy partition on the provided bending reinforcement.
Design Data:
Longer slab span L = 10.0 m
Shorter slab span B = 8.0 m
Slab depth hs = 290 mm
Diameter of main reinforcing bars φs = 12 mm
Nominal concrete cover cnom = 30 mm
Characteristic compressive strength of concrete fck = 40 MPa
Characteristic yield strength of reinforcement fyk = 500 MPa
Design value of uniformly distributed load for floor qd = 26 kN/m2
Design value of uniformly distributed load for partition pd = 24 kN/m
Redistribution of bending moment 15%
253
Revision Questions
_ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
A A
B
m B = 8.0 m
qd = 26 kN/m2
B Section B-B
L = 10.0 m
290 mm
Section A-A
Figure 5.2(a)
qd = 26 kN/m2
4.0 m
pd = 24 kN/m
B = 8.0 m
4.0 m m
m
L = 10.0 m
Figure 5.2(b)
254
(MHH223204/MHH225189)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
6. EARTHQUAKE DESIGN TO EN 1998

What causes Earthquakes
Design of Structures for earthquake

resistance in accordance
with BS EN 1998
Thanasis Antyras BEng (Hons) CEng, MIStructE, M.ASCE
Types of Ground Movements Types of Ground Movements

Summary of possible structural Design Earthquake resistance structures to
damages from an earthquake Eurocode 8
■ The factors which are affecting the severity of
the seismic forces are the building weight, the
Natural period of vibration, damping and
ductility.
■ The inertia force is determined by the building
weight. Newton’s low states that the inertia
force is proportional to mass of the building.
The natural period Dumping
■ The natural period of vibration of every building ■ Dumping reduces the horizontal vibrations
affects its behaviour during an earthquake. and caused by the internal friction of building
Generally a longer the natural period of variation will
elements. A reinforced concrete building is
result to a less maximum acceleration and seismic
force. more dumping than steel but less than timber.
Ductility Basic seismic design principles for
buildings
■ Ductility has a large influence upon the
magnitude of accelerations and seismic ■ In EC8, the fundamental requirements for seismic performance are set out
in Section 2. There are two main requirements. The first is to meet a ‘no
forces a building is design for. Depending collapse’ performance level, which requires that the structure remains its full
upon the degree of the ductility a structure vertical load bearing capacity after an earthquake with a recommended
return period of 475 years. Longer return periods are given special
has, the design of the seismic force can be structures for example casualty hospitals, public administration buildings
and high risk petrochemical installations. After the earthquake there should
reduced to approximately as little as on sixth also sufficient residual lateral strength and stiffness to protect life even
of an equivalent non ductile structure. during strong aftershocks.
Basic seismic design principles for Basic seismic design principles for
buildings buildings
■ The rules for meeting the ‘damage limitation’ performance level in buildings
■ The second main requirement is to meet a ‘damage limitation’ performance are given in section 4 of part 1. They consist of simple restrictions on
level, which requires that the cost of damage and associated limitations of deflections to limit structural and non structural damage and some
use should not be disproportionately high, in comparison with the total cost additional rules for protecting non-structural elements.
of the structure, after an earthquake with a recommended return period (for
normal structures) of 95 years. Note that the section 2 of EC8 applies to all ■ EC8 part 1 Section 4.2.1. sets out some aspects of seismic design
types of structures, not just buildings. specifically for buildings, which should be considered at conceptual design
stage, and which will assist in meeting the ‘no collapse’ and ‘damage
■ EC8 ‘rules’ for meeting the ‘no collapse’ performance level in buildings are limitation’ requirements.
given in Section 4 part 1 with respect to the analysis procedures and in ■ We can find the structural regularity rules in section 4.2.3
section 5 to 9 of part 1 with respect to material specific procedures to
ensure sufficient strength and ductility in the structure.
■ Additional uniformity and symmetry principles are given in section 4.2.1
buildings buildings
■ Capacity Design
■ Six guiding principles are given in EC8 part 1, section 4.2.1
❑ Structural simplicity
❑ Uniformity, symmetry and redundancy
❑ Bi-directional resistance and stiffness
❑ Tortional resistance and stiffness
❑ Adequacy of diaphragms at each storey level
❑ Adequate foundations
buildings buildings
Capacity design
Capacity design
buildings buildings
Capacity design Capacity design
Lateral Force Method of Analysis Lateral Force Method of Analysis

EN 1998, clause 4.3.3.2 EN 1998, clause 4.3.3.2
■ Second
■ The buildings analysed with this process meet two criteria.
■ First, their fundamental periods of vibration (T1) in the two major directions
■ They fulfil the requirements for regularity of the structure in
satisfy the following equation
elevation as these are specified in EN 1998, clause 4.2.3.3 and
for ductility, which are specified in EN 1998, clauses 4.2 and
5.2.2.2
where Tc is defined in EN 1998, clause 3.2.2.2, table 3.2

■ First Step: ■ What we know from the project scope of

■ Calculation of Seismic works:
Base Shear Force
■ 1. Ground conditions
■ 2. The importance of the building
■ 3. Ground Peak acceleration of the
seismic zone
■ 4. Material (Concrete/steel/Timber)

■ Seismic Base Shear Force (equation 3.6) ■ Elastic Response Spectrum (EN 1998, figure 3.1 )
■ Where
m=mass
λ is the correction factor and λ = 0.85
Sd(T1) is the ordinate of the design spectrum at period T1

(EN 1998, clause 3.2.2.5)
Lateral Force Method of Analysis
EN 1998, clause 4.3.3.2
■ The natural period ■ Ct

■ Ct is equal to:
■ Where
■ – 0.085 for moment resisting steel frames,
Ct = from the type of frame and ■ – 0.075 for moment resisting concrete frames and for
material eccentrically braced steel frames,
H= height of building ■ – 0.050 for all other structures.
■ For structures with concrete or masonry shear walls,
Ct can be taken equal
◼ to: Ct = 0.075 / Ac
■ Ac= is the total effective area of the sections of the
shear walls at the firststorey of the building, in m2

From Horizontal Design Spectra:
Ground Parameters
■
■
■ Design ground acceleration ag = γ1 x agR ■ Importance of buildings (γ1 )

■ Ductility (steel) ■ Ductility (Concrete)

Lateral Force Method of Analysis Design Earthquake resistance structures to Eurocode 8
Concrete Buildings
EN 1998, clause 4.3.3.2
Base Shear/Vertical distribution of
■
forces
■ Load Combination (EN 1990)
Design Earthquake resistance structures to Eurocode 8 Design Earthquake resistance structures to Eurocode 8
Working Examples
■ Working Examples
Working Examples Working Examples




Working Examples- Working Examples

Load Distribution (Concrete Building)

Solution
4 x 401.22 =1604.88
8 x 401.22 =3209.76
Level HEIGHT MASS Zkmk FORCE MOMEN 12 x 401.22 =4814.64
Zk mk Fk T 16 x 202.60 =3241.60
(m) (tn) (kN) Fk Zk
(kN) Force: (Total base shear 2577.13)
Roof 16 202.60 3241.60 649.07 10385.12
Level 1 : 2577.13 x 1604.88/12870.88 =321.35
3 12 401.223 4814.68 964.03 11568.36 Level 2 2577.13 x 3209.76/12870.88 =642.70
2 8 401.223 3209.78 642.70 5141.60 Level 3 2577.13 x 4814.65/12870.88 =964.03
Level 4 2577.13 x 3241.60/12870.88 =649.07
1 4 401.223 1604.89 321.35 1285.40
TOTALS 12870.95 2577.13 28380.48



Design Earthquake resistance structures to Eurocode 8
Working Examples
(MHH223204/MHH225189)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7. THE CONCRETE CENTRE STUDENT

STRUCTURAL CONCRETE DESIGN
COMPETITION 2023
Structural Concrete 2023
The Concrete Centre Student Design Competition

Contents
The Concrete Centre is the central development organisation for the UK cement Laing O’Rourke is a globally diverse engineering and construction group with
Introduction 3 and concrete industry. Its objective is to assist all those involved in design a commitment to delivering Excellence Plus performance, founded on over 170
and construction to realise the full potential of concrete as an adaptable and years of experience. They fund, design, manufacture, construct and maintain the
Project brief 4 sustainable construction material. modern world – providing the buildings and infrastructure to accommodate,
educate, employ, transport, care for and sustain communities.
Design data 6 For more information on The Concrete Centre visit
www.concretecentre.com. Their business model comprises the full range of engineering, manufacturing,
Submission construction and project management services. Their fully integrated offering
The Concrete Centre is part of the Mineral Products Association, the trade delivers bespoke solutions to meet the particular requirements of some of the
requirements 7 association for the aggregates, asphalt, cement, concrete, dimension stone, lime, world’s most prestigious public and private organisations. Their collaborative
mortar and silica sand industries. approach combines discipline in delivery with the continuous pursuit of
Assessment criteria 9 innovation: engaging with customers and partners at the earliest stages, advising
on and providing the best ways to complete projects with certainty and achieve
Awards 9 greatest value for all stakeholders – employees, customers, communities and
shareholders. Their long-term strategy aims to create sustainable growth by
Rules 10 meeting the economic, social and environmental challenges of the rapidly
changing world.
Entry form 11
Their pursuit of engineering excellence is supported by their investment in
innovative industry-leading precast concrete and offsite manufacturing facilities.
More information is available online at:

www.laingorourke.com
2
Introduction
Structural Concrete 2023 sets a demanding challenge for all
students studying structural design as part of UK University
BEng, MEng and MSc degree courses in Civil and/or Structural
Engineering.
This student design competition aims to encourage interest and raise competence
in designing with concrete. The competition offers a stimulating and fun challenge
to students, while supporting the curricula of civil and structural engineering
departments of UK universities. The main benefit for a student is in being able to
present their work to prospective employers, some of whom are involved in setting
and judging the competition. The national winners will be presented with their
prizes at an event in London where their award winning entries will be shown.
There will also be a sustainability award for the student who demonstrates the best
understanding of this subject in their submission.
These awards reflect a significant commitment from the judges who, together with
The Concrete Centre, have carefully developed this year’s competition. Initiative,
creativity, aesthetic appreciation and accuracy are called for, and will be assessed by
the judges. Above all, this competition has been designed to stretch the technical
competence of the students taking part.
Because it is so flexible, Structural Concrete 2023 can easily be incorporated into

existing university curricula, with content that reflects an independent project, a
group project or a module assessment run over the first, second or both semesters of
the academic year.
This year’s challenge…

The 2023 project is a new office building with basement car parking
in a city centre in the North West of England.
The structure is to provide a new home for a multi-disciplinary company, including six
storeys of office spaces with basement car parking.
The client, a property developer, has commissioned an initial structural design for the
development, to be known as Beeby House, from a firm of consulting engineers. The
building includes a basement with office car parking and six floors of office space. Exposed concrete at White Collar Factory, a recent office building in London.
Entrants must respond as though they are the structural engineer responsible within the © Tim Soar Photography
consultant’s team.
3
1. Project brief: Beeby House

Beeby House is to be constructed on a brownfield site in the centre of a major city in the North West of England. The brief requires a six-
storey high office building with basement parking.
The new building comprises basement car parking and six floors of open plan office Access from the basement to the upper floors will be via lift or stairs located in the
spaces. The client, a property developer, has commissioned an initial structural design main core(s) of the building, which will occupy 4% of the total floor area on each floor.
from a firm of consulting engineers. The minimum floor to soffit of structure height is 2.9m. The maximum floor to floor
height is 3.8m. The intended ground floor layout is shown in Figure 1.
The proposed building is in the shape of a 81m long × 25m wide ellipse. This comprises
office spaces, plantrooms, stairs and lifts. The client requires an open office space and The basement will provide 20 car parking spaces including five disabled car parking
has requested that the columns be at a minimum spacing of 8m (centre to centre). spaces. Space for 40 bicycles should also be included in the basement. Vehicle access
to the basement car park will be via a ramp at the west end and egress will be via a
ramp on the east end of the building. The ramps are external to the footprint of the
building. Retaining walls will be required around the perimeter of the basement and
the ramps. Columns should be located in the basement to suit the parking layout. No
columns are allowed in the aisles. A floor to soffit height of 2.6m is required throughout
the basement.
At roof level, all servicing plant including water tanks, heating boilers and lift
mechanism are to be located on top of the core(s) and screened by a 3.0m high
enclosure on external faces. The enclosure screen itself does not have to be designed.
Planning considerations dictate the use of faced precast concrete cladding panels on
the facade. These facades will be punched precast concrete cladding panels with 30%
glazing. Because the high quality cladding forms a significant component of the cost
of the building, the depth of floor construction should be as small as practicable to
minimise the overall height of the building.
The structure is to be reinforced concrete (either in-situ, precast or hybrid concrete

construction) and clad in precast concrete. The client would welcome proposals from
the structural engineer that might enhance the visual appeal of the building and
improve the speed of construction.
4
81m
81m
A A
A Car Park Car Park A

Access (Down) 25m Egress (Up)
Car Park Car Park
Access (Down) 25m Egress (Up)
Figure 1: Ground Floor Plan

Figure 1: Ground floor plan
Figure 1: Ground Floor Plan
Reinforcement Details
required 6 Storeys –
Reinforcement Details floor to soffit
required 6 Storeys
height –
= 2.9m
floor to soffit
height = 2.9m
2.6m floor to soffit Car Parking
2.6m floor to soffit Car Parking

Figure 2: Section A-A

5
2. Design data
Verification of structural viability should be carried out in accordance with current Eurocodes. Entrants should clearly state in their
submission which documents have been used in their calculations. Materials specifications should be defined to the current British
Standards. Fire resistance of 90 minutes is required.
2.1 Loadings 2.2 The site

2.1.1 Dead loadings 2.2.1 Exposure conditions
Dead loads of structural elements as found. The site is level, situated 5km from the edge of the city and 30 km from the nearest sea.
The fundamental basic wind speed, Vb,map should be taken as 21m/sec (based on BS
Cladding: EN 1991-1-4:2005). Snow loading may be neglected.
Precast concrete cladding 2.4 kN/m2 2.2.2 Ground conditions
Glazing 0.70 kN/m2

Depths below
Description Soil data
ground level
2.1.2 Imposed loading Made ground GL to 1.0m
Sandy clay From 1.0m to 16m c = 50kPa

Imposed loading:
Rock Below 16m Allowable bearing
pressure 2500kPa
Plant room 7.5 kN/m 2
Other areas of roof not zoned for plant 0.75 kN/m2 Ground water was encountered in sample boreholes at approximately 3.5m. There may
be seasonal variations in groundwater level, but monitoring of one standpipe over the
Office area floors, including partitions 2.5 + 1 kN/m2 period Oct-April shows a maximum groundwater level of 3.0m below ground level.
Basement 2.5 kN/m2
These loadings do not include an allowance for raised floors, ceilings and services. All
values are characteristic values.
6
3. Submission requirements
The submission is to comprise four components:
i. A conceptual design report
ii. Appendix 1 containing calculations for the selected scheme
iii. Appendix 2 containing the drawings for the selected scheme
iv. Appendix 3 containing a sustainability appraisal.
The submission must not exceed 60 single sided A4 pages and three
A3 size drawings.
3.1 Conceptual design report

A maximum of 30 pages, of either 1.5 line spaced text in a maximum 11pt font, or iv. An outline specification for concrete and reinforcing materials.
neatly hand written in black ink, which should include:
v. A method statement for a safe construction procedure for the building.
i. An appraisal of two distinct and viable design solutions in structural concrete for
the building, together with their associated slab, beam, column, wall and roof vi. A statement of how robustness to avoid disproportionate collapse is satisfied.
layouts. The appraisals should comprise sketches of typical bays with supporting
notes, outlining the intended load paths, framing and stability functions, and some vii. After completion of your design, the client writes to you to ask for 60 car parking
brief notes on construction methodology. The appraisal should include a diagram spaces in the basement. Reply to their letter outlining how this change could be
of the parking layout in the basement. achieved and how it would affect the structure.
i. An evaluation of the merits and disadvantages of the two solutions. The evaluation
should identify significant differences such as cost or buildability between the two
alternatives, and make a recommendation in favour of one solution.
ii. A description of the foundation scheme adopted for the preferred solution, with a
rationale for the selection. A fully detailed design for the foundation scheme is not
required.
7
3.2 Verification of structural viability 3.4 Sustainability plan

The verification of structural viability of the selected scheme should be demonstrated The Client is required to provide a statement to their investors regarding the
in Appendices to the conceptual design report to make up the balance of the report. sustainability aspects of the project. It is important to the investors that the building
(The maximum total length of the design report, sustainability appraisal plus Appendix has a long-design life, is low maintenance and is resilient to flooding and climate
is 60 pages A4.) change impacts.
The Appendices should contain sufficient design calculations by hand to establish the Prepare a section on the structure to be included in the sustainability statement,
form and size of all structural elements for the chosen scheme. Entrants should decide including any mitigating measures taken in the specification of the structure, and
how best to convey this information within the space constraints imposed. including sustainability aspects such as fire safety and fabric protection, material
efficiency and resilience.
Calculations for individual elements should enable a checker to understand clearly
their contribution to the strength and stability of the whole structure, and the load
paths assumed. Hence, if computer output is presented, validation by (approximate)
hand calculations is also required. Consideration should be given to performance at
both Serviceability and Ultimate Limit States.
Note: Calculations are not required for stairs.
3.3 Drawings
A total of three A3 drawings should be included. Drawings may be prepared using
appropriate CAD software, or by hand. In either case, notes and dimensions should not
be smaller than the equivalent of an 11pt font.
Two of the A3 drawings should be used to present general arrangements, sections and
elevations of the building to show the layout, disposition and dimensions of structural
elements for estimation purposes. Drawings should be to an appropriate scale and
must be dimensioned. Reinforcement details should not be shown on these two
drawings.
The third drawing should show the reinforcement detail at the junction of the
basement retaining wall and ground floor; and the detail of the fixing arrangement for
a precast concrete cladding panel. These locations are shown in Figure 2.
8
4. Assessment criteria 5. Awards

4.1 Local 5.1 University level
The competition will operate on two levels. Firstly, all submissions made at each The winning entry from each university will receive a prize of £250. The winning entry
university will be judged by the academic tutor(s) involved with the project. The will go forward to compete at national level.
winning submission from each university should then be entered for the national level
of the competition by the tutor.
Only one entry from each university can go forward for final judging at a national level. 5.2 National level
The winner(s) of the national competition will receive a certificate(s) and a prize of
4.2 National £1,250.
Runner(s) up will also receive a certificate(s) and a prize of £750. The judges may decide
The winning entry from each participating university will be judged at national level on joint prizes in which case the above prize money will be divided up by the judging panel
using the following generic assessment criteria: at its discretion.
• Compliance with the project brief A special commendation, certificate and prize of £250 will be available for the best
sustainability report.
• Safety, function, stability and robustness
The prize-winners’ universities will also receive certificates.
• Buildability, constructability and maintainability
• Speed of construction and cost effectiveness
• Imagination, flair, aesthetic appreciation and innovation.

5.3 Presentation
The interpretation of the above criteria by the award judging panel will be final and
The prizes and certificates will be presented to the winner(s), runner(s) up and
feedback will not be provided.
winner(s) of the special commendation at an awards ceremony in September 2023
in London. This will be part of a seminar for practising engineers who will be able to
review the winning entries. The prize-winners will be notified of further details.
5.4 Eligibility
Structural Concrete 2023 is open only to students studying for a degree at a UK
university. Entries can be single, joint, or from teams of up to four students.
Although the competition is aimed at students in their final years of study, entries
from any other appropriate undergraduate and/or postgraduate stages will also be
considered at the discretion of the academic tutor(s).
9
6. Rules
I. To enter the competition the university academic tutor(s) should register the
university’s intention to participate by either filling in the online form at
www.concretecentre.com/competition or emailing The Concrete Centre at
info@concretecentre.com. Registration will enable The Concrete Centre to provide
supplementary information and/or assistance if needed.
II. The completed entry form naming the local winner should reach The Concrete
Centre by either submitting online or email by Friday 9 June 2023. On receipt, The
Concrete Centre will issue each competitor with an entry reference number.
III. Complete design entries must be received by email, by the final deadline of 4pm
on Friday 7 July 2023. The entry reference number should be clearly marked on all
items forming the design entry. No other form of identification or distinguishing
mark should appear on any part of the submission.
IV. A successful competitor may be required to satisfy the judges that he or she is the
bona fide author of the design that he or she has submitted.
V. Any entry shall be excluded from the competition if:

¡ The competitor does not meet the eligibility requirements detailed in Section 5.4
¡ The entry is received after the competition closing date in rule III above
¡ The competitor discloses his or her identity, or that of the university, in the
submission
¡ The competitor attempts to influence either directly or indirectly the decision of the
award judging panel.
10
Entry Form
Structural Concrete
The following student or student team (maximum of four students per team) will
Student Design Competition 2023 represent the university:
Student Name
To be submitted by no later than 9 June 2023. This form is to be completed only for the
entry which has been marked and selected by the academic tutor(s) for submission to Home Address
the national competition. Only one entry will be permitted from each university.
Email
University Phone Year
Name and
email address of Student Name
Academic Tutor(s)
Home Address
1. *I/We have complied with and accepted the rules which apply to this competition
2. *I/We agree to accept the decision of the judges as final, and agree to permit free
publication and exhibition of *my/our work Email
3. *I/we declare that the design is *my/our work and that the drawings have been Phone Year
prepared by *myself/ourselves.
4. *I/we agree that any part of this work may be reproduced in publicity or other Student Name
materials by The Concrete Centre as required.
Home Address
*Delete as applicable
Email
Phone Year
Signature student(s):
Student Name
Signature academic tutor(s)
Home Address
This form is to be completed by the competitor(s) and academic tutor(s) and submitted
online or via email to info@concretecentre.com. An entry reference number will then
be given, which should be marked clearly on all items forming the design entry. Email
No other form of identification or distinguishing mark should appear on any part of Please return to:
the submission. Phone Year info@concretecentre.com
11
The Concrete Centre,
Gillingham House,
38-44 Gillingham Street,
London SW1V 1HU
www.concretecentre.com
First published 2022

© MPA The Concrete Centre 2022
The Concrete Centre is part of the Mineral

Products Association, the trade association
for the aggregates, asphalt, cement, concrete,
dimension stone, lime, mortar and silica sand
industries.
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Advanced Structural Engineering: P B Z, M J S M A A

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Advanced Structural Engineering: P B Z, M J S M A A

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Adv Structural Engineering

PROFESSOR BEN ZHANG, MS JILL SUTCLIFFE

1. EUROCODES AND EN 1992

1. EUROCODES AND EN 1992

1.1 Introduction of Eurocodes

 1.1 Introduction to Eurocodes

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES

Initial aims of the Eurocodes programme Essential requirements of Eurocodes

MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering

EN 1997 Eurocode 7 EN 1998 Eurocode 8 Geotechnical and

MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES

Eurocode or EC (EN 1990) Eurocode 1 or EC1 (EN 1991)

MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering

Eurocodes 2-6 & 9 or EC2-6 & 9 Eurocodes 7 & 8 or EC7 & 8

MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES

 1.1.2 EN 1990 Eurocode: Basis of structural Basis of Eurocode 1990 (EC)

MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES

Objectives of EN 1990 Requirements for design working life

̶ Durability 3 15 to 25 Agricultural and similar structures

MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering

Design situations Two types of limit states

MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES

Ultimate limit states (ULS) Serviceability limit states (SLS)

MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering

Classification of actions Characteristic values of actions

MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES

Recommended values of  for buildings

MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES

Design values of geometrical data, ad Design values of resistance, Rd

MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES

Eq.(6.10) is the most classical expression in

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES

Combinations of actions for seismic design Verification of serviceability (SLS)

MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering

Combinations of actions for SLS Combinations of actions for SLS

MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES

MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering

 1.1.3 EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on Contents of EC1

MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES

 1.1.4 EC1-1-1: General actions — Densities of construction and stored materials –

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES

Load categories – Section 6 Load category C – Section 6

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES

Load category D – Section 6 Load categories

MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering

Imposed loads for categories A to D – NA.2.6 Load category E in the UK – NA.2.7

Imposed loads for category E – Section 6

MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EUROCODES

Imposed load on floors due to storage Table 6.4 Table NA. 5

Imposed loads on garage and vehicle traffic

MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering MHH223204/MHH225189 Advanced Structural Engineering

1.2 EN 1992 DESIGN OF CONCRETE