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3
 ME8692 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Department Mechanical Engineering

Batch/Year 2018 – 22/III
Created by Dr. G.Mahendran, ASP/Mech, RMKEC.
Mr. P.Duraimurugan, AP/Mech, RMKEC.
Mr. R. Ashok Kumar, AP/Mech, RMKCET.
Date 15.04.2021

4
 Table of Contents

S.NO CONTENTS PAGE NO

1 Course Objectives 06

2 Pre Requisites 06

3 Syllabus 07

4 Course outcomes 08

5 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 09

6 Lecture Plan 10

7 Activity based learning 11

8 Lecture Notes 13

9 Assignments 45

10 Part A Q & A 47

11 Part B Qs 49

12 Supportive online Certification courses 53

13 Real time Applications in day to day life and to 54

Industry
14 Contents beyond the Syllabus 55

15 Assessment Schedule 56

16 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 57

17 Mini Project suggestions 58

5
 I - Course Objectives
01 To introduce the concepts of Mathematical Modeling of
Engineering Problems.
02 To appreciate the use of FEM to a range of Engineering
Problems.

II - Pre Requisite Courses

GE8292 Engineering
Mechanics (Semester 2)
CE8395 Strength of
Materials for Mechanical
Engineers (Semester -4)

5
 III - Syllabus

ME8692 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS L T PC

3 0 03

UNIT I INTRODUCTION 9
Historical Background – Mathematical Modeling of field problems in Engineering
– Governing Equations – Discrete and continuous models – Boundary, Initial and
Eigen Value problems– Weighted Residual Methods – Variational Formulation of
Boundary Value Problems – Ritz Technique – Basic concepts of the Finite Element
Method.

UNIT II ONE-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS 9

One Dimensional Second Order Equations – Discretization – Element types-
Linear and Higher order Elements – Derivation of Shape functions and Stiffness
matrices and force vectors- Assembly of Matrices - Solution of problems from
solid mechanics and heat transfer. Longitudinal vibration frequencies and mode
shapes. Fourth Order Beam Equation –Transverse deflections and Natural
frequencies of beams.

UNIT III TWO DIMENSIONAL SCALAR VARIABLE PROBLEMS 9

Second Order 2D Equations involving Scalar Variable Functions – Variational
formulation –Finite Element formulation – Triangular elements – Shape functions
and element matrices and vectors. Application to Field Problems - Thermal
problems – Torsion of Non circular shafts –Quadrilateral elements – Higher Order
Elements.

UNIT IV TWO DIMENSIONAL VECTOR VARIABLE PROBLEMS 9

Equations of elasticity – Plane stress, plane strain and axisymmetric problems –
Body forces and temperature effects – Stress calculations - Plate and shell
elements.

UNIT V ISOPARAMETRIC FORMULATION 9

Natural co-ordinate systems – Isoparametric elements – Shape functions for iso
parametric elements – One and two dimensions – Serendipity elements –
Numerical integration and application to plane stress problems - Matrix solution
techniques – Solutions Techniques to Dynamic problems – Introduction to
Analysis Software.

TOTAL PERIODS : 45

7
 IV - Course Outcomes
(COs)Course Outcome (CO) - Statement
CO. No. Knowledge
Level

CO1# Summarize the basics of finite element

K2
formulation.

CO2# Apply finite element formulations to solve one

K2
dimensional Problems

CO3# Apply finite element formulations to solve two

K2
dimensional scalar Problems..

CO4# Apply finite element method to solve two

K2
dimensional Vector problems.

CO5# Apply finite element method to solve problems on

K2
iso parametric element and dynamic Problems.

CO6# Apply finite element method to solve coupled field

K3
problems.

V - Over all Plan: 45

Hours
Units I II III IV V
No. of Proposed 9 9 9 9 9
Periods Actual

Course Augmentation
Units I II III IV V
Assignement 09.03.2021 23.03.2021 10.04.2021 20.04.2021 07.05.2021

Quiz

Tutorial 08.03.2021 22.03.2021 09.04.2021 19.04.2021 07.05.2021

Video lectures
(NPTEL/ EDUSAT/
Online)

8
 VI - COs-POs Matrices
POs CO PO1 PO 2 PO 3 PO 4 PO 5 PO 6 PO 7 PO 8 PO 9 PO 10 PO 11 PO 12
COs
C305
.1 CO1 3 3 3
C305
.2 CO2 3 3 2
C305
.3 CO3 3 3 3
C305
.4 CO4 3 3 3
C305
.5 CO5 3 3 2
C305
.6 CO6 3 3 3
1: Slight (Low) 2: Moderate (Medium) 3: Substantial (High)

VII - COs-PSOs Matrices

PSOs PSO PSO PSO

1 2 3
COs CO
C305
.1 CO1 3
C305
.2 CO2 3
C305
.3 CO3 3
C305
.4 CO4 3
C305
.5 CO5 3
C305
.6 CO6 3

1: Slight (Low) 2: Moderate (Medium) 3: Substantial (High)

9
UNIT IV: TWO DIMENSIONAL VECTOR VARIABLE PROBLEMS
Equations of elasticity – Plane stress, plane strain and axisymmetric problems – Body
forces and temperature effects – Stress calculations - Plate and shell elements.

LECTURE PLAN
Session Mode of
Topics to be covered Reference
No. Delivery*
Second Order 2D Equations involving Scalar
1 1,2
Variable Functions
2 Variational formulation 1,2
3 Finite Element formulation 1,2
4 Triangular elements Chalk and 2,3
5 Shape functions and element matrices and Talk/Online 2,3
vectors Webinars
6 Application to Field Problems 1,2
7 Thermal problems 1,2
8 Thermal problems 1,2
9 Torsion of Non circular shafts 1,2
10 Torsion of Non circular shafts 1,2
11 Quadrilateral elements 1,2
12 Higher Order Elements 1,2

CONTENT BEYOND THE SYLLABUS : Role of CAE in Product Design and

Development.
NPTEL REFERENCES :
https://www.digimat.in/nptel/courses/video/112104193/L01.html
OTHER REFERENCES / WEBSITES :
1. Reddy. J.N., “An Introduction to the Finite Element Method”, 3rd Edition, Tata
McGraw- Hill, 2005.
2. P.Seshu, “Text Book of Finite Element Analysis”, Prentice- Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, 2007. ISBN-978-203-2315-5.

*Chalk and Talk, PPT / OHP, Quiz, Group Discussion, Student, Seminar,
Case Study, Field Study, Video (NPTEL/EDUSAT/ONLINE), Crossword
Puzzle, Tutorial Session

10
ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

13
ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING
Answer

13
UNIT IV: TWO DIMENSIONAL VECTOR VARIABLE PROBLEMS
LECTURE NOTES

TWO-DIMENSIONAL FINITEELEMENT ANALYSIS

Introduction—Dimensionality of a Problem

A structural mechanics problem can be considered to be two dimensional if we

are able to make reasonable assumption about the variation of unknown parameters in
the third dimension. Three practically important situations of this type, arising in
structural mechanics, are shown in Figure .

In the first case [Fig.a], the structure is very thin as compared to its other
two dimensions and is loaded in its own plane, e.g. a rotating impeller wheel. Thus the
top and bottom faces are free from any normal stress  z and since the thickness is
small, we assume  z is zero throughout. So also, the shearing stresses 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥 𝑦 .
Thus the only nonzero stresses are 𝜏𝑥 𝑧 𝜏𝑦 𝑧 . The stress-strain constitutive relation for a
linear, elastic, isotropic material under such plane-stress condition is given by

𝜎𝑥 1 𝑣 0 𝜎𝑥
𝐸 𝑣 1 0 ] ( { 𝜎𝑦 } − {𝜀}0 )
{ 𝜎𝑦 } = [
𝜏𝑥 𝑦 1 − 𝑉2 1−𝑣 𝛾𝑥 𝑦
0 0
2

where {𝜀}0 represents an initial strain.

The problem situation depicted in the second case (Fig. b) is the other extreme
of the first case, where the length of the member is so long that it is reasonable to
assume thelongitudinal strain 𝜀𝑧 to be zero, e.g. torsion of a long uniform shaft. So also
the shearing strains𝜏𝑥 𝑧 𝜏𝑦 𝑧 Thus the only nonzero strains are 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥 𝑦 . The stress-
strain constitutive relation for a linear, elastic, isotropic material under such plane-
strain condition is given by

𝜎𝑥 1−𝑣 𝑣 0 𝜀𝑥
𝐸 1−𝑣 0 ] ( { 𝜀𝑦 } − {𝜀}0 )
{ 𝜎𝑦 } = [ 𝑣
𝜏𝑥 𝑦 (1 + 𝑉)(1 − 2𝑣) 1 − 2𝑣 𝛾𝑥 𝑦
0 0
2

It is to be observed that the normal stress σ z is nonzero but can be readily

obtained from the condition that the longitudinal strain 𝜀𝑧 be zero.

The problem situation depicted in the third case (Fig.c) represents an important
class of problems, commonly described as axisymmetric problems, e.g. pressure
vessels. If the geometry of the structure, material properties, support conditions and
loading are all axisymmetric, then it is reasonable to assume that the resulting
deformation will also be axisymmetric, i.e., it does not vary along the circumferential
direction. Thus, it is sufficient to determine the variation of the unknown field variable
(e.g. deflection, temperature) in any one plane as shown in the figure. In practical
pressure vessels, there may be minor geometrical features which cause deviation from
perfect axial symmetry such as helical screw threads on an end-cap. It may be
worthwhile to ignore the small helix angle and model the problem as purely 2-d
axisymmetric. However, sometimes a perfect axisymmetric structure may be subjected
to nonaxisymmetric loading such as earthquake loading. It may still be useful to
modify a two-dimensional axisymmetric analysis rather than going for a full-fledged
three- dimensional analysis. The non-axisymmetric loading, expressed as a function of
circumferential coordinate , has a periodicity 2. It can be expressed as a Fourier
series. To each harmonic of load, the resulting deflection also varies as a sine or
cosine function and it can still be analysed as a two-dimensional problem. The
Fourier harmonics of deflection are superposed to find the total response. This
technique is known as semi-analytical FEM. The nonzero stresses and strains in a
perfect axisymmetric situation are related as follows:

 v v 
 1 0 

 r  1− v 1− v    r  
    
 0     
v
  (1− v) 
1 0
 z  = 1− v    z  − 
  (1+ V)(1− 2v)  
 1 0  
 rz    
 1− 2v   rz  
sysmmetric 2(1− v) 
 

Sometimes, a one-dimensional problem may have to be modelled as a two-

dimensional problem, e.g. a beam with a transverse load, and we wish to determine the
stresses under the point of application of load. Thus, if we are interested in detailed
modelling of local effects such as concentrated loads, and sudden changes in geometry
(such as a stepped sheft), a one- dimensional system may have to be modelled using
two-dimensional finite elements.

Approximation of Geometry and Field Variable

A typical two-dimensional problem domain is shown in Figure, where we depict

a bracket with an internal hole subjected to loads. We immediately observe that unlike
in one-dimensional finite element analysis, here we need to model the complex two-
dimensional geometry of the system as well as the variation of the unknown field
variable.

To represent the two-dimensional geometry, we have to formulate two-

dimensional elements, and most common elements consist of triangles and
quadrilaterals as shown in Figure.

Each node is capable of independent motion along the x and y axes and,
typically, we have u and v as the independent nodal degree of freedom (d.o.f.) for
plane elasticity problems. However, there is only one temperature d.o.f. for 2-d heat
transfer problems. Simple lower order elements have straight sides and nodes only at
the vertices. More complex higher order elements permit curved edges (so as to model
curved geometric feature in the domain such as a circular hole) and mid-side or even
internal nodes.

Simple Three-noded Triangular Element

A typical element is shown in Figure.

It has straight sides and three nodes, one at each vertex. The nodes have
coordinates (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3) in the global Cartesian coordinate frame OXY as
shown in the figure. Each node has just temperature d.o.f. T or two d.o.f., viz., u
and v, the translations along global X and Y azes, respectively. In what follows, we
derive the shape (interpolation) functions for the temperature field and use the same for
the displacement field.

We assume that the temperature field over the element is given by

T(x, y) = c0 + c1x + c2y

Considering that this expression should reduce to the nodal temperature at the
nodal points, we have

𝑇1 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥1 + 𝑐2 𝑦1
𝑇2 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥2 + 𝑐2 𝑦2 }
𝑇3 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥3 + 𝑐2 𝑦3

Solving for c0, c1, c2, we get

𝑐0 1 𝑥1 𝑦1 −1 𝑇1
𝑐
{ 1 } [1 𝑥2 𝑦2 ] {𝑇2 }
𝑐2 1 𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑇3

Substituting these in Eq. (5.5) and rewriting, we finally obtain

𝛼1 + 𝛽1 + 𝛾1 𝑦 𝛼2 + 𝛽2 + 𝛾2 𝑦 𝛼3 + 𝛽3 + 𝛾3 𝑦
𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = ( ) + 𝑇1 ( ) 𝑇2 ( ) 𝑇3
2△ 2△ 2△

where

𝛼1 = 𝑥2 𝑦3 − 𝑥3 𝑦2 , 𝛽1 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦3 , 𝛾1 = 𝑥3 − 𝑥2

Other coefficients (𝛼2 , 𝛽3 , 𝛾2 ) and (𝛼3 , 𝛽3 , 𝛾3 ) can be obtained by a simple

cyclic permutation of subscripts 1, 2, 3. Also,

1 𝑥1 𝑦1
2𝛥 = [1 𝑥2 𝑦2 ] = 2(Area of
1 𝑥3 triangle123)
𝑦3
In our standard finite element notation, we write this as

T(x, y) = N1T1 + N2T2 + N3T3 = [N]{T}e

Thus we have the shape functions Ni as follows:

1
𝑁𝑖 = {𝛼 + 𝛽𝑖 𝑥 + 𝛾𝑖 𝑦}, 𝑖 = 1,2,3
2𝛥 𝑖

If this element is used to model structural mechanics problems, each node will
have two d.o.f., viz., u and v, and we can write the displacements at any interior
point in terms of thenodal displacements using the same shape functions as

u(x, y) = N1u1 + N2u2 + N3u3

v(x, y) = N1v1 + N2v2 + N3v3

In our standard finite element notation, the displacement field at an interior

point in the element is written in terms of the nodal d.o.f. as

𝑢1
𝑣1
𝑢 𝑁 0 𝑁2 0 𝑁3 0 𝑢2 [𝑁]{𝛿}𝑒
{ 𝑣 } = [ 01 𝑁3 ] 𝑣2 =
𝑁1 0 𝑁2 0
𝑢3
{ 𝑣3 }

We observe that this element may only permit a linear variation of the unknown
field variable within the element and thus derivatives such as strains and heat flux will
be constant throughout the element. In structural mechanics, this element is
therefore popularly known as the constant strain triangle (CST). We now discuss a
typical rectangular element.

Four-noded Rectangular Element

A typical element is shown in Figure.

 It is rectangular and has four nodes, one at each vertez. The nodes have
coordinates (X1, Y1), (X2, Y2), (X3, Y3) and (X4, Y4) in the global Cartesian coordinate
frame (OXY) as shown in the figure. For ease of derivation, we define a local
coordinate frame (oxy). Each node has temperature d.o.f. T or two d.o.f., viz., u
and v, the translations along the global X and Y axes, respectively. In what follows,
we will derive the shape (interpolation) functions for the temperature field and use the
same for the displacement field.

We assume that the temperature field over the element is given by

T(x, y) = c0 + c1x + c2y + c3xy

We observe that as we have four nodes now, we are able to take a fourth term
in our polynomial field. Considering that this expression should reduce to the nodal
temperatures at the nodal points we have, for a rectangular element of size (l × h)
as shown in above Figure,

T1 = c0, T2 = c0 + c1l,

T3 = c0 + c1 l + c2h + c3 lh, T4 = c0 + c2h

Solving for c0, c1, c2 and c3, we get

𝑇2 −𝑇1 𝑇4 −𝑇1 𝑇3 +𝑇1 −𝑇2 −𝑇4
𝑐0 = 𝑇1 , 𝑐1 = ℓ , 𝑐2 = ℓ , 𝑐3 = ℓℎ

Substituting these in t h e a s s u m e d Equation and rewriting, we obtain

𝑥 𝑦 𝑥𝑦 𝑥 𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑦 𝑦 𝑥𝑦
𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = (1 − − + ) 𝑇1 + ( − ) 𝑇2 + ( ) 𝑇3 + ( − ) 𝑇4
ℓ ℎ ℓℎ ℓ ℓℎ ℓℎ ℎ ℓℎ
In our standard finite element notation, we write this as
𝑇1
𝑇2
𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = [𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁3 𝑁4 ] { }
𝑇3
𝑇4

Thus we obtain the shape functions Ni

𝑥 𝑦 𝑥𝑦 𝑥 𝑥𝑦
𝑁1 = 1 − − + , 𝑁2 = −
ℓ ℎ ℓℎ ℓ ℓℎ
𝑥𝑦 𝑦 𝑥𝑦
𝑁2 = , 𝑁3 + −
ℓℎ ℎ ℓℎ

If this element is used to model structural mechanics problems, each node will
have two d.o.f., viz., u and v, and we can write the displacements at any interior
point in terms of thenodal displacements using the same shape functions as follows:

𝑢1
𝑣1
𝑢2
𝑢 𝑁 0 𝑁2 0 𝑁3 0 𝑁4 0 𝑣2 [𝑁]{𝛿}𝑒
{ 𝑣 } = [ 01 𝑁4 ] 𝑢3 =
𝑁1 0 𝑁2 0 𝑁3 0
𝑣3
𝑢4
{ 𝑣4 }

We observe that this element permits a linear variation of unknown field

variable along x = constant or y = constant lines, and thus it is known as the
bilinear element. Strain and heat flux are not necessarily constant within the
element.

We will now discuss a typical higher order element.

T(x, y) = c0 + c1x + c2y

Six-noded Triangular Element

A typical higher order element is shown in Figure.

 It has six nodes, three at the vertices and three on the edges. While usually the
edge nodes are located at the mid-point, it is not necessary. By convention, we number
the nodes as shown in the figure. The nodes have coordinates (x1, y1), (x2, y2), …, (x6,
y6) in the global Cartesian coordinate frame OXY as shown in the figure. Each node
has just temperature d.o.f. T or two d.o.f., viz., u and v, the translations along global
X and Y axes, respectively.

Since we have six nodes, we can fit a higher degree polynomial for the variation
of the unknown field variable. To be precise, following our procedure, we can determine
up to six coefficients ci(i = 0, 1, …, 5). Thus we assume that the temperature field
over the element is given by the complete quadratic polynomial

T(x, y) = c0 + c1x + c2y + c3x2 + c4xy + c5y2

Considering that this expression should reduce to the nodal temperature at the
nodal points, we have

𝑇1 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥1 + 𝑐2 𝑦1 + 𝑐3 𝑥12 + 𝑐4 𝑥1 𝑦1 + 𝑐5 12
𝑦2 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥2 + 𝑐2 𝑦2 + 𝑐3 𝑥22 + 𝑐4 𝑥2 𝑦2 + 𝑐5 𝑦22
𝑇
𝑇3 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥3 + 𝑐2 𝑦3 + 𝑐3 𝑥32 + 𝑐4 𝑥3 𝑦3 + 𝑐5 𝑦32
𝑇4 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥4 + 𝑐2 𝑦4 + 𝑐3 𝑥42 + 𝑐4 𝑥4 𝑦4 + 𝑐5 𝑦42
𝑇5 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥5 + 𝑐2 𝑦5 + 𝑐3 𝑥52 + 𝑐4 𝑥5 𝑦5 + 𝑐5 𝑦52
𝑇6 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥6 + 𝑐2 𝑦6 + 𝑐3 𝑥62 + 𝑐4 𝑥5 𝑦5 + 𝑐5 𝑦62}

We can, in principle, solve for coefficients c0 − c5 in terms of nodal coordinates

(x1, y1), (x2, y2), …, (x6, y6), and nodal temperatures T1 − T6 and substitute in the
assumed equation above and rearrange the terms to get the desired shape functions.
However, it would be very tedious to get explicit expressions for the shape functions
in this manner. Further computations, in particular evaluation of integrals, involved in
deriving the element matrices, would also turn out to be quite intensive.

Our elements so far were limited to only straight-sided triangular and

rectangular shape. To model typical structural geometries, we would like our
elements to possess, in general, curved edges. We would also like to have alternate
methods of deriving the shape functions and a way by which the computations can be
performed inside a computer program through methods such as numerical
integration.

2-d Elements for Structural Mechanics

Generic Relations

We will now summarise certain generic relations which will be useful for all the
2-d finite elements for structural mechanics. For a two-dimensional structural problem,
each point on the structure may have two independent displacements, viz., u and v,
along the two Cartesian coordinates X and Y, respectively. The strain-displacement
relations are given by

𝜕𝑢
𝜀𝑥 =
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣
𝜀𝑦 =
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝛾𝑥 𝑦 = +
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

For axisymmetric problems, we can consider the r-z plane (analogous to x-y
plane for plane elasticity) as shown in Figure.
 We observe that, even though the deformation is axisymmetric, there can be
four independent, nonzero strains (as a change in radius automatically leads to
circumferential strain 𝜀 0):

𝜕𝑢
𝜀𝑟 =
𝜕𝑟
𝑢
𝜀𝜃 =
𝑟
𝜕𝑣
𝜀𝑧 =
𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝛾𝑟 𝑧 = +
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑟

In our standard finite element notation, we write the strain-displacement

relations as

{𝜀} = [𝐵]{𝛿}𝑒

where the size of [B] and {} will be dictated by the element and [ B] will
contain the derivatives of the shape functions. The stress-strain relations for plane
stress specialised from the 3-d Hooke’s law, are given by
𝜎𝑥 1 𝑣 0 𝜀𝑥
𝐸 0 𝜀
] ( { 𝑦 } − {𝜀}0 ) + {𝜎}0
{ 𝜎𝑦 } = [𝑣 1
𝜏𝑥 𝑦 1 + 𝑉2 0 2
0 1 − 𝑣 /2 𝛾𝑥 𝑦

where {}0 and {}0 refer to the initial strain and stress, respectively.

The stress-strain relations for plane strain are given by

 𝜎𝑥 1−𝑣 𝑣 0 𝜀𝑥
𝐸 0 𝜀
] ( { 𝑦 } − {𝜀}0 ) + {𝜎}0
{ 𝜎𝑦 } = [ 𝑣 1−𝑣
𝜏𝑥 𝑦 (1 + 𝑣)(1 − 2𝑣) 0 0 𝛾𝑥 𝑦
1 − 2𝑣/2

For axisymmetric problems, we have four independent nonzero stresses given by

𝜎𝑟 1 𝑣/1 − 𝑣 𝑣/1 − 𝑣 0 𝜀𝑟
𝜎𝜃 (1 − 𝑣)𝐸 1 𝑣/1 − 𝑣 0 𝜀𝜃
{ 𝜎 } = ({ 𝜀 }
𝑧 (1 + 𝑣)(1 − 2𝑣) 1 0 𝑧
𝜏𝑟 [𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖 1 − 2𝑣/2(1 − 𝑣)] 𝛾𝑟 𝑧

− {𝜀}0 ) + {𝜎}0

In our standard finite element notation, we write the generic stress-strain

relation as

{} = [D]({} − {}0 + {}0

where the elements of the [ D] matrix depend on plane stress/strain/axisymmetric

situation and are taken from the above Eqs..

A structure can, in general, be subjected to distributed loading in the form of

body (volume) forces {qv } such as gravity, forces distributed over a surface {qs} such as
a pressure or concentrated forces lumped at certain points {Pi}. It may also be
subjected to initial strains and stresses (such as those due to preloading and thermal
loading). Under the action of all these loads, the structure, when properly supported (so
as to prevent rigid body motion), undergoes deformation and stores internal strain
energy. The strain energy expression can be written as

1 1
𝑈= ∫ {𝜀}𝑇 {𝜎}𝑑𝑣 = ∫ {𝜀}𝑇 ([𝐷]({𝜀} − {𝜀}0 ) + {𝜎 0 }𝑑𝑣)
2 𝑣 2 𝑣
1
= ∫ ( {𝜀}𝑇 [𝐷]{𝜀} − {𝜀}𝑇 [𝐷]{𝜀} − {𝜀}0 + {𝜀}0 {𝜎 0 }) 𝑑𝑣
𝑣 2
 Element level strain energy is given as

1 1
𝑈𝑒 = ∫ {𝛿}𝑒 𝑇 [𝐵]𝑇 [𝐷] [𝐵]{𝛿}𝑒 𝑑𝑣 − ∫ {𝛿}𝑒 𝑇 [𝐵]𝑇 [𝐷]
[𝐵]{𝜀}0 𝑑𝑣 2 2

+ ∫ {𝛿}𝑒 𝑇 [𝐵]𝑇 [𝜎]0 𝑑𝑣

The potential of external forces is given by

𝑉 𝑒 = − ∫ {𝛿}𝑇 {𝑞𝑣 }𝑑𝑣 − ∫ {𝛿}𝑇 {𝑞𝑠 }𝑑𝑠 − ∑ {𝛿𝑖 } {𝑃𝑖 }

𝑣 𝑠

where {}i is the displacement of the point i on which a concentrated force Pi is

acting and the summation is taken over all such points. It is observed that these
displacements {} and forces {q} have both X- and Y-components. Hence, typically at a
point,

𝑢
{𝛿} = { 𝑣 }

𝑞
{𝑞} = {𝑞𝑥 }
𝑣

𝑇 𝑇 𝑒𝑇
𝑉 𝑒 = − ∫ {𝛿}𝑒 [𝑁] 𝑇 {𝑞𝑣 }𝑑𝑣 − ∫ {𝛿} 𝑒 [𝑁]𝑇 {𝑄𝑠 }𝑑𝑠 − ∑ {𝛿𝑖 } [𝑁]𝑇𝑖 {𝑃𝑖 }
𝑣 𝑠

where [N]i is the value of shape functions at the location i. Thus the total potential of
an element can be written as

1 𝑇 𝑇
∏𝑒𝑝 = ∫ {𝛿}𝑒 [𝐵]𝑇 [𝐷] [𝐵]{𝛿}𝑒 𝑑𝑣 − ∫ {𝛿}𝑒 [𝐵]𝑇 [𝐷] [𝐵]{𝜀}0 𝑑𝑣
2
𝑇 𝑇 𝑒𝑇
+ ∫ {𝛿} 𝑒 𝑇 [𝐵]𝑇 [𝜎]0 𝑑𝑣 − ∫ {𝛿}𝑒 [𝑁]𝑇 {𝑞𝑣 }𝑑𝑣 − ∫ {𝛿}𝑒 [𝑁] 𝑇 {𝑄𝑠 }𝑑𝑠 − ∑ {𝛿𝑖 } [𝑁]𝑇𝑖 {𝑃𝑖 }
𝑣 𝑠

Since {}e is a vector of nodal d.o.f., it can be taken outside the integration. Thus we
get
 0
1 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
∏𝑒𝑝 = {𝛿} 𝑒 ∫ [𝐵]𝑇 [𝐷][𝐵] 𝑑𝑣){𝛿} 𝑒 − {𝛿} 𝑒 ∫ [𝐵]𝑇 [𝐷]{𝜀} 𝑑𝑣 + {𝛿}𝑒 ∫ [𝐵]𝑇 {𝜎}0 𝑑𝑣
2 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣

𝑇 𝑇 𝑒𝑇
−{𝛿}𝑒 ∫ [𝑁]𝑇 {𝑞𝑣 }𝑑𝑣 − ∫ {𝛿}𝑒 [𝑁] 𝑇 {𝑞𝑠 }𝑑𝑠 − ∑ {𝛿𝑖 } [𝑁]𝑖𝑇 {𝑃𝑖 }
𝑣 𝑠

Defining the element stiffness matrix [ k]e and the load vector {f }e as

[𝑘]𝑒 = ∫ [𝐵]𝑇 [𝐷][𝐵]𝑑𝑣

𝑣

{𝑓}𝑒 = − ∫ [𝐵]𝑇 [𝐷]{𝜀}0 𝑑𝑣 − ∫ [𝐵]𝑇 {𝜎}0 𝑑𝑣 + ∫ [𝑁]𝑇 {𝑞𝑣 }𝑑𝑣 + ∫ [𝑁]𝑇 {𝑞𝑠 }𝑑𝑠 + ∑[𝑁]𝑇𝑖 {𝑃𝑖
} 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑠

we can rewrite as

𝑒
1 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
∏𝑒𝑝 = {𝛿} 𝑒 ∫ [𝑘]𝑒 {𝛿}𝑒 − {𝛿} 𝑒 {𝑓}
2 𝑣

Once all the element matrices are ‘assembled’ together, we obtain the total
potential of the system as

1
∏𝑝 = ∑∏𝑝𝑒 = {𝛿} 𝑇 [𝐾]{𝛿} − {𝛿}𝑇 {𝐹}
2

where the global stiffness matrix of the structure [ K] and the global load vector {F} are
given by

𝑁𝑂𝐸𝐿𝐸𝑁

[𝐾] = ∑ {𝑘}𝑒
𝑛 =1
𝑁𝑂𝐸𝐿𝐸𝑁

[𝐹] = ∑
{𝑓}𝑒
1

NOELEM refers to the number of elements and {} contains all the nodal d.o.f.
variables for the entire finite element mesh. The summations indicating assembly imply
that the individual element matrices have been appropriately placed in the global
matrices following the standard procedure of assembly.
 Using the Principle of stationary total potential we set the total potential
stationary with respect to small variations in the nodal d.o.f., i.e.*

𝜕∏𝑝 = 0
𝜕{𝛿}𝑇

Thus we have the system level equations given by

[𝐾]{𝛿} = {𝐹}

We will now discuss each individual 2-d element and describe how the element
stiffness matrix and nodal load vectors can be obtained.

Three-noded Triangular Element

This is one of the simplest and historically one of the first finite elements to be
formulated. A typical element is shown in Figure.

the shape functions are given by

1
𝑁1 = (𝛼 + 𝛽1 𝑥 + 𝛾1 𝑦)
2𝛥 1

1
𝑁2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽2 𝑥 + 𝛾2 𝑦)
2𝛥 2

1
𝑁3 = (𝛼 + 𝛽3 𝑥 + 𝛾3 𝑦)
2𝛥 3

Strains and stresses

 The independent nonzero strains for plane stress/strain are given by

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑁1 𝜕𝑁2 𝜕𝑁3 𝑢1

0 0 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑣1
𝜀𝑥 𝜕𝑁 1 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑁2 𝜕𝑁3 𝑢2
{ 𝜀𝑦 } = = 0 0
0 𝜕𝑦 𝑣2
𝛾𝑥 𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑁 1 𝜕𝑁2 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑁3 𝑢3
+ 2 𝜕𝑁3 𝜕𝑥 } { 𝑣3 }
𝜕𝑁
{ 𝜕𝑦
1 𝜕𝑥} { 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Thus the strain-displacement relation matrix [ B] is given by

𝜕𝑁 1 0 𝜕𝑁2 𝜕𝑁
0 3 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑁 1 𝜕𝑁 2 𝜕𝑁
[𝐵] = 0 0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 0 3
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑁 1 𝜕𝑁2 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑁
3 3
𝜕𝑁 1 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 }
{ 𝜕𝑦
Thus

𝛽1 0 𝛽2 0 𝛽3 0
1
[𝐵] = {0 𝛾1 0 𝛾2 0 𝛾3 }
2𝛥
𝛾1 𝛽1 𝛾2 𝛽2 𝛾3 𝛽3

We observe that the displacement field being linear, the strains are constant
(elements of [B] are all constants) within an element and thus this element is known as
a Constant Strain Triangle (CST). This may be considered the two-dimensional analogue
of the simple linear truss element, and we expect that it will not be able to accurately
model complex problems involving significant strain/stress gradients.

Element matrices

The element stiffness matrix is given by

[𝐾]𝑒 = ∫ [𝐵]𝑇 [𝐷]3×3 [𝐵]3×6 𝑑𝑣

𝑣 6×3

The size of the stiffness matrix is (6 × 6) and, even after exploiting the
symmetry of the stiffness matrix, we still need to evaluate 21 integrals! Since the
arguments are all constants, the integration can be readily carried out and the element
stiffness matrix obtained as

[𝐾]𝑒 = [𝐵]𝑇 [𝐷][𝐵](𝑡)(𝐴)

where t is the uniform thickness and A the area of the element.

For more complex, higher order elements, the elements of [B] matrix will vary
from point to point within an element, and explicit integration of expressions in the
above equation becomes very tedious. Also, the size of the matrix itself will be larger
and we need to evaluate many integrals. Thus we look for an efficient way of
computing these integrals numerically within a computer program, which is readily
accomplished using natural coordinates.

External loads can be concentrated forces acting at the nodes along global X
and/or Y axes, and they may be distributed over the element edges as shown in fig.

Two schemes of finding equivalent nodal loads exist. In the first scheme, we
generate a lumped nodal force vector by appropriately lumping the total force. In the
second scheme, we compute the consistent nodal force vector which does the same
amount of work as the distributed force. The element nodal force vector { f }e is a
consistent nodal force vector.

Example . Illustration of the use of CST element. We wish to determine the deflection
of a thin plate subjected to extensional loads as shown in Figure. We will use two CST
elements to solve this problem. From the coordinates of the nodes, we first compute i,

 i, I, etc. as follows:

Element 1: Shape function coefficients

i = 12,  i = 0, i = −4
j = 0,  j = 3, j = 0
k = 0,  k = −3, k = 4
Element 2: Shape function coefficients

i = 12,  i = −3, i = 0
j = 0,  j = 3, j = − 4
k = 0,  k = 0, k = 4

We observe that the area of both the elements is 6 cm2 and we let the thickness
to be unity for plane stress. The strain-displacement matrix [B] is now obtained as given
below.

Element 1: Strain-displacement matrix

−0.25 0 0.25 0 0 0
[𝐵](1) = 0 −0.333 0 0 0 0.333}
{
−0.333 −0.25 0 0.25 0.333 0
Element 2: Strain-displacement matrix

𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
[𝑩](𝟐) = { 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑}
𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝟎
 Assuming E = 2 × 107 N/cm2 -strain
relation matrix [D] as

0.22 × 108 0.659 × 107 0

[𝐷] = {0.659 × 107 0.22 × 108 0 }
0 0 0.769 × 10 7

The element stiffness matrix for each element is next obtained as

[𝐾]𝑒 = [𝐵]𝑇 [𝐷][𝐵](𝑡)(𝐴)

The numerical values of [k]e for the two elements are obtained as given below.

Element 1: Stiffness matrix. The element stiffness matrix is given by

1.34
1.75 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖
0.714
[𝑘](1) = 107 −0.824 −0.33 0.824
−0.385 −0.288 0 0.288
−0.513 −0.385 0 0.385 0.513
[−0.330 −1.47 0.33 0 0 1.47]
12 34 56
[𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙]
12 56 34
[𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙]

Element 2: Stiffness matrix. The element stiffness matrix is given by

1.34
1.75 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖
0.714
[𝑘](2) = 107 −0.824 −0.33 0.824
−0.385 −0.288 0 0.288
−0.513 −0.385 0 0.385 0.513
[−0.330 −1.47 0.33 0 0 1.47]
12 34 56
[𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙]
78 34 56
[𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙]

Since the two elements are essentially identical, we observe that our stiffness
matrices are also identical.
 For ease of assembly, the local and global destinations of the elements of the
stiffness matrices have also been indicated above. Following the standard procedure of
assembly and incorporating the boundary conditions that u1 = 0 = v1 = u2, we get the
final set of equations as follows:

1.75 𝑣2 0
0.714 1.34 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖 𝑢3 0.15
107 0 0 1.75 𝑣3 = 0
−0.385 −0.513 −0.33 1.34 𝑢4 1.5
[−0.288 −0.385 −1.47 0.714 1.75] { 𝑣4 } { 0
}

The RHS force vector is equivalent nodal forces for the distributed force on the
edge 3−4, viz., half the total force at each node in the X-direction. Solving these
equations, we get the nodal deflections as

v2 = −4.5 × 10–8 cm

u3 = 2 × 10–7 cm

v3 = 0

u4 = 2 × 10–7 cm

v4 = −4.5 × 10–8 cm

From the nodal deflections, we can compute element level forces as described
now:

Element 1: Forces
1.34
1.75 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖
0.714
{𝑓}(1) = [𝑘](1){𝛿}(1) = 107 −0.824 −0.33 0.824
−0.385 −0.288 0 0.288
−0.513 0.385 0 0.385 0.513
[−0.330 −1.47 0.33 0 0 1.47]
 0 −1.5
0 0
2 × 10 − 7 1.5
× 0 =
0
0 0
{ −4.5 × 10−8 } { 0 }

Element 2: Forces

1.34
1.75 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖
0.714
{𝑓}(2) = [𝑘](2){𝛿}(2) = 107 −0.824 −0.33 0.824
−0.385 −0.288 0 0.288
−0.513 0.385 0 0.385 0.513
[−0.330 −1.47 0.33 0 0 1.47]
2 × 10 − 7 1.5
−4.5 × 10−8 0
0 −1.5
× =
−4.5 × 10−8 0
2 × 10 − 7 0
{ −4.5 × 10−8 } { 0 }
 These forces are along the d.o.f. From the nodal deflections, the strains in
elements 1 and 2 can be computed as follows:

{}e = [B]e {}e

Element 1: Strains
𝜀𝑥 −0.25 0 0.25 0 0 0
[𝜀 ](1) 𝜀
={ 𝑦}= { 0 −0.333 0 0 0 0.333}
𝛾 −0.333 −0.25 0 0.25 0.333 0
𝑦
00 5 × 10−8
2 × 10 − 7 = {
× −1.5 × 10−8 }
0
0
0
{ −4.5 × 10−8 }

Element 2: Strains

𝜺𝒙
[𝜺](𝟐) = { 𝜺𝒚 }
𝜸𝒙𝒚
𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
={ 𝟎 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑}
−𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝟎
𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟕
−𝟒. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖
𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖
𝟎
× −𝟒. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 = {−𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 }
𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟕 𝟎
{ −𝟒. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 }
−𝟖

It is observed that our solution tallies perfectly with the expected solution,
viz.,
 = (PL/AE) and x and y are in the ratio of v. The element stresses can be readily
obtained from these strains.

While we can get excellent results for this simple problem with the CST
element, in general, we cannot expect such a good performance because it is only a
constant strain element. In problems involving significant gradients of stress (e.g.,
stress concentration near a hole or any sudden geometry change), the CST element
will not give good results.
Four-noded Rectangular Element

This is the simplest element of the family of general quadrilateral elements

and is depicted in Figure.

It has four nodes, straight sides, and each node admits two d.o.f., viz., u and
v translations along global the X and Y axes. Our formulation of the element follows
standard procedure and is described now.

𝑥 𝑦 𝑥𝑦
𝑁1 = 1 − − +
ℓ ℎ ℓℎ
𝑥 𝑥𝑦
𝑁2 = −
ℓ ℓℎ
𝑥𝑦
𝑁3 =
ℓℎ
𝑦 𝑥𝑦
𝑁4 = −
ℎ ℓℎ

(i) Strains and stresses

The independent nonzero strains for plane stress/strain are given by

𝑢1
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑁3 𝜕𝑁 𝑣1
0 0 0
𝜕𝑥 1 2𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 4𝜕𝑥 𝑢
𝜀𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑁4
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑁1 𝜕𝑁2 2 𝑣2
{𝜀} { 𝜀𝑦 } =
𝑒 = 0 0 0 0 𝜕𝑦
𝛾𝑥 𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝑢3
𝜕𝑁4 𝜕𝑁4 𝑣3
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑁1 𝜕𝑁 2 𝜕𝑁 2 𝜕𝑁3
+ 𝜕𝑥
{ 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥} 𝜕𝑁 1 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 ]3−8 𝑢4
[ 𝜕𝑦 { 𝑣4 } 8×1
Thus the strain-displacement relation matrix [ B] is given by

𝑦 1 1 𝑦 𝑦 −𝑦
( − ) 0 ( − ) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) 0
ℓℎ ℓ ℓ ℓℎ ℓℎ ℓℎ
𝑥 1 −𝑥 𝑥 1 𝑦
[𝐵] = 0 ( − 0 ( ) 0 ( ) 0 ( )
) ℓℎ ℓℎ ℎ ℓℎ
𝑥 1 𝑦 1 −𝑥 1 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 1 𝑦 − −𝑦
[( ℓℎ − ℓ ) ( ℓℎ − ℓ ) (
ℓℎ
) ( −
ℓ ℓℎ
) ( )
ℓℎ
( )
ℓℎ
( − )
ℎ ℓℎ
( ) ]
ℓℎ

We observe that on x = constant line, the strain varies linearly with y and vice
versa. This element is known as a bilinear rectangular element since its shape
functions involve linear polynomials in both the x and y directions. The stress-strain
relation matrix [D] is given in Eq. (5.91) for plane stress and in Eq. (5.92) for plane
strain.

(ii) Element matrices

The element stiffness matrix, is given by

[k]e = ∫[B]T[D][B] dv

The size of the stiffness matrix is (8 × 8) since there are four nodes and two
d.o.f. per node and even after exploiting the symmetry of the stiffness matrix, we
still need to evaluate 36 integrals! Also, the elements of [ B] matrix now vary from
point to point within an element and explicit integration of expressions in the above
equation becomes very tedious.

External loads can be concentrated forces acting at the nodes along the
global X and/or Y axes (or) they may be distributed over the element edges as
shown in Figure.
 Two schemes of finding equivalent nodal loads exist. In the first scheme, we
generate a lumped nodal force vector by appropriately lumping the total force. In
the second scheme, we compute the consistent nodal force vector which does the
same amount of work as the distributed force. The element nodal force vector { f}e is
a consistent nodal force vector.

Example:- Assuming plane stress conditions evaluate the stiffness matrix for the element
shown in Fig. Assume E= 2 x 105 N/cm2 and =0.3. u1=0.000, v1=0.0025, u2=0.0012,
v2=0.000, u3 =0.0000 & v3= 0.0025.

37
 βi = y j - yk
β1 = y2 - y3 = 0 − 1 = −1
β2 = y 3 - y1 = 1 + 1 = 2
β3 = y1 - y 2 = −1 − 0 = −1

γi = − (x j - xk )
γ1 = − (x2 - x3 ) = 0 − 2 = −2
γ2 = − (x3 - x1 ) = 0 − 0 = 0
γ3 = − (x1 - x2 ) = 2 − 1 = 2
. A=½xbxh=½x2x2=2

 u1 
v 
 β1 0 β1 0 β1 0  1 
1   
u 2 

ε =  0 λ1 0 λ1 0 λ1   
2Ae  v2 
 λ1 β1 λ1 β1 λ1 β1 
u3 
 

 v3 

= B d 

 −1 0 2 0 −1 0 
1  
B = 0 − 2 0 0 0 2
2*2  
− 2 − 1 0 2 2 − 1
  
1  0 
D  = E 2   1 0 
1−  1−  
0 0 
 2 

 
1 0.3 0
2x105  
D  = 0.3 1 0 
1 − 0.3 
2
1 − 0.3 
0 0 
 2 

Now we know that the stiffness matrix [K] is given by

vol [B]T [D] [B]dv
Assuming unit thickness ie t = 1 we get
[K] = A [B]T [D]{B]

− 1 0 − 2 
 0 − 2 − 1 39

   1 0.3 
2x2x105  2 0 
0  1 − 1 0 2 0 − 1 0 
0   0 − 2 0 0 0 2 
0
K  =   0.3 1
4x0.91  0 0 2  1 − 0.3  4
− 1 0 2  
0 0  − 2 − 1 0 2 2 − 1
2 
 
 0 2 − 1

6x3 3x3 3x6

  600 325 − 500 − 350 − 100 25 
 325 1087.5 − 300 − 175 − 25 − 912.5
 

2 − 500 − 300 1000 0 − 500 300 
K  = 1.099x10  
 − 350 − 175 0 350 350 175 
 − 100 − 25 − 500 350 600 − 325 
 
 25 − 912.5 300 − 175 − 325 1087.5 

6x6

Note: In order to evaluate the element stress we can use the equation
{} = [D] [B] {d}

Problem:- Given the nodal values of pressure in a triangular element as P1 = 40

N/cm2, P2 = 34 N/cm2 & P3 = 46 N/cm2 evaluate the element shape functions and
calculate the value of the pressure at a point whose co-ordinates are given by (2,
1.5). The co-ordinates of nodes 1, 2 & 3 are respectively (0,0), (4, 1.5), (2,5).
 α1 = x2 y3 - x3 y2 = 4*5 − 2*0.5 = 19

α 2 = x3 y1 - x1 y 3 = 2*0 − 0*5 = 0
α 3 = x1 y 2 - x2 y1 = 0*0.5 − 4*0 = 0

β1 = y2 - y3 = 0.5 − 5 = −4.5
β2 = y 3 - y1 = 5 − 0 = 5
β3 = y1 - y2 = 0 − 0.5 = −0.5

γ1 = − (x 2 - x3 ) = −(4 − 2) = −2
γ2 = − (x 3 - x1 ) = −(2 − 0) = −2
γ3 = − (x 1 - x2 ) = −(0 − 4) = 4

1 x1 y1 1 0 0
2Ae = 1 x2 y 2 = 1 4 0.5 = 19cm 2
1 x3 y3 1 4 5
1 1
N 1 (x,y) = ( 1 + β1 x + γ1 y) = (19 − 4.5x − 2y)
2Ae 19
1 1
N 2 (x,y) = (α 2 + β 2 x + γ 2 y) = (5x − 2y)
2Ae 19

1 1
N 3 (x,y) = (α3 + β3 x + γ3 y) = ( − 0.5x + 4y)
2Ae 19
P (x,y) = N 1 P1 + N 2 P2 + N 3 P3

=
1
(19 − 4.5x − 2y)40 + (5x − 2y)34 + ( − 0.5x + 4y)46
19

P (2.1.5) = 14.74 + 12.53 + 12.11 = 39.37N/cm2

Problem: etermine three points on the 50°C

contour line for the rectangular element
shown the Fig. The nodal values are T1 =
42°C,
T2 = 54°C, T3 = 56°C, and T4 = 46°C.

Nodal Coordinates

42
 The length of the sides are
2b = x2 – x1 = 8 – 5 = 3
2a = y4 – y1 = 5 – 3 = 2
Substituting these values in the shape
functions

 x  y xy
N 1 = 1 − 1 −  N3 =
 3  2 6
x y y x
N 2 = 1 −  N 4 = 1 − 
3 2 2 3
Inspection reveals that the 50°C contour line
intersects the sides 3-4 and 1-2; therefore, we
need to assume values of y and calculate
values of x. Along side 1-2, y=0 and
 x x
T ( x, y ) = 1 − T1 + T2 = 50
 3 3
Substituting for T1 and T2 and solving gives
x=2.0. Along side 4-2, y= 2b =3 and
x  y
T ( x, y ) = T4 + 1 − T3 = 50
3  3
Substituting for T4 and T3 and solving gives x = 1.2

To obtain the third point, assume that y=b=1, then

1 x x x 1 x
T ( x, y ) = 1 − T1 + T2 + T3 + 1 − T4 = 50
2 3 6 6 2 3
Substituting the nodal values gives

x
(− 42 + 54 + 56 − 46) + 1 (42 + 46) = 50
6 2

Solving yields x= 1.64

The xy coordinates of the three points are

(1.2,2), (1.64,1) and (2,0).; therefore, the
contour line is not straight.
 ASSIGNMENT
S.No Question K Level CO
.

01 Calculate the element stiffness matrix and the thermal force K2 CO4
vector for the axisymmetric triangular element as shown
below. The element experiences a 150º C increase in
temperature. Take  = 10 x 10-6 / ºC, E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
and µ= 0.25

02 Calculate the element stiffness matrix and the thermal force K2 CO4
vector for the axisymmetric triangular element as shown
below. The element experiences a 100º C increase in
temperature. Take  = 15 x 10-6 / ºC, E = 2.1 x 105
N/mm2 and µ= 0.3

03 Calculate the element stiffness matrix for the axisymmetric K2 CO4

triangular element as shown below. The element
experiences a 180º C increase in temperature. Take  = 25
x 10-6 / ºC, E = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2 and µ= 0.3
 ASSIGNMENT
S.No Question K Level CO
.
04 An open ended steel cylinder has a length of 200mm and K2 CO4
the inner and outer diameters as 68mm and 100mm
respectively. The cylinder is subjected to an internal
pressure of 2MPa. Compute the deformed shape and
distribution of principle stresses. Take E = 200GPa and
Poisson’s ratio = 0.3

05 K2 CO4
A bilinear rectangular element has coordinates as shown in
figure and the nodal temperatures are T1 = 100ºC, T2=
60ºC, T3 = 50ºC and T4 = 90ºC. Compute the temperature
at the point whose coordinates are (2.5, 2.5). Also Compute
the 80ºC isotherm.
 PART - A QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
UNIT – II INTRODUCTION
S.N O QUESTION AND ANSWER K CO
LEVEL
1 How do you define two dimensional elements? K1 CO4
Two dimensional elements are define by three or
more nodes in a two dimensional plane. The basic element
useful for two dimensional analysis is the triangular
element.

2 What is CST element? K1 CO4

Three noded triangular elements are known as CST.
It has six unknown displacement degrees of freedom (u1,
v1, u2, v2, u3, v3). The element is called CST because it
has a constant strain throughout it.

3 What is LST element? K1 CO4

Six nodded triangular elements are known as LST. It
has twelve unknown displacement degrees of freedom.
The displacement function for the elements are quadratic
instead of linear as in the CST.

4 What is QST element? K1 CO4

Ten nodded triangular elements are known as

Quadratic strain triangle. It is also called as cubic
displacement triangle.

5 What meant by plane stress analysis? K1 CO4

Plane stress is defined to be a state of stress in which

the normal stress and shear stress directed perpendicular
to the plane are assumed to be zero.

6 Define plane strain analysis. K1 CO4

Plane strain is defined to be state of strain normal to

the xy plane and the shear strains are assumed to be
zero.

7 Write down the stiffness matrix equation for two K1 CO4

dimensional CST elements.

Stiffness matrix [K ]=[B ]T [D ][B ]At

[ B]T - Strain displacement [D]-Stress strain matrix [B]-

Strain displacement matrix

47
 PART - A QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
UNIT – I INTRODUCTION
S.N O QUESTION AND ANSWER K CO
LEVEL
8 Write down the stress strain relationship matrix K1 CO4
for plane stress conditions.
 
1−  0 
E  
1+ 1−2 0 1 − 0 
 1−2
0 0 
 2 

09 What is axisymmetric element? K1 CO4

Many three-dimensional problems in engineering

exhibit symmetry about an axis of rotation such type of
problem is solved by special two-dimensional element
called the axisymmetric element
10 What are the conditions for a problem to be K1 CO4
axisymmetric?

The problem domain must be symmetric about the

axis of revolution All boundary condition must be
symmetric about the axis of revolution All loading
condition must be symmetric about the axis of
revolution.
11 Give the stiffness matrix equation for an K1 CO4
axisymmetric triangular element.

Stiffness matrix [K ]=[B ]T [D ][B ]2prA

12 List the required conditions for a problem K1 CO4

assumed to be axisymmetric.

The condition to be axisymmetric is as follows:

•Problem domain must be symmetric about the axis of
revolution.
•All boundary conditions must be symmetric about the
axis of revolution.
•All loading conditions must be symmetric about the
axis of revolution.

13 Define body force. K1 CO4

A body force is distributed force acting on every

elemental volume of the body. Unit: force per unit
volume.
48
 PART - A QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
UNIT – I INTRODUCTION
S.N O QUESTION AND ANSWER K CO
LEVEL
14 Write the constitutive relations for axisymmetric K1 CO4
problems.

15 Give example for axisymmetric field problem? K1 CO4

In some of the three dimensional solids like
flywheel, turbine, discs etc, the material is symmetric
with respect to their axes.
16 Write the stress strain relationship for plane K1 CO4
stress problems.

17 State the properties of stiffness matrix. K1 CO4

▪ It is a symmetric matrix
▪ The sum of elements in any column must be equal
to zero
▪ It is an unstable element. So, the determinant is
equal to zero.
18 What do you mean by the terms: C0, C1 and Cn K1 CO4
continuity?
▪ C0 – Governing differential equation is
quasiharmonic, ø has to be continuous.
▪ C1 – Governing differential equation is biharmonic,
øas well as derivative has to be continuous inside
and between the elements.
▪ Cn – Governing differential equations is polynomial.

19 List the two advantages of post processing. K1 CO4

Required result can be obtained in graphical form.

Contour diagrams can be used to understand the
solution easily and quickly.
20 What is the difference between static and K1 CO4
dynamic analysis?
Static analysis: The solution of the problem does not
vary with time is known as static analysis.
Dynamic analysis: The solution of the problem varies
with time is known as dynamic analysis
49
 Part B Questions

S.No Question K Level CO

.
01 Compute the strain – displacement matrix [B] and K2 CO4
constitutive matrix [D] for the triangular element as shown
in figure. Assume plane stress conditions. Take μ = 0.3, E =
30*106 N/m2 and thickness t = 0.1m. Also calculate the
element stiffness matrix for the triangular element.

02 A thin plate a subjected to surface fraction as shown in K2 CO4

Figure. Calculate the global stiffness matrix. Table t = 25
mm, E= 2 *105 N/mm2 and γ = 0.30. Assume plane stress
condition.

03 Compute the strain – displacement matrix and stiffness K2 CO4

matrix for the constant strain triangular element shown in
figure below. Take t = 20 mm and E = 2 x 105N/mm2.

04 Calculate the element stresses, for the plane strain element K2 CO4
shown in the figure. Take the nodal displacements as : u1=
0.005 mm, u2 = 0.002 mm, u3=0.0mm, u4 = 0.0 mm, u5 =
0.004 mm, u6 = 0.0 mm.. Take E = 200 Gpa and  = 0.3.
Use unit thickness for plane strain.

40
S.No. Question K Level CO
05 Calculate the deflection at the point load and stress induced K2 CO4
for the configuration as shown in figure. Assume plane
stress condition

07 Compute the stiffness matrix for the axisymmetric element K2 CO4

shown in fig. Take E as 2.1* 105N/mm2 and Poisson's ratio
as 0.3.

08 The nodal co-ordinates for an axisymmetric triangular K2 CO4

element are given in figure. Calculate stiffness matrix for
the element.
S.No. Question and Answer K Level CO
09 Calculate the element stresses and the principle angle for K2 CO4
the plane strain elements as shown in figure. Take the nodal
displacements as u1 = 0.005 mm, v1 = 0.002 mm, u2 =
0.0, v2 = 0.0, u3 = 0.005 mm, v3 = 0.30 mm. Take E = 70
GPa and Poisson’s ratio = 0.3 and use unit thickness for
plane strain. All coordinates are in mm.

10 K2 CO4
Calculate the pressure at the location (7, 4) in a rectangular
plate with the data shown in Figure and also draw 50 MPa
contour line

11 Compute the nodal displacements and element stress K2 CO4

using plane strain condition for the two-dimensional
loaded plate as shown in Figure, considering body force.
Take Young’s modulus as 200 GPa, Poisson’s ratio as 0.3
and density as 7800 kg/m3.
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53
REAL TIME APPLICATION IN DAY TO DAY LIFE AND TO
INDUSTRY

To calculate the deflection and stress distribution in turbine fan blades

To calculate the deflection and stress distribution in long burried pipes
To calculate the deflection and stress distribution in piston and rings

54
 CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS

Effect of Self Weight on a Cantilever Beam

using plane stress condition.
This tutorial was completed using ANSYS 7.0 The purpose of the tutorial is to show the required steps
to
account for the weight of an object in ANSYS.
Loads will not be applied to the beam shown below in order to observe the deflection caused by the
weight of
the beam itself. The beam is to be made of steel with a modulus of elasticity of 200 GPa.

55
 ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE

Unit Test I : March 2021

Internal Assessment Test I : March 2021

Unit Test II : April 2021

Internal Assessment Test II : April 2021

Model Examination : May 2021

56
 PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE BOOKS

TEXT BOOKS:

T1) Reddy. J.N., “An Introduction to the Finite Element Method”, 3rd Edition, Tata
McGraw Hill, 2005

T2) Seshu, P, “Text Book of Finite Element Analysis”, Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, 2007.

REFERENCES:

R1) Rao, S.S., “The Finite Element Method in Engineering”, 3rd Edition, Butterworth
Heinemann, 2004

R2) Logan, D.L., “A first course in Finite Element Method”, Thomson Asia Pvt. Ltd.,
2002

R3) Robert D. Cook, David S. Malkus, Michael E. Plesha, Robert J. Witt, “Concepts
and Applications of Finite Element Analysis”, 4th Edition, Wiley Student Edition,
2002.

R4) Chandrupatla & Belagundu, “Introduction to Finite Elements in Engineering”, 3rd

Edition, Prentice Hall College Div, 1990

57
 MINI PROJECT SUGGESTIONS

Finite Element Method using PTC CREO and

ANSYS

The transfer of a model from PTC Creo to ANSYS will be demonstrated here for a
simple solid model. Model idealizations such as shells and plane will be treated to
find displacement and stress distributions.

58
 Thank you
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