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Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47

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Review
Development and application of magnesium alloy parts for automotive
OEMs: A review
Bo Liu a,∗, Jian Yang a, Xiaoyu Zhang b, Qin Yang b, Jinsheng Zhang b, Xiaoqing Li b
a School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
b Global R&D Center, Chongqing Changan Automobile Co., Ltd, Chongqing 401120, China
Received 11 November 2022; received in revised form 31 December 2022; accepted 31 December 2022
Available online 27 January 2023

Abstract
China is currently vigorously implementing the “energy conservation and emission reduction” and “dual carbon” strategies. As the most
resource-advantaged light metal material in China, Magnesium (Mg) alloy is progressively expanding its application in automobile, rail
transportation, aerospace, medical, and electronic products. Chongqing University, Shanghai Jiaotong University, and Australian National
University have conducted extensive research on the preparation, properties, and processes of Mg alloys. In the past 20 years, the proportion
of Mg alloy in the automotive industry has gradually expanded, whereas currently the design and development of Mg alloy parts for
automobiles has rarely been reported. Thus, the application models and typical parts cases of Mg alloy are summarized mainly from the
four systems of the whole vehicle (body system, chassis system, powertrain system, interior, and exterior system). Subsequently, two actual
original equipment manufacturers (OEM) cases are used to introduce the development logic of reliable die-cast Mg alloy, including forward
design, formability analysis, process design analysis, structural redesign, manufacturing, and testing, aiming to share the methods, processes,
and focus of attention of automotive OEMs for developing Mg alloy parts to enhance the confidence and motivation of applying Mg alloy
in automotive field. Eventually, the multiple challenges faced by Mg alloy materials are sorted out and how to face these challenges are
discussed. National policies and regulations, environmental protection and energy saving, and consumer demand will continue to promote
the application of Mg.
© 2023 Chongqing University. Publishing services provided by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer review under responsibility of Chongqing University

Keywords: Magnesium alloy; Original equipment manufacturer; Automotive application; Development process.

1. Introduction ability [11], further broadening its application in the automo-

Magnesium (Mg) is the lightest engineered metal with a
low density of 1.74 g/cm3 [1–3]. The specific strength and
specific stiffness are better than steel and aluminum (Al) al-
loy [4], which are far higher than engineering plastics [5].
Compared with Al and steel materials, Mg has a higher
strength-to-weight ratio and better casting properties [6]. Mg
has no toxic hazards compared to other metals and polymers
[7,8]. Mg alloy has obvious advantages in thermal conduc-
tivity [9], vibration damping performance [10], and damping
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: liubo1@ustb.edu.cn (B. Liu).
tive field [12].
With the gradual expansion of Mg alloy in various fields
has led to the diversification of the casting process [13]. Mg
alloy forming process can be mainly divided into die cast-
ing process and deformation process. The die casting mainly
includes gravity casting, low-pressure casting, semi-solid cast-
ing, etc. Deformation process is also known as plastic process-
ing forming, including extrusion, forging, rolling, etc. [14,15].
In recent years, Zeng [16] had taken a comprehensive look
at additive manufacturing technologies for Mg alloys to date,
focusing on the challenges and possibilities in the field of me-
chanical metallurgy. In 2013, Luo [17] reviewed the history,
current, and potential structural uses of Mg, with a focus on
automotive applications. Chongqing University summarized

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2022.12.015
2213-9567/© 2023 Chongqing University. Publishing services provided by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access
article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Peer review under responsibility of Chongqing University
16 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47
Nomenclatures and Abbreviations
Mg Magnesium
Al Aluminum
OEM Original equipment manufacturer
GMC General Motors Corporation
VW Volkswagen
IMA International Magnesium Association
USAMP U.S. Automotive Materials Partnership
NVH Noise, vibration, and harshnes
FAW First Automobile Work
CCB Cross car beam
SAIC Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation
MASF Mg alloy seat frame
MAFC Mg alloy front-end carrier
the trends of Mg alloys and dedicated to report and dissemi-
nate the global Mg alloy research [18]. Santamaría [19] had
developed models for predicting the mechanical properties of
automotive Mg alloy die castings, allowing OEMs and de-
signers to give the most appropriate processing variables dur-
ing the design and simulation phases, which expands new
ideas for the application of Mg alloy in automotive com-
ponents. The European project CRAL is a viable and eco-
nomical casting solution for introducing non-combustible Mg
alloys into the automotive industry, dramatically reducing the
global warming potential of the Mg casting process route [20].
Golroudbary [21] evaluated the reuse of Mg in automotive
manufacturing processes as well as in casting and molding
processes. The research showed the considerable potential of
Mg as a lightweight material for energy saving and emission
reduction in the automotive industry. Although some literature
[22–25] reviewed the structural applications of Mg alloys in
the automotive, aerospace, and power tool industries, most of
the descriptions were not specific. The performance advan-
tages of Mg alloys allow researchers to carry out research in
many areas, such as structural properties, functional materials,
and die casting processes [26–28]. In addition to engineering
applications, Mg is used in the health and biomedical indus-
tries due to its superior biodegradability [29]. In addition, in
the literature [30], Alias reviewed Mg metal matrix compos-
ites as an attractive material with great potential in biodegrad-
able and automotive components. Yang [26] showed that the
control of microstructure and mechanical properties of Mg
alloys has been the focus of research and revealed the future
prospects of functional Mg materials, Mg alloy corrosion ef-
fective protection and degradation rate control, and Mg alloy
advanced processing technology.
Given the comprehensive reviews of Mg alloys from
Chongqing University, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Ohio
State University, and Helmholtz Zentrum Geesthacht, this pa-
per will focus on the application of different series of Mg
alloys in automotive components. However, in recent years,
few review reports on the application of Mg in the automotive
field, especially the information detailing the whole process
development process and performance requirements of Mg al-
loy parts are scarce. From years of business experience and
research analysis, the main reasons for this phenomenon are
the following:
(1) The cost of Mg is too high compared to high strength
steel and Al for auto parts.
(2) Mg raw material prices fluctuate a lot, the Mg market
as a whole can’t keep stable operation in a long time.
(3) Mg parts supplier system is not sound, which cannot be
compared with Al and steel companies.
(4) OEM has a lack of confidence in the corrosion resis-
tance of Mg alloy.
(5) The current widely used Pijiang method of Mg refining
technology is highly polluted and does not meet the
energy-saving and environmental protection policy.
(6) …
How to promote Mg usage faster needs to increase the
overall investment and establish a complete R&D capabil-
ity and system, which makes more companies to dock new
market opportunities. For example, Baosteel entered the Mg
alloy industry, which will give most OEMs to improve the
development confidence. Meanwhile, OEMs and parts suppli-
ers should increase the technical system of Mg alloy product
design-development-verification integration. Moreover, vigor-
ously develop green low-carbon Mg refining process, such
as electrolytic Mg process, etc. As such, the purpose of this
review is to summarize the history and recent advances in
the development of different series of Mg alloys for automo-
tive components, accompanied by a critical analysis of the
literature reported so far. Most importantly, the whole pro-
cess development technology route of die casting Mg alloy
is introduced through actual production cases to enhance the
confidence of OEMs in developing new parts, which is wor-
thy of deep consideration by companies and manufacturers
of automotive lightweighting research. Simultaneously, under
the needs of national policies and regulations, environmen-
tal energy protection, and consumers, the various challenges
faced by Mg alloy materials and how to overcome these chal-
lenges are discussed, along with providing an outlook for the
future. Therefore, a review of the application of Mg alloy in
automotive components is necessary, which also provides a
reference and reference for OEMs to develop Mg alloy com-
ponents. Simultaneously, new developments in this issue are
combined with the confidence to drive more Mg use.
2. Mg alloy properties and strategic requirements
2.1. Resource advantages
Mg is highly abundant and widely distributed in the Earth’s
crust, accounting for about 2.77% of the crustal surface metal
ore content [31]. China has more than 70% of the world’s Mg
resources, the world’s largest raw Mg reserves, the world’s
largest raw Mg production, and the world’s largest raw Mg
export [32]. Magnesite resources are up to about 200 species,
 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47
including magnesite, dolomite, hydromagnesite, talc, and ser-
pentine minerals. In addition, the Mg content of seawater
reaches 2.1 × 1015 tons, which is extremely rich in resources
[33,34]. Qinghai, the largest “rich mine” of salt lake distribu-
tion in China, is rich in potassium, Mg, lithium, and other salt
resources of great potential economic value [35,36]. China
Qinghai Salt Lake Magnesium Industry used the abundant salt
lake brine resources to obtain high purity and uniform size
of hydromagnesite, which is the high quality raw material for
Mg refining. However, Mg hydroxide and Mg oxide have ir-
regular particle shape, low quality, not enough advanced pro-
cess technology, low added value, and other defects, far from
the advantages of Mg resources in Qinghai. Recently, some
new Mg-based functional materials have been developed grad-
ually, and the research of high-purity Mg has been increased,
which expands the application of Mg resources in high value-
added fields [37]. In addition, the short-term goal can promote
the rapid development of the whole industrial chain of “salt
lake brine - water brine magnesite - anhydrous Mg chloride -
electrolytic Mg metal - Mg metal - Mg alloy - Mg alloy pro-
cessing industry” by optimizing and upgrading the Mg metal
plant. Simultaneously, based on Mg production, extend the
industrial chain to develop high-performance products appli-
cable to transportation, electronics industry, aerospace, and
energy storage.
2.2. Functional characteristics
Mg alloys have a high relative strength. The specific stiff-
ness is about the same as Al and steel, but much greater than
engineering plastics. Currently, the specific strength of ultra-
light and high-strength Mg-14Li-7Al (LA147, wt.%) is about
350 Nm/kg, which is unmatched by all other engineering al-
loys. In the same rigid conditions, 1 kg of Mg alloy strength
is almost equal to 1.8 kg of Al or 2.1 kg of steel, and the
use of Mg alloy material to make seat, steering wheel, cross
car beam (CCB), and other parts considerably enhance the
comfort and maneuverability of the car.
Mg alloys have high damping properties [38,39], and the
main mechanism is dislocation damping, which is generally
15 times higher than that of Al alloys and 60 times higher
than that of steel. For example, at 35 MPa stress level, the
attenuation coefficient of Mg alloy AZ91D is 25% and that of
Al alloy A380 is only 1%. Under the stress level of 100 MPa,
the attenuation coefficients of Mg alloy AZ91D, AM60, and
AS41 are 53%, 72%, and 70%, respectively, while that of Al
alloy A380 is only 4% [40].
In addition, the dimensional instability caused by changes
in ambient temperature and time is significantly reduced in
Mg alloys compared to other metals. The overall thermal
conductivity and heat dissipation properties of Mg alloy are
better than Al alloy. Meanwhile, Mg alloy has been widely
used in electronic devices by virtue of the excellent elec-
tromagnetic shielding properties [41]. It is encouraging to
note that Mg alloys have good energy properties and there-
fore show great potential as hydrogen storage materials and
battery anode materials [42,43]. Moreover, Mg alloy is an
17
ideal biodegradable implant material with good biocompati-
bility and in vivo degradability [44]. Table 1 illustrates the
comparison of the mechanical properties of different grades
of Mg alloys [45,46].
2.3. Process performances
Mg has a hexagonal dense packed crystal structure, which
is different from most structural metals [47]. Few slip systems
can be activated at room temperature and only basal slip sys-
tems on densely packed planes can be easily activated, which
greatly limits their room temperature deformation capacity
[48,49]. The lower strength properties of Mg alloy make it
less susceptible to slip on non-substrate surfaces. In addition,
non-base slip is only initiated when the temperature rises to
about 200–300 °C, accompanied by multi-base slip that can
be well plasticized.
The excellent workability of Mg allows it to be formed
by any established method. According to the different form-
ing processes, Mg alloy materials are mainly divided into two
categories: cast Mg alloy and deformed Mg alloy. Die casting
is the most mature and widely used forming process for Mg
alloys, including sand casting, permanent casting, investment
casting, disappearing, mold casting, die casting, etc. [17]. The
liquid forming method makes the product dimensionally sta-
ble and highly productive. However, the process has the dis-
advantages of large solidification shrinkage, low high temper-
ature strength, easy oxidation, inclusions and looseness, and
difficult heat treatment after molding. Deformation process-
ing is used to obtain better properties through the control of
material organization and the application of heat treatment
processes [50,51]. The deformation process eliminates tissue
defects and refines the grain, which requires less equipment
but does not allow for secondary plastic deep machining. The
forming performance is weak in the low temperature state,
but it has high plasticity in the superplastic state, so it can be
used to process parts with complex shapes.
The semi-solid molding process has also received some
research and application as a new casting process [52,53].
During metal solidification, the crystallization process is con-
trolled at the solid-liquid two-phase coexistence temperature,
and the metal solid-liquid mixed slurry is obtained by break-
ing the dendrite structure through vigorous stirring. Semisolid
molding mainly includes electromagnetic stirring method,
strain induced melting activation method, semisolid isother-
mal heat treatment method, and chemical grain refinement
method [54]. Technical advantages include less casting de-
fects, high mechanical properties, dimensional accuracy, and
quality of products. However, this process is more expensive
and has more complex equipment and process requirements,
which is not suitable for a large number of applications in
automotive parts.
2.4. Energy demand and strategic advantages
Since 2015, CO2 emission requirements have been reduced
from 162 g/km to 118 g/km, and the average fuel consump-
18 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47

Table 1
Comparison of mechanical properties of Mg alloys.

Performance Unit Mg AZ91 AM50 AS41 AE42 AISI8Cu3

Density g/cm³ 1.74 1.81 1.77 1.77 1.79 2.75
Specific heat kJ/kgK 1.025 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.02 0.88
Thermal conductivity W/mK 154 51 65 68 84 120
Melting temperature °C 650 598 620 638 625 593
S olid-liquid conversion temperature °C 650 420–435 420–435 420–435 590 521
Conversion heat kJ/kg 368 370 370 370 370 500
Tensile strength MPa 165–205 240–250 210–230 215–240 230 331
Yield limit MPa 69–105 160 125 140 145 165
Elongation rate % 8–11.5 3–7 10–15 6–15 10–11 3
Elastic modulus GPa 45 45 45 45 45 71
Brinell hardness – 36 70 60 60 60 80

tion has been reduced from 6.9 L/100 km to 5.0 L/100 km.
Based on the national dual carbon policy and energy sav-
ing and emission reduction strategy, lightweight materials and
lightweight technology for new energy vehicles are of great
strategic significance [55]. Preliminary estimates show that
the market capacity will reach 660,000 tons by 2022. It is
expected that the application of Mg alloy in the above fields
will exceed 3 million tons in the next 10 years.
At present, the common use of the Pijiang method of Mg
refining process, mainly with dolomite or magnesite as raw
materials. Whereas the Pijiang method of Mg refining equip-
ment is relatively backward and workers labor intensity. Al-
though the new technology of vertical tank Mg refining has
been successfully developed recently, and the production effi-
ciency has been greatly improved, but it is still accompanied
by the problems of high carbon emission and serious pollu-
tion. China Qinghai Salt Lake electrolytic Mg is generally a
green product with very low carbon emission level [56,57].
Enterprises and manufacturers make full use of local wind re-
sources for green power generation, which is in line with the
way forward of the dual carbon strategy, a recyclable path to
green Mg alloy materials. Energy and strategic needs are driv-
ing new technologies for more efficient and cost-effective Mg
processing, contributing also to the implementation of national
strategies such as new materials and automotive lightweight-
ing. Thus, in the face of the depletion of many traditional
metal resources, accelerating the development of Mg materi-
als for China to implement the “double carbon strategy” and
maintain the sustainable development of society has important
strategic significance.
3. Application of Mg alloy in automotive parts
The major auto parts manufacturers are investing in the
production and development of Mg alloy automotive die cast-
ing. According to the judgment of “Technology Roadmap for
Energy Saving and New Energy Vehicles 2.0”, the overall
vehicle lightweighting coefficient will progressively decrease
[58]. At present, the global single-vehicle Mg alloy usage and
2030 single-vehicle Mg alloy usage target value is still a huge
gap, and automotive Mg alloy demand expansion potential is
strong.
The automotive manufacturing industry has the highest
share in the consumption of Mg alloy, with about 70% [59].
Mg-alloy automotive parts are diverse, with structural parts
(seat frame and front-end frame), high-temperature resistant
parts (cylinder block), and moving parts (wheel) all having the
common feature of withstanding low mechanical and chemi-
cal loads. Fig. 1 summarizes the historical development of au-
tomotive Mg alloy components and gives practical examples
from OEMs. The development of Mg alloy is closely related
to policy, environment, demand, and other factors. The review
divides the development of Mg alloy into four stages accord-
ing to the clues of time and OEM Mg alloy product cases.
The article focuses on summarizing some OEM success cases
in the last 20 years, mainly concentrated on stage 4.
Stage 1: In 1808, the English chemist Humphry Davy
isolated Mg metal [60–62], but it was not until 1828 that
Antoine-Alexander Bussy isolated pure Mg from anhydrous
MgCl2 [63]. By the 1880s, Germany founded the world’s first
electrolytic Mg plant to start industrial production of Mg al-
loys. As early as the 1930s, Germany was the first to apply
Mg alloy to the automobile manufacturing industry. A few
years later, the Soviet government put Mg alloy into the man-
ufacturing production of aircraft. England first applied Mg al-
loy to the gearbox case of motorcycle. The production of Mg
alloy reached 1200 tons/year during this period.
Stage 2: During World War II, the production of Mg al-
loy increased dramatically due to the manufacture of military
equipment [64]. But after 1946, the development of Mg alloy
began to level off.
Stage 3: Until the 1990s, influenced by automobile exhaust
emissions, energy consumption and environmental protection
policies, countries around the world began to pay attention to
the development and research of Mg alloy.
Stage 4: By the 21st century 10 s, with excellent material
properties, the application of Mg and Al alloy in body and
enclosed parts grew rapidly, especially for pure electric and
hybrid vehicles. Especially in the last 20 years, major OEMs
have been enhancing the use of Mg alloys in automobiles,
resulting in many Mg alloy parts on the market.
Table 2 provides a comprehensive overview of the mapping
relationships of different families of Mg alloys for automotive
components [45]. Currently, AZ91D, AM60B, and AM50 are
 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47
Fig. 1. Mg alloy in the development of automotive parts of the historical process.
the most common in automotive Mg alloy applications. As
such, this section reviews and summarizes the applications
of Mg alloys in body systems, chassis systems, powertrain
systems, and interior and exterior trim systems [21,29,65,66].
3.1. Body system
Mg alloy materials are ideal for thin-walled structural parts
and large internal structural parts due to their excellent casting
flow properties.
3.1.1. Car door
Mg alloy as a door inner panel material has the advantage
of lightweight, generally choosing the tensile strength of more
than 220 MPa, elongation greater than 10% [89]. Due to the
easy corrosion of Mg alloy, the connection is generally not
welded but bolted or glued.
In 2004, the Aston Martin DB9 was developed with Mg
side door parts that weighed an estimated 43% less [97]. The
one-piece die-cast inner panel of the Mercedes S-Class coupe
is only 4.56 kg [98]. In 2009, Mercedes continued to use
this technology to develop the E-Class T-Model car door. A
weight reduction evaluation by Lotus Engineering on the 2009
Toyota Venza crossover vehicle found that more than 26 kg
of Mg castings were used inside the side doors and lift doors,
resulting in a weight reduction of 41% [99]. In 2012, a De-
partment of Energy sponsored project led by General Motors
Corporation (GMC) developed an integrated die-cast Mg door
interior structure, reducing the mass by 50% while incorporat-
ing the door speaker into the casting design [74]. In addition
to Mercedes, the Aston Martin Vanquish S also underwent
19
some development work on cast Mg side door inner panels,
as shown in Fig. 2(a) [100,101]. Fiat Chrysler Automobiles
recently announced the use of Mg die castings for the new
2018 Jeep Wrangler rear back doors, as depicted in Fig. 2(b)
[102].
The limited space available in door applications and the
limitations of open sections in die castings designed for com-
ponent ejection require creative design to meet stiffness and
crash requirements. In 2010, the Lincoln MKT inner door
panel was the first ever die-cast Mg opening and closing part,
with the core technology being the use of proper reinforce-
ment and smooth tooling by engineers in a continuous design
optimization process [103,104]. For 2017, the Chrysler Paci-
fica used Mg die castings in the tailgate, increasing some
of the ribs and thickness to improve the performance of the
tailgate. Meanwhile, the integrated design replaces nine parts
and reduces the total weight by 50%, as shown in Fig. 2(c)
[105,106].
The combination of Mg alloy and Al alloy outer panels is
a good alternative for the multi-material structure of the body
[106]. The rear doors of the 2009 Mercedes-Benz E-Class
Wagon were constructed using a mixture of Al and Mg. The
wall thicknesses of the large internal components are designed
to vary from 2 mm to 5 mm and are reinforced with ribs in
several areas to ensure both weight advantages and increased
structural performance, as illustrated in Fig. 2(d).
Daimler-Chrysler and Volkswagen (VW) have been exper-
imenting with the design of Mg alloy bezel-less doors to ac-
commodate impassable vehicle models, as given in Fig. 2(e)
[107]. Ford designed an open die-cast Mg inner panel with
beltline reinforcements integrated into the hardware module,
20 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47

Table 2
Application areas of Mg alloy series in car body.

Mg alloy series Performance advantages Specific Applications Die casting process

AZ (Mg-Al-Zn-Mn) Application to high strength,
low ductility components in
thermal environments below
125 °C
AM (Mg-Al-Mn) Used in thermal environments
up to 125 °C for lower strength,
but more ductile components
AS (Mg-Al-Si-Mn) Replaces AZ alloys at 125 °C
in thermal environments due to
increased creep strength
AE (Mg-Al-E-Mn) Higher crawling strength in
150 °C drivetrain operating
environment, but expensive due
to E content
AXE and AJ Applications for high creep
(Mg-Al-Sr/Ca-Mn) strength powertrain components,
but with potential low cost
compared to AE
classification
AZ91D Central control bracket [67], transmission • Gravity or low pressure
housing [68], oil pan [69], oil filter housing • Sand or metal mold
[70], cylinder header cover [71], steering • High pressure die casting
column bracket [72,73], inner panel [74], • Squeeze casting
clutch housing [75], swivel plate [76], starter • Thixocasting
housing [77], headlight bracket [68]
AZ61 Luggage rack skeleton [78], column beam [78]
AZ31 Inner panel [79], compressor housing [80]
AM50 Seat frame [81], wheel/hub [82], inside plate • Gravity or low pressure
[83], steering wheel [84], • Sand or metal mold
AM60B Front-end frame [85], cross car beam [86], • High pressure die casting
seat frame [81], steering wheel [87], • Squeeze casting
wheel/hub [88], radiator bracket [85], inside • Thixocasting
door panel [89]
AS41B Transmission housing [90], crankcase housing • High pressure die casting
[91]
AE44 Transmission case [92], oil pan [93], engine • High pressure die casting
bracket [94]
AJ52 Engine components [95] • High pressure die casting
AJ62 Engine block [96]
AXJ530 Engine components [92]

Fig. 2. Development and application of Mg alloys in car doors: (a) Aston Martin Vanquish S with cast Mg side door inner; (b) All-new 2018 Jeep Wrangler
produced with a die-cast Mg rear swing gate; (c) Chrysler Pacifica showing the liftgate assembly highlighted by a Mg die-cast inner; (d) The rear end of the
Mercedes-Benz E-Class T-Model featuring the hybrid Mg-Al hatch back; (e) Inner door frame of the Daimler-Chrysler SL Roadster; (f) Ford’s concept die-cast
Mg door inner with an open architecture; (g) Integrated Mg die-cast door inner designed as part of a DOE sponsored project led by GMC; (h) Ultra-thin and
ultra-light Mg alloy door inner.

as presented in Fig. 2(f) [74]. Whereas examples exist of de-
signs that integrate waist lines, hinges, and latches into the
casting to improve security, an example of which is given in
Fig. 2(g) [74]. In 2017, the ultra-thin Mg alloy inner door
panel developed by EONTEC and GMC is becoming a pio-
neer in the development of lightweighting in the automotive
industry. The design received the 2017 International Mag-
nesium Association (IMA) Excellence Award, as shown in
Fig. 2(h). Since then, many universities and automobile fac-
tories have invested in the research of Mg alloy car doors.
3.1.2. Front-end carrier and front upper component
Replacing hydraulically formed steel, tubular steel, ex-
truded Al, and plastic composites with die-cast Mg alloys for
 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47
front-end carrier components helps reduce additional variable
costs. In 2003, Ford developed a front-end support assembly
for the F-150 light truck that reduced weight by about 4.6 kg.
So far, Ford has cleverly used the flexibility of Mg alloy die
casting to keep its products competitive in the market [107].
In 2007, the Chinese Ministry of Science and Technology,
the United States and Canada launched the project “Research
and Development of Front-End Structures for Magnesium Ve-
hicles”, which is a good example of promoting front-end car-
rier lightweighting [108,109]. The Tesla Model S was devel-
oped in 2012 with a one-piece die-cast Mg front-end carrier
weighing only 6.49 kg, as illustrated in Fig. 3(a). The front-
end carrier of the Porsche Panamera G2 is made of AM50A,
achieving a weight reduction of 3.5 kg (Fig. 3(b)). The front-
end carrier material of Range Rover is AM60B, achieving
a weight reduction of 7.1 kg (Fig. 3(c)). In 2009, the front
upper component of the Jaguar XJ was made of Mg alloy
AM60B and weighed 4.6 kg, as shown in Fig. 3(d). This
represents a 30% weight reduction compared to the previ-
ous generation of hydraulically expanded Al-tube solutions.
In 2015, the Mercedes-Benz AMG GT front upper compo-
nent was made of Mg alloy AM60B, as depicted in Fig. 3(e).
The overall weight was 3.5 kg and the connection is bolted.
The 2017 fourth-generation Audi A8 cabin mounts are made
of Mg alloy castings, which have reduced weight by 28%, as
shown in Fig. 3(f).
For fuel cars, the engine is generally located at the front of
the vehicle resulting in uneven axle load distribution between
the front and rear of the vehicle. Table 3 lists some application
examples of front-end carriers and front upper components
to illustrate the advantages of Mg alloy in front-end weight
reduction for improving the overall vehicle handling stability.
3.1.3. Panel roof
In 1997, the Chevrolet C-5 Corvette was introduced with
a one-piece die-cast Mg roof, which has been used by GMC
and BMW 3 Series convertible to this day [110]. Mg is also
used on the hardtop roof and roof frame of the Cadillac XLR
convertible. The Mercedes-Benz SL/SLK series cars have also
been using Mg folding roofs, as shown in Fig. 4(a). Chrysler
introduced a lightweight Mg-intensive body structure in its
high-fuel vehicle program, which can reduce the weight by
more than 40% using Mg alloy replacement panel roof ma-
terial compared to conventional steel structures, as shown in
Fig. 4(b) [111].
3.1.4. Hood and trunk lid
As early as 1951, GMC built a prototype hood for the
Buick LeSabre, followed by various body panels for the
Chevrolet Corvette SS Race Car in 1957 and a hood in 1961.
Mercedes-Benz also tried to make the trunk lid of the E-Series
wagon with AM50, weighing 15,310 g, as shown in Fig. 4(c).
Recently, VW made a Mg trunk lid and hood prototype for
the Lupo, as shown in Fig. 4(d) [112,113]. Reinforcing parts
such as hinges and locks are joined together by punching and
riveting, and the inner and outer plates are bonded by heat-
ing. Weight optimized by 50% and 15–20% compared to steel
21
and Al, respectively. In 2012, the Cadillac SLS introduced a
Mg alloy trunk inner panel that can be assembled with the
Al outer panel [114].
3.2. Chassis system
The application of Mg alloys in chassis is severely chal-
lenging for automotive lightweighting and safety performance,
with strength, plasticity, and corrosion resistance all being
considerations [115,116].
3.2.1. Wheel
Compared with Al materials, Mg alloy wheels have higher
strength and toughness. Aesthetics, shock absorption perfor-
mance, and heat dissipation are also major advantages of Mg
alloy wheels [117]. In the kart series we know, the average
weight of Mg alloy wheels is about 560 g, which is an im-
provement of about 300 g weight compared with the same
type of products. The wheel is an under spring rotating part
of the car, and the controllable performance and comfort per-
formance of the whole car are closely related to the Mg alloy
wheel [118].
However, currently only applicable to high-performance
sports or racing cars due to the higher variable cost of Mg
alloys and the problem of poor applicability. In 1967, Fer-
rari upgraded the 330P3 model to the 330P4 model with
Mg wheels and wider tires. Ferrari immediately used them
for competition until 1992 when the first set of BBS Mg
forged wheels were created. The German company Posche
has been using AM60A Mg alloy die-cast wheels since 1970.
Since 1998, GMC has been using Mg wheels on light duty
corvettes. Fig. 5(a) shows the low-pressure cast Mg wheels
of the Chevrolet Corvette. In particular, the United States has
developed a Mg alloy wheel can continue to drive at a speed
of no more than 48 km/h even after the tire is punctured. The
Changan EADO EV not only offers a power change system,
but also features multi-spoke ZK61 wheels. The forging pro-
cess allows for less clearance between the wheel arches and
hubs, achieving a reduction in weight [119].
In 2014, Wang disclosed in patent [120] a preparation
method for producing wheels by forward and reverse extru-
sion using other metals such as Mg alloys and Al alloys, pro-
viding a prerequisite and guarantee for industrial production.
Subsequently, wang authorized Linzhou Dingxin Magnesium
Technology Co., Ltd. and Dewei Co., Ltd. to develop a su-
perplastic forming process of forging forward and reverse ex-
trusion in one process, which requires only one press and im-
proves material utilization and reduces costs through one for-
ward and reverse extrusion forming process [121]. The techni-
cal process is shown in Fig. 5(j), including blank cutting, one-
time forming by forward and reverse extrusion after homoge-
nization treatment, machining, and surface coating. Extruded
wheels made of AZ80 Mg alloy have been sold in small quan-
tities, and the production efficiency has been dramatically im-
proved, with a broad development prospect and huge market
space. In 2018, China Nonferrous Metals Industry Associa-
tion Magnesium Branch and experts discussed the patented
22 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47

Fig. 3. Development and application of Mg alloys in front-end carrier and front upper component: (a) Tesla Model S one-piece die-cast Mg front-end carrier;
(b) Porsche Panamera G2 front-end carrier; (c) Range Rover Mg alloy front-end carrier; (d) Jaguar XJ Mg alloy front upper component; (e) Mercedes-benz
AMG GT Mg alloy front upper component; (f) Audi A8 Mg cabin bracket.

technology of forging Mg alloy automotive wheel hub for-
ward and reverse extrusion in one go. The meeting agreed
that the technology is innovative and is an important techno-
logical breakthrough in achieving automotive lightweighting,
accompanied by the basis for industrialization and large-scale
production.
Currently, the processing processes of Mg alloy wheels are
mainly casting and forging, forging process mainly includes
isothermal extrusion, forging spin, and other processes [122].
Forged Mg alloy wheels have the characteristics of dense
organization and excellent mechanical properties, and have
been used in a large number of special vehicles and high-end
 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47 23

Table 3
Examples of Mg front-end carriers and front upper components of some models.

racing cars [123]. The isothermal superplastic die forging
can be used to form AZ80 automotive wheels in a single
operation, which can achieve about 30 times higher vibration
damping performance than Al wheels and more than 16%
overall fuel savings, as shown in Fig. 5(d), (e), and (f) [124].
In order to improve the strength of the spoke part, Wang
[125,126] proposed a new method of hollow billet extrusion
forming and successfully produced one-piece Mg alloy
wheels from AZ80+ alloy extrusion. As shown in Fig. 5(b),
the first mass-produced forged-spin process Mg wheels will
be available as an option for the Cadillac V-Series, with
the 2022 CT4-V BLACKWING and CT5-V BLACKWING
also available in North America in the summer. In 2022,
AMG Project One goes on sale with optional 9-spoke Mg
24 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47

Fig. 4. Development and application of Mg alloy on roof, hood, and trunk lid: (a) Mg alloy folding roof for Mercedes-Benz SL/SLK series cars; (b) Mg alloy
inner plate from Daimler-Chrysler; (c) Mercedes-Benz E-Class touring cassenger car trunk lid; (d) VW Lupo Mg trunk lid and hood.

forged wheels featuring a patented bionic design, as shown in
Fig. 5(c). In April 2022, Bugatti unveiled the Chiron Super
Sport 300+, with only 30 units produced worldwide. The
carbon fiber body and Mg wheels make this supercar as light
as possible, allowing a further weight reduction of 16 kg
under the springs, as illustrated in Fig. 5(g). In August 2022,
Porsche officially unveiled the new generation of the Porsche
911 GT3 RS with Mg forged wheels that can be reduced
by 8 kg, as seen in Fig. 5(h). In September 2022, Bandit9
Motors of Vietnam launched a single-seater racing car under
the name of “Monaco” with a length, width and height of
3815/1955/980 mm, a wheelbase of 2850 mm, and a weight
of 795 kg, while the wheels are made of lightweight Mg
alloy and the tires are 315/35R20, as depicted in Fig. 5(i).
3.2.2. Steering wheel
The application of Mg alloy in steering wheels is a part
with high recognition and acceptance in the world due to
its energy absorption and vibration damping properties [87].
Mg alloy steering wheel has the performance advantages that
traditional steering wheels such as mild steel and engineering
plastics cannot match [127,128].
The die casting molding process is the most common
method for Mg alloy steering wheels today [129]. Chery
AM50A Mg alloy steering wheel skeleton adopts cold
chamber die casting to achieve more than 25% weight re-
duction. The body weight of the Mg alloy steering wheel for
passenger cars of Dongfeng Nissan and Shen Long is only
876.5 g. Shenyang University of Technology put together
the traditional welded structure and made a high toughness
Mg alloy steering wheel skeleton by one-piece die casting.
Chongqing Magnesium has provided more than 7000 pieces
of A2401-002 Mg alloy steering wheel to Shanghai GMC,
as shown in Fig. 6(a). Due to the elimination of the welding
process, the cost advantage of Mg alloy steering wheel
has been favored by a large number of OEMs. In 2008,
Mao [130] analyzed the fatigue fracture of AM50HP-F by
experiments and scanning electron microscopy and discussed
its application prospects, as shown in Fig. 6(b). Flow-3D
software is used to optimize die casting process parameters
such as filling speed, crystallizer temperature, and pouring
temperature, along with this technology also provides some
development support to the actual manufacturing of host
plants.
 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47 25

Fig. 5. The development and application of Mg alloy in the wheel: (a) Mg alloy wheel for Chevrolet corvette; (b) Cadillac CT4-V forged spun Mg wheel;
(c) AMG Project One 9-spoke Mg forged wheels with bionic design; (d) Hollow billet extruded Mg alloy wheel: (14 × 6) J; (e) Hollow billet extruded Mg
alloy wheel: (13 × 10) J; (f) Hollow billet extruded Mg alloy wheel: (13 × 8) J; (g) Bugatti Chiron Super Sport 300+ Mg wheel; (h) Porsche 911 GT3
RS Mg forged wheel; (i) Bandit9 electric racing Mg wheel; (j) Mg alloy car wheel forward and reverse extrusion forming technology process, from Dingxin
Magnesium Technology Co.
26 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47

Fig. 6. The development and application of Mg alloy in the steering wheel: (a) Mg alloy steering wheel frame produced by Chongqing Mg Industry; (b)
Surface defect probability simulation result; (c) Mg alloy steering wheel crash test.

Fig. 7. The development and application of Mg alloy in subframe: (a) Corvette Z06 Mg subframe; (b) Audi R8 Mg subframe; (c) 2016 Ford Focus Mg
subframe.

In addition, the steering wheel is directly related to the
safety of the driver’s head and chest in a serious colli-
sion [131]. The steering wheel needs a certain strength
and hardness in addition to a certain degree of flexibility.
Altenhof [132] evaluated the crashworthiness of Mg alloy
steering wheel armatures based on peak impact loads, peak
crosshead displacements, performance response, percent elas-
tic response, and energy absorption coefficients, as shown in
Fig. 6(c). Experimental results show that the elastic energy
recovery rate of Mg armatures is generally higher than that
of Al armatures. This research is expected to inform engineers
and designers in developing high energy absorbing armatures
with small elastic energy response.
3.2.3. Subframe
Mg alloy subframe is the most effective way to achieve the
light weight of the car chassis structure, which also has the
advantage of being able to isolate road vibration and improve
stability [133,134]. In addition, the small number of parts in
the assembly makes it easy to install and reduces assembly
costs.
In 1985, one of the basic ideas of the Volvo LCP 2000
project was to take into account energy consumption over the
entire life of the vehicle. The vehicle used about 50 kg of
Mg alloy, including the transmission housing, clutch housing,
wheels, rear suspension, subframe, and cylinder block [135].
In 2005, Corvette decided to use Mg front beams instead of
Al brackets to meet its goals of weight reduction and fuel sav-
ings, as illustrated in Fig. 7(a). The core of this study is the
development of scientific and technical expertise to provide a
comprehensive overview of large die-cast Mg alloy structures
[136,137]. The Audi R8 rear subframe material is AZ91, and
the weight reduction was achieved using a high-pressure die
casting process, as shown in Fig. 7(b). 2016 Ford Focus’s cast
Mg AE44 subframe achieved a 32% weight reduction over the
equivalent steel frame, and all joints were subjected to bolt
load retention tests, as shown in Fig. 7(c) [138]. Furthermore,
vehicle corrosion tests and laboratory component corrosion
tests verified the corrosion resistance requirements for mate-
 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47 27

Fig. 8. Mg alloy in powertrain applications: (a) Mg applications in the 1930s: crankcase and transmission housing; (b) Mg powertrain components from the
USAMP Mg powertrain cast components project; (c) The Mercedes 7-speed automatic transmission case; (d) Audi A8 (12-cylinder) intake manifold cover;
(e) BMW 6-cylinder R6 engine; (f) Engine cylinder head cover typical cases.

rial replacement [138]. Currently, GMC’s welded construction
midsize cars and BMW’s 5 and 7 series hydroformed tubular
subframes are hollow construction. Mg alloy tube will bring
lighter mass experience, so the hollow casting process has
become the main mainstream technology.
3.3. Powertrain system
Due to the excellent casting properties of Mg alloys, engine
blocks, cylinder heads, gearboxes, and oil pans are starting to
change from the original Al alloy material [28]. Currently,
both VW and Audi are equipped with Mg engines and trans-
missions with materials operating below 120 °C, which is the
most critical opportunity for Mg lightweighting.
3.3.1. Engine and transmission housing
In the 1930s, Louris Chevrolet used Mg pistons for the
first time in a racing car. Fig. 8(a) represents Chevrolet’s Mg
alloy crankcase. Germany VW Beetle car powertrain used
about 20 kg of Mg castings for the production of crankcase
and transmission housing, car Mg consumption again acceler-
ated and reached a peak [139]. VW Germany’s Passat, Audi
A4, and A6, and Ford’s truck gearbox housing use AZ91D
Mg alloy [140]. Audi vehicles also use more Mg in their pow-
ertrains, such as the intake module of the W12 engine, the
cylinder head of the V8 engine, and the five-speed manual
transmission housing. About 600 transmission cases made of
Mg alloy material are used every day in VW’s B-frame cars.
By the 1990s, simulation tools made it possible to cast a wider
range of products as well, including CCBs, seat frames, steer-
ing wheels, intake manifolds, and more [139].
In 2001, the U.S. Automotive Materials Partnership (US-
AMP) and the U.S. Department of Energy initiated the Mg
Intensive V6 Engine Project, which successfully developed
a database of Mg alloy designs and common specifications,
with 29% of the components replaced by Mg, as shown in
Fig. 8(b) [141,142]. Other important applications include the
new 7G-Tronic seven-speed automatic transmission housing
for Mercedes-Benz (see Fig. 8(c)) [66,143]. Changan’s trans-
mission and cylinder heads and other parts have passed the
bench test and road test, and have entered the market in large
quantities in 2004. Fig. 8(d) shows an Audi A8 intake mani-
fold cover manufactured using the sand casting process, with
the first batch secured with Al screws and a final weight of
8.43 kg.
Due to the easy reaction between coolant and Mg material,
the application of Mg alloy on power system is mainly fo-
cused on low temperature system. BMW’s 8-cylinder power
28 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47
Fig. 9. Development and application of Mg alloy in oil pan: (a) Valve-cover cast in AJ52x at Spartan Light Metal Products with very good results; (b) Oil
pan cast in AJ52x at Spartan Light Metal Products with very good results; (c) Honda Insight Mg alloy oil pan; (d) CA20 Mg alloy oil pan; (e) USAMP Mg
engine oil pan and engine cover; (f) High temperature creep resistant die-cast Mg alloy oil pan for FAW Beston car.
and the fully variable intake manifold of the VW Phaeton
W12 engine feature a Mg housing. Corrosion problems limit
the application of Mg engines. Nevertheless, BMW has built a
composite Mg engine (R6), which is the world’s lightest 3.0-
l inline six-cylinder gasoline engine [144,145]. BMW’s goal
was to achieve an engine that could increase power output and
higher torque, while also reducing fuel consumption and CO2
emissions. The R6 is also an environmentally friendly engine
of recent years, using fewer components and combining in-
novative design with metallurgy, as illustrated in Fig. 8(e).
The replacement of the cylinder head cover from Al to Mg
alloy material can achieve a weight reduction of about 33%,
which can significantly improve the engine Noise, vibration,
and harshness (NVH) performance. Fig. 8(f) shows several
examples of Mg alloys for cylinder head covers.
3.3.2. Oil pan
The noise of the car at low and medium speeds mainly
comes from the radiation noise of the engine, while the oil
pan, cylinder head cover and timing gear cover and other thin-
walled parts of the radiation noise in the whole noise occupies
a considerable proportion [146,147]. In addition, the oil pan
has clear requirements for various mechanical properties, es-
pecially tensile strength. At present, most of the oil sump is
made of Al alloy. The trend towards vibration and noise re-
duction has led to the need to find a lighter material, and
Mg alloys are favored in this regard due to their advantages
[148].
Several die casting tests have been conducted in North
America and Europe with AJ alloy. The valve cover in
Fig. 9(a) and the oil pan in Fig. 9(b) were die cast on Spartan
Light Metal Products using a cold chamber machine. Excel-
lent pouring properties were observed in these alloys, with
no tendency to jam or crack and good flow properties. In
addition, Pekguleryuz [148] summarized the performance ad-
vantages of the AJ series alloys as follows:
• The creep properties of AJ52x and AJ62x alloys are better
than all other Mg alloys (50–70 MPa) at high temperatures
(150–175 °C) and under high stress.
• AJ62x alloy has the highest tensile properties (room tem-
perature and high temperature).
• AJ alloy has excellent corrosion resistance, with salt spray
corrosion resistance up to or better than AZ91D.
• J62x alloy has excellent resistance to hot tearing and crack-
ing and has a lower tendency to hot crack than Al alloy
A380.
• AJ62x alloy has good die casting properties, better than
AJ52x alloy.
• AJ62x alloy is well suited for automotive powertrain com-
ponents.
The oil pan is made of heat-resistant Mg alloy, which can
reduce weight up to 33% compared to Al alloy. The Mg alloy
oil pan of both Honda Insight and CA20 achieves a large per-
centage weight reduction, as shown in Fig. 9(c) and (d). For
the past 20 years, the USAMP has brought together represen-
tatives from Daimler Chrysler, GMC, Ford Motor Company,
and more than 40 other companies from the Mg casting in-
dustry to create and test a low-cost Mg alloy engine [149].
Parts such as the oil pan were redesigned using high-pressure
die casting and sand casting processes, as shown in Fig. 9(e).
In addition, the First Automobile Work shop (FAW) Besturn
oil pan (Fig. 9(f)) is another application of a high tempera-
ture creep resistant die-cast Mg alloy [69]. The oil pan was
designed for FAW’s new generation of passenger car engines
with an operating temperature close to 150°C. Road tests have
shown that the oil pan meets the temperature requirements.
3.4. Internal system
Mg alloy automotive interior parts should have good
strength, plasticity, energy absorption, and casting properties
as it relates to the safety performance of the vehicle. Some
 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47
Fig. 10. Application of Mg alloy on seat frame: (a) Changan E01 Mg alloy seat frame; (b) Future K50 Mg alloy seat frame; (c) Jaguar S Type’s Mg alloy
seat frame.
typical interior systems include seat frames, CCBs, center
console brackets, steering housings, etc. [150,151].
3.4.1. Seat frame
The front seats are generally more functional and their
structure is more complex, while the rear seats are less func-
tional and their structure is simpler [152]. Currently, the appli-
cation of Mg alloy in the seat is mainly the backrest skeleton
and seat basin skeleton [153–155].
In the 1990s, integrated three-point seat belts were first
widely used in production vehicles. The seat of the Mercedes-
Benz sports car used a new Mg die casting process to in-
tegrate the complex components into two parts: the backrest
and the seat basin, with a total weight of 8.5 kg [156]. AM50
(for the backrest side supports and the entire seat frame) and
AM20 (for the backrest shell) are two materials perfectly
adapted to the general requirements of Mg seats, which makes
it possible to produce cars with high rigidity and excellent
ductility of the frame parts.
The design and manufacture of Mg seats have also un-
dergone significant improvements in recent years. The Alfa
Romeo 156 model has a Mg alloy front seat skeleton with a
backrest weight of 1.0 kg and a seat basin weight of 1.2 kg,
a weight reduction of 2.8 kg compared to the original struc-
tural steel skeleton. The Daimler Chrysler 500 SEL sports car
and Hyundai Genesis coupe models both featured die-cast Mg
seat bones. In 2009, Changan Automobile forward developed
a Mg alloy seat skeleton for the Oushang E01 model, achiev-
ing a weight reduction of 25–30% and a yield of over 90%,
as shown in Fig. 10(a). The seat of the K50 model is made of
Al–Mg alloy skeleton, with a backrest weight of 1.18 kg and
a seat basin weight of 1.4 kg. The surface is covered with
29
leather + Alcantara splicing material, as shown in Fig. 10(b).
For 2017, the Jaguar S model received a major upgrade with
a die-cast Mg seat skeleton that weighs 3.08, 2.5 kg less than
the previous model, as shown in Fig. 10(c).
The rear seats have relatively few functions and simple
structures, and the use of Mg alloy can effectively reduce
weight. Most of the rear seats are made of die-cast Mg alloy,
which can be integrally formed. 2005, Chrysler first applied
the folding system on Stow’n Go seats, the second row of
seats and rear seat frame used some Al, and the third row of
folding seats are Mg castings. In terms of flexibility, the whole
process can be completed in about one minute. Of course, the
disadvantages of this Mg seat are very obvious. In addition
to the high cost, the seat size and thickness are very limited,
which is not very popular for the Chinese market that seeks
comfort.
3.4.2. Cross car beam
The high integration of Mg CCB has a significant weight
reduction effect. The good vibration damping and dimensional
stability can effectively eliminate the welding deformation
problem of the original steel structure [157,158]. Table 4 gives
some typical CCB cases to illustrate the advantages of Mg al-
loys for automotive applications.
In 1961, GMC introduced the first die-cast Mg alloy dash-
board CCB. Although the thickness is generally 4–5 mm, but
still can reduce the weight of about 4 kg. Fig. 11(a) shows
the die-cast Mg alloy CCB of the Buick LaCrosse currently
produced by GMC, about 6.9 kg. GMC’s use of die-cast Mg
CCB peaked around 2005 due to its high level of integration
and improved dimensional stability [159].
30 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47
Currently, foreign Ferrari, Dodge Viper, Mercedes-Benz,
Volvo, Jaguar, Ford, Chrysler and other car companies com-
bined at least 20 models are using Mg alloy die cast-
ing CCB [160–163]. Domestically, Chery Ruiqi G6 and
Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation (SAIC) Rongwei
550 and other senior cars have been used in bulk Mg alloy
CCB, the material is AM60B, a single piece of lightweight
accounted for more than 55%. In addition, Geely GS1.8,
SAIC W261, and other models also use Mg alloy CCB to
improve the performance of the middle and senior cars and
the image of the independent car brand. In 2022, Shanghai
Jiaotong University and Voyah Automotive Technology Co.,
Ltd. optimized the design of Mg alloy for the original steel
CCB solution and used AM50 material and high tenacity Mg-
alloy large integrated die casting technology to develop the
Mg-alloy CCB, which was successfully applied to the Voyah
FREE model, as shown in Fig. 11(b). The weight of Mg al-
loy CCB assembly is reduced from 12.1 kg to 6.7 kg, with
a weight reduction ratio of 45%, which is an obvious ef-
fect of lightweighting. In addition, the strength, modal, crash
resistance, manufacturability, and other performance and pro-
cess requirements meet the design requirements. The project
also received a special medal of honor at the 2020 China
Bodywork Congress, a Top 10 Bodywork Award and a Best
Workmanship Award at the 2021 China Bodywork Congress.
Figs. 11(c), (d), (e), (f), and (g) represent the practical appli-
cation cases of several Mg alloy CCBs.
3.4.3. Central control bracket
Compared to Mg castings, wrought Mg offers further op-
portunities for substantial savings in many interior applica-
Table 4
Some cases of typical Mg CCB in automotive applications.
tions, such as center console brackets. Currently, the Mg cen-
ter console of the Porsche Cayman and Porsche PO series is
smaller in size, as shown in Fig. 12(a). In addition, the Volvo
S80 and XC60 both have a center stand made of AM50A
with a weight of 1 kg and 2.2 kg, respectively, as shown
in Fig. 12(b). Dongguan EONTEC. Co., Ltd. has introduced
AZ91D material center control bracket, which is die-cast by
2000–2500T die casting machine. The part has light weight,
good damping effect, and the wall thickness is only 2 mm.
3.4.4. Other aspects
In the last two years, with the rapid development of intel-
ligence, Mg display back panel has appeared in Mg market
with a new posture. In addition, many emerging companies
are also gradually exploring the Mg market, such as NIO
Auto, Voyah Auto, etc. Many other auto parts also use Mg
alloy, such as steering housing, center console bracket, hand-
brake, Mg alloy back panel, radiator bracket, car armrest seat,
etc. Some typical cases are listed in Fig. 13.
4. Practical application cases from OEM
To enhance the confidence of enterprises in developing Mg
alloy parts and support the vision of mass production, the
whole process case of developing Mg alloy parts for an OEM
of an independent brand car in recent years is shown in detail
[164–166].
4.1. Mg seat development process
The development process of the Mg Alloy Seat Frame
(MASF) mainly includes performance analysis, material
(continued on next page)
 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47 31

Table 4 (continued)

design, CAE analysis, and manufacturability analysis
[152,153,167], and the specific development process and
analysis results are demonstrated in Fig. 14.
4.1.1. Program design
Taking a model of Changan Automobile as a prototype,
the traditional pressed and welded sheet metal seat is made
of steel and consists of a backrest and seat frame. The back-
rest is divided into upper and lower horizontal panels, side
panels, suspension wires, and adjustment components. The
seat frame is divided into side plate, seat basin, heightening
pump, lifting four-link, and slide rail pieces. The overall
material of MASF is Mg alloy and the material of functional
parts is steel. MASF consists of backrest, seat frame, sus-
32 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47

Fig. 11. Several applications of Mg alloy CCB: (a) Buick Grand Touring die-cast Mg alloy CCB; (b) Mg alloy CCB on the Voyah FREE model; (c) Ferrari
Califoria die-cast Mg alloy CCB; (d) Mercedes-Benz M series die-cast Mg alloy CCB; (e) Volvo new XC90 K426 die-cast Mg alloy CCB; (f) Volvo new
S90 L541 die-cast Mg alloy CCB; (g) BAW ARCFOX-1 die-cast Mg alloy CCB.

pension wire, adjustment assembly, and slide rail assembly.
The backrest skeleton is a large frame die casting, which is
the most stressed part of the seat. Compared to traditional
press-welded sheet metal seats, MASF is highly integrated
and has fewer parts. The fatigue strength and NVH of Mg
alloy are much better than steel, and fewer processing steps
can reduce a lot of problems.
In terms of materials, AM50 and AM60 have excellent
elongation and energy absorption characteristics in addition
to high strength and casting properties. Furthermore, AM60B
has relatively high tensile strength and is mainly used for au-
tomotive seat skeletons, instrument panels, brackets, steering
wheels, etc. In summary, AM60 was selected as the casting
material for MASF in this study, as shown in Fig. 14(a).
4.1.2. CAE performance analysis
Based on the preliminary data, the load-bearing perfor-
mance of MASF is evaluated by converting various ultimate
conditions into equivalent ultimate loads under static loading
mode with the help of CAE simulation technology. The static
strength, modal, and mounting point fixation strength under
the actual working condition are analyzed to provide the ba-
sis and plan for the optimization of the seat skeleton structure
design to ensure the seat safety and regulatory requirements.
Static strength analysis. For the static strength analysis of
the seat frame, 6 degrees of freedom at 4 mounting points of
the slider were constrained according to the actual working
conditions. The upper frame of the seat skeleton is loaded and
a moment of 530 N·m is applied backwards along the longi-
tudinal direction with respect to the seat R point. For the seat
headrest, a spherical model was used, and a moment based on
373 N·m relative to the R point was applied to the backrest
model, and then gradually loaded to 890 N. The simulation
results in Fig. 14(a) show that the maximum stress and strain
of the backrest are 409.5 MPa and 0.001, respectively, and
the maximum stress and strain of the headrest are 640.6 MPa
and 0.005, respectively, which means that the static strength
results all meet the performance requirements.
 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47
Fig. 12. Several applications of Mg alloy center bracket: (a) Porsche series Mg alloy center bracket; (b) Volvo series Mg alloy center bracket.
Safety belt fixing point strength analysis. To avoid occu-
pant injury or death, it is vital to improve the strength of
the seat belt system. The seat is fixed to the rigid body floor
and the maximum forward displacement and multiple strains
of the backrest are calculated under 20 times gravity loading
conditions. Safety belt installation fixed point and the sur-
rounding area allow plastic deformation, whereas not fracture
or damage. The results in Fig. 14(b) show strain values of
0.11 and 0.103 at the slide and seat basin, which are below
the target value of 0.20 and meet the requirements. The strain
in the latch was 0.322, which is higher than the target value
of 0.20. According to the judging guidelines, the seat strain
is considered safe for materials less than 0.2. The strain be-
tween 0.2 and 0.25 is insufficient margin of safety. The strain
between 0.25 and 0.3 should be warned. The strain greater
than 0.3 is considered imminent material failure. Therefore,
for the material failure phenomenon at the latch, we increased
the thickness of the joint plate and installed a reinforcement
33
plate. The simulation results show that the strain value of the
latch is optimized to 0.131.
Modal analysis. Modal analysis provides the basis for vi-
bration characterization of structural systems, vibration fault
diagnosis, and optimal design of structural dynamic character-
istics [168,169]. The seat skeleton mode must be greater than
18 Hz to avoid resonance phenomena. Fig. 14(c) illustrates
that the values of MASF left and right oscillation, forward
and backward pitch and torsional conditions are all greater
than the target values and meet the design requirements.
4.1.3. Die casting machine selection
Die casting machine is one of the most basic elements of
die casting production [170]. The metal die casting mold is
realized by the operation of the die casting machine and is
the basis of the die casting mold design [171]. Selecting a
die casting machine by clamping force is the most common
method. Whereas for some major parts, safety parts, and parts
34 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47

Fig. 13. Some other Mg alloy parts for automobiles.

B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47 35

Fig. 14. MASF full process analysis process and results.

36 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47
with high quality requirements only by clamping force is not
enough to ensure that the requirements are met, so the injec-
tion of energy must also be considered [172]. Therefore, a
horizontal cold chamber die casting machine was used in this
study.
The performance requirements for side pallet structure are
relatively simple due to the relatively uniform forces on the
MASF as a whole. In addition, the seat basin skeleton has
a planar projection filling stroke of 175 mm, a deep cavity
at the front and rear, and a wide range of solidification and
crystallization temperatures. The back end of the charge and
angle adjustment system connected to the backrest requires
high strength to achieve the effectiveness of the distal pres-
sure transfer and the structural properties required to meet
the strength requirements of the casting. Therefore, the com-
paction pressure is chosen to be 75 MPa ∼ 80 MPa.
4.1.4. Process solution setting
The pouring system is the channel that fills the molten
metal in the cold chamber into the die cavity at high temper-
ature and pressure and high speed, which includes the straight
sprue, cross sprue, internal gate and overflow exhaust system
[173]. In the process of guiding the metal liquid to fill the
cavity, the pouring system plays an essential role in control-
ling and regulating the flow state of the liquid, the speed
and pressure transfer, the exhaust effect, and the heat balance
state of the mold. Therefore, the design of the pouring and
exhausting system has a direct impact on the quality of die
casting and die life [174].
Fig. 14(e) shows the MASF pouring system scheme and
pouring mold. Mg alloy backrest belongs to the large and
medium-sized frame structure, left and right completely sym-
metrical, casting length of 757 mm, and both sides of the v-
shaped concave. The space inside the backrest frame is large,
so the gates are arranged inside the die casting, which can
make the mold structure compact and ensure the thermal bal-
ance of the mold. In order to avoid the frontal impact of the
metal fluid on the part and to allow the gas in the deep cavity
to escape smoothly, an end-face side gate similar to the one
used for the seat basin is used so that the metal fluid first fills
the bottom side of the cavity where the gas may be trapped.
The total volume of the pouring system was 1083.4 cm3 ,
accounting for 58% of the casting volume, and the process
yield of the casting was 42%. The structure of the seat basin
is relatively simple, with a conventional 4-gate design. The
total volume of the pouring system is 1112.9 cm3 , accounting
for 52% of the casting volume, and the process yield of the
casting is 48%.
4.1.5. Mold flow analysis
As the casting quality mainly depends on the filling so-
lidification process, and the defects of the casting are mostly
formed in this process [175]. MAGMA software can simulate
the flow, temperature, stress, and microstructure of the cast-
ing during filling, solidification, and cooling, and predict the
quality of the casting, optimize the casting equipment param-
eters and process plan based on these physical fields [176].
This simulation focuses on the numerical simulation of the
flow and temperature fields of the metal filling process in the
die cavity.
In order to effectively avoid the phenomenon of solution
mixing during die casting and to improve the quality of cast-
ings, the slag bag was designed on both sides of the backing
pouring system, and a branch sprue was added at the cross
sprue of the pouring system of the seat basin to adjust the
angle of feeding material. As shown in Fig. 14(d), the syn-
chronization of each branch gate into the die casting process is
better, the filling time is shorter, the filling area is clearer, and
the flow state of Mg liquid is smooth. However, the gas will
form defects such as shrinkage after the ingot is formed. After
analysis, it is found that the shrinkage is mainly controlled
on the inner side of the backrest, which is the location of
non-important bearing force. In the subsequent optimization
by setting local cooling points at the hot joints of the casting,
the shrinkage sparseness will be effectively suppressed.
4.1.6. Trial production
The production process of MASF went through five pro-
cesses: mold, mold repair, ingot melting, die casting, and trim-
ming. After the optimized design of the formability guideline
data, the process yield of the seat basin gets 96% and the
process yield of the backrest skeleton reaches 92% when the
working condition of the die casting unit is good and each
process parameter is stable at the optimized value. The main
reason for the scrapping of the die casting parts is the unsta-
ble process parameters of the die casting machine leading to
poor filling quality. As shown in Fig. 14(f), the lower end of
the backrest was at the end of the pour, where several metal
streams converged, and metal flow back and the incomplete
fusion led to a slight cold separation. Therefore, the casting
system needs to be adjusted.
Finally, the product structure optimization design is guided
by CAE analysis and mold flow analysis, and the finished
product rate of MASF reaches over 90%. MASF weighs
9.88 kg, a weight reduction of 3.23 kg compared to steel
seats, a 24.6% weight reduction.
4.1.7. Quality inspection
The process quality inspection of castings is divided into
several parts, such as surface quality, inner quality, and geo-
metric dimensional inspection [177]. On-site process quality
inspection mainly uses the naked eye or magnifying glass
to check the surface defects of castings, such as deforma-
tion, cold separation, cracks, bruises, under-casting, and other
defects. Intrinsic quality inspection contains casting internal
defects and intrinsic performance inspection [178]. The per-
formance inspection is mainly the chemical composition, his-
tological organization, and tensile properties of the material.
This study has no practical significance for the overall per-
formance test, while the internal process quality inspection
mainly uses X-ray inspection equipment to detect internal de-
fects such as cracks, porosity, and shrinkage.
Flaw detection standards for any 30 mm diameter range of
pore diameter less than or equal to 3 mm, 2–3 mm number of
 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47
pores less than or equal to 3, less than 2 mm number of pores
are not required. Cracks are not allowed in the critical area
and in the area from the edge of the part to 10 mm inward.
Simultaneously, no residue is allowed in the critical area, and
the other areas are less than or equal to 2 mm of entrapped
residue. The test results show that there are no pores, cracks,
and slagging in all parts of MASF, and the internal quality
conforms well, as depicted in Fig. 14(g).
4.1.8. Test verification
A three-point harness with a guide was installed at the
MASF fixing point. A load of 13,500 N ± 200 N is applied
to the human body module using a simulated webbing in a
direction parallel to the direction of travel of the vehicle and
at 10° to the horizontal. A force equal to 20 times the mass
of the seat assembly is applied to the seat in the direction
of the load through the center of mass of the seat and in the
horizontal forward direction along the longitudinal axis of the
vehicle. Continuously loaded by a specified force for a speci-
fied period of time, permanent deformation of the fixed point
or surrounding area is allowed, including partial fracture or
crack generation. The minimum interval of effective fixing
points during the test should meet the requirements of the
fixing point installation position. For M1 class vehicles with
maximum total mass not more than 2500 kg, if the upper
fixing point is on the seat skeleton, the forward displacement
of the upper effective fixing point should be within the trans-
verse plane through point R and point C.
The force of the upper and lower body module was
13,540.6 N and 13,545.6 N respectively, and the force through
the center of mass of the seat was 2730.8 N, as tested by GB
14,167-2013 standard. During the test, the continuous load-
ing of the specified force reaches the set value and the fixed
point L2 under the seat belt of MASF meets the standard
requirements. According to GB14167-2013 standard require-
ments for seat belt fixed point strength test, effective fixed
point of the minimum interval to meet the fixed point in-
stallation position requirements, seat belt fixed point has not
failed.
4.2. Mg front-end carrier development process
The development process of the Mg alloy front-end car-
rier (MAFC) mainly includes alignment analysis, material de-
sign, structural design, CAE analysis, process design, mold
flow analysis, mold design and manufacturing, product man-
ufacturing and inspection, and complete vehicle verification
[179]. The specific development process and analysis results
are shown in Fig. 15.
4.2.1. Program design
MAFC has "ten" shaped reinforcement structures at the
local assembly position and three "mouth" shaped notches on
the upper crossbeam, which ensure the torsional rigidity of the
assembly structure and facilitate the thermal performance of
the passenger cabin. The MAFC has a basic wall thickness of
2.5 mm and a design weight of 3.185 kg. In terms of material
37
selection, the MAFC assembly includes four metal materials,
AM60B, 6082, 6063, and DC01, as shown in Fig. 15(a).
4.2.2. CAE performance analysis
Seventeen rigid strength and modal analyses were per-
formed based on the actual assembly of MAFC, as shown
in Table 5. The latch was loaded with 1000 N in Z-direction
and X-direction, and the deformation was less than 3 mm
and 7 mm respectively. 3500 N was loaded in Z-direction
of the latch, and no damage such as fracture occurred un-
der the ultimate tension. The latch is loaded with 2500 N in
±Z direction, restraining the upper and lower left direction,
and the other side is rotated by 9° angle around the central
axis, and the maximum stress ≤ fracture strength∗ 0.8 when
it continues to increase to 10° and 11°. The test results show
that MAFC does not show obvious permanent deformation,
cracking and other damage phenomena, in line with the stan-
dard requirements. The specific simulation results are shown
in Figs. 10(b), (c), and (d).
4.2.3. Mold flow analysis
The first round: The temperature modal flow analysis
demonstrated that the material temperature was around 620 °C
when the metal liquid flowed to the end and had not yet
reached the solid quadrant temperature. The specific improve-
ments are:
1) Add oil circuit at the end of the mold for individual con-
trol.
2) Add slag packs to the end of the product to raise the tem-
perature.
3) Continue to optimize the flow channel program.
The second round: The blue area in the simulation results
indicates that the filling temperature is low, which is prone
to cold spacing and shrinkage defects. Thus, the runners are
designed in the four corner areas of the part to improve this
phenomenon.
The third round: Adding slag packs at locations prone to
air rolls, insufficient venting and insufficient filling speed, and
adjusting the flow path direction.
Through three rounds of mold flow analysis, the process
parameters were optimized iteratively to avoid defects such as
cold separation and air roll, and the optimal casting process
parameters were locked. The specific optimization steps and
parameter settings are shown in Fig. 15(e) and Table 6.
4.2.4. Trial production and redesign
During the manufacturing process, the phenomenon of lo-
cal sticking to the mold often occurs, resulting in a lack of
flesh at the top of several tendon positions of the mold. More-
over, no improvement was achieved by adjusting the process
parameters, temperature, and spraying. Therefore, the inserts
were made by wire cutting at ten high rib locations on the
fixed die side and polished. In addition, the cold separation
phenomenon was improved by adjusting the process parame-
ters, temperature, and spraying, but could not be eradicated.
38 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47

Fig. 15. MAFC full process analysis process and results.

 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47 39

Table 5
Strength and modal analysis results.

No. Type Load method Judgment criteria Result Qualified or not

1 Front cover lock stiffness -Z = 1000 N Displacement≤2 mm Displacement is 0.92424 mm OK
2 Front cover lock stiffness +Z = 1000 N Displacement≤2 mm Displacement is 1.47764 mm OK
3 Front cover lock stiffness X = 1000 N Displacement≤7 mm Displacement is 2.72917 mm OK
4 Front cover lock load limit X = 5000 N Stress≤fracture strength∗ 0.8 208.4 MPa (260.5 × 0.8) OK
5 Front cover lock ultimate Z = 3500 N No failure such as rupture Maximum stress value is OK
pull strength 161.239 MPa
6 Front cover lock strength -Z = 2500 N Stress≤fracture strength∗ 0.8 Maximum stress value is OK
165.625 MPa
7 Front cover lock strength +Z = 2500 N Stress≤fracture strength∗ 0.8 Maximum stress value is OK
157.088 MPa
8 Radiator system module -Z=−600 N (300×2), Displacement≤1 mm Maximum displacement OK
mounting point stiffness T = 85 °C value is 0.012 mm
9 Radiator system module X = 600 N (150×4), T = 85 °C Displacement≤1 mm Maximum displacement OK
mounting point stiffness value is 0.22 mm
10 Radiator system module -X = 600 N (150×4), Displacement≤1 mm Maximum displacement OK
mounting point stiffness T = 85 °C value is 0.219 mm
11 Headlight bracket -Z = 100 N Displacement≤1 mm 0.076 mm/0.15 mm OK
Z-directional stiffness
12 Headlight bracket X = 100 N Displacement≤1 mm 0.09 mm/0.088 mm OK
X-directional stiffness
13 Modal Analysis – First-order global 52.605 HZ OK
mode≥38.3 HZ
14 X-directional 3.5 g 3.5 g acceleration in X direction Stress≤fracture strength∗ 0.8 Maximum stress value is OK
acceleration shock 6.702 MPa
15 Y-directional 3.5 g 3.5 g acceleration in Y direction Stress≤fracture strength∗ 0.8 Maximum stress value is OK
acceleration shock 4.579 MPa
16 Z-directional 3.5 g 3.5 g acceleration in Z direction Stress≤fracture strength∗ 0.8 Maximum stress value is OK
acceleration shock 1.369 MPa
17 Torsional stiffness Constrain the upper, lower, and No obvious permanent Maximum stress value is OK
left directions, the other side deformation, cracks and 243.666 MPa
rotates around the central axis at other failure phenomena
an angle of 9° and continues to
increase to 10°, 11°

Table 6
Mold flow analysis parameter setting.

Material Mold Pressure chamber Material cake Filling rate/% Critical High
temperature/°C temperature/°C length/mm thickness/mm speed/m/s speed/m/s
Round 1 660 200 900 30 25 1.1 5
Round 2 680 220 900 30 25 1.1 5
Round 3 680 220 1050 20 30 0.5 6.5

Therefore, slag pockets were added at the corresponding loca-
tions where the molds do not have slag pockets. Microcracks
are reduced on both sides of the part by increasing the R-
angle, but cannot be completely eliminated. Also, the distal
molding of the part is lacking, accompanied by a lack of
shine. Hence, increasing the mesh along the red line posi-
tion can improve the flow direction of Mg liquid and allow
it to flow more smoothly to the end of the part. The specific
optimization steps are shown in Fig. 15(f).
4.2.5. Test verification
Experimental verification of the simulated project was car-
ried out after completing the production of the prototype. The
z- and x-directional stiffnesses of the latch, the ultimate ten-
sile strength of the front hood lock, the strength of the front
hood lock, and the torsional stiffness test results are similar to
the simulation results and all meet the performance require-
ments. The vehicle equipped with MAFC had normal door
condition in the frontal 40% offset crash and 100% frontal
crash tests, and all doors could open normally with good
crashworthiness. According to the C–NCAP 2018 edition as-
sessment, the virtual score meets the C–NCAP 5-star crash
requirements. The specific test results are shown in Fig. 15(g).
4.3. Implications of the development process for actual
production
The MASF was designed using a new forward develop-
ment logic that calculates preliminary version data after de-
termining the shape and rules. In the static loading mode,
various ultimate working conditions are converted into equiv-
alent ultimate loads to evaluate the load-bearing performance
40 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47
Fig. 16. MASF detailed development process.
of the seat. The maximum stress-strain of the seat skeleton
under different working conditions is deduced through CAE
simulation analysis to provide solutions for structural design
optimization. Using die casting process and mold flow analy-
sis to evaluate product molding process characteristics, realize
rapid scientific design of process parameters and molds, and
carry out structural redesign based on the process. Under the
condition that the die casting machine set is in good working
condition and the process parameters are stable, the yield rate
of MASF reaches more than 90%, and its technical route and
flowchart are presented in Fig. 16.
MAFC provides reinforcement structures and notch struc-
tures at local assembly locations to ensure torsional stiffness
while facilitating thermal performance in the passenger cabin
area. Seventeen rigid strength and modal analyses were per-
formed based on the actual assembly of MAFC, and the test
results all met the standard requirements. The process pa-
rameters were optimized iteratively and the optimal solution
is locked by three rounds of die-flow analysis. A series of
measures were taken to improve the problems of local sticky
mold, local cold separation, and local micro-cracking. Finally,
the door condition was normal in 40% offset collision and
100% frontal collision cases, and all doors could open nor-
mally after the test, with good crash performance. Weight
savings of over 60% compared to a traditional steel front-
end carrier and over 30% compared to an all-plastic front-
end carrier. The assembly position is provided with “mouth”
type radiator structure, “mountain” type front bail mounting
bracket, “ten” type reinforcement structure, “box “T” type ra-
diator mounting structure, “T” type radiator mounting struc-
ture, and pedestrian protection fast charging bracket assembly.
The technical route and flowchart are shown in Fig. 17.
As described in the introduction why Mg alloy is not uni-
versal in automotive applications, we introduce the whole
process development technology route of Mg alloy with the
actual OEM production cases. The main purpose of the
overview is to increase the confidence of OEMs in devel-
oping new parts with practical examples, rather than simply
describing the manufacturing process, which is worth con-
sidering for companies and manufacturing companies in their
automotive lightweighting research. We hope that the posi-
tive development logic of MASF and MAFEC can provide
ideas for the development of OEM die-cast Mg alloy parts
and enhance the core capability of independent R&D in the
automotive industry.
5. Opportunities and challenges
5.1. Material and performance challenges
5.1.1. Material challenges
At present, the development of high-performance Mg al-
loy is rapid, including high-strength casting Mg alloy, high-
strength deformation Mg alloy, high-damping Mg alloy, high-
 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47
Fig. 17. MAFC detailed development process (The black arrow indicates that the condition is satisfied, and the red arrow indicates that the condition is not
satisfied).
temperature Mg alloy, biomedical Mg alloy, Mg-based en-
ergy storage alloy, ceramic-reinforced Mg matrix composites
and so on [180]. However, the lower cost cast Mg alloy has
gained wide application in daily life compared to steel and Al
grades. The actual developed material types to meet the diver-
sified needs of the market are few, which also reflects the phe-
nomenon of few independent grades of Mg alloys and narrow
practical applications. Whereas the grades of Mg alloys for
automotive use are mainly concentrated on AZ91, AM50, and
AM60. To rationalize and increase the production of these ex-
isting grades is also one of the major objectives of this review.
In addition, scholars around the world should strengthen co-
operation to develop a set of Mg alloy material database and
performance evaluation system that integrates design, prepara-
tion, performance testing, and evaluation, which can enhance
the global Mg alloy material development process as a whole.
5.1.2. Performance challenges
The low strength and high plastic forming cost of gen-
eral Mg alloy materials can be effectively solved by adding
reinforcements such as particles, whiskers, or fibers. Simul-
taneously, parameters such as the type, size, and content of
the additive can modulate the performance index of the Mg
matrix composite. Some of the remaining specific measures
include precipitation phase morphology distribution control,
41
tissue refinement, and purification. Whereas different com-
posites present different technical challenges:
(1) From the solid solution elements and second phase consid-
erations, the development of high strength and high damp-
ing properties of synergistic Mg alloy still has certain tech-
nical bottlenecks.
(2) Although a large variety of studies have reduced the heat-
ing temperature from 300 °C to 150 °C, the temperature
required to release hydrogen from Mg alloys is relatively
high. We still require continued research on the alloying
and nanosizing of Mg to bring the temperature down to
below 100 °C.
(3) The relationship between alloying elements, processing
technology, and electromagnetic shielding properties is the
key technology to develop medium-strength electromag-
netic shielding Mg alloys.
(4) With oxide, ceramic reinforcements, and deformed Mg al-
loys, in-depth study of the relationship between reinforce-
ments, alloy composition and preparation and processing
processes can break through the high modulus Mg alloy
challenges.
(5) With carbon fiber, carbon nanotube and graphene as the
reinforcement, the key to develop high strength Mg matrix
42 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47
Fig. 18. Mg alloy corrosion protection solutions: (a) Mg seat backrest; (b) Mg seat basin; (c) Al isolator on Corvette front-end subframe; (d) Case of
anti-coupling corrosion of Voyah FREE automotive Mg alloy CCB.
composites is the relationship between the new reinforce-
ment, alloying elements and process.
5.1.3. Corrosiveness and surface treatment
Mg is chemically active, especially when exposed to corro-
sive electrolytes, and the high reduction potential accelerates
its degradation [181]. Mg corrosion types can be divided into
general, uniform, and localized, mainly manifested as gal-
vanic coupling corrosion, pitting corrosion, filiform corrosion,
intergranular corrosion, spalling corrosion, crevice corrosion,
stress corrosion cracking, corrosion fatigue, and erosion cor-
rosion. However, the use of steel is most prevalent in auto-
motive structural components. Less reactive metals are used
for isolation to prevent the contact of Mg with the steel lead-
ing to electric coupling. In 1990, the Mercedes-Benz road-
ster’s one-piece Mg seat replaced the bolt material so that all
contact points were insulated and the long use test reduced
galvanic corrosion, as shown in Fig. 18(a) and (b) [156]. Of
course, isolation materials can also be used to isolate Mg in
the case of metal attachment, such as the Al isolator placed
on the front crossmember of the Corvette sixth-generation
light sports car model Z06, as shown in the yellow area in
Fig. 18(c) [136]. At the macro level, this avoids direct contact,
but the complexity and high cost of the process often limit
its universal application. Another example that can be used to
illustrate this principle is the Mg CCB on the Voyah FREE
model, as illustrated in Fig. 18(d). Mg alloy adopts AM50 ma-
terial with passivation treatment on the surface, steel bracket
adopts DC01 material with electrophoretic paint treatment on
the surface, accompanied by all fasteners requiring zinc plat-
ing and zinc-nickel plating. After 120 cycles of intensive road
corrosion tests on the entire vehicle, no galvanic corrosion
was observed on the inlay rivet nut and the Mg alloy CCB
body.
On a microscopic level, a large number of studies have
reported that the electrode potential can be improved by in-
creasing the purity of the Mg alloy or by additives that en-
hance the corrosion resistance from the internal structure of
the Mg alloy. Solid solution strengthening and second phase
strengthening are commonly used to further strengthen Mg
alloys. Alloy composition and its chemical composition have
an important influence on the enhancement of the physical
properties of Mg alloys. Commonly used alloys containing
Al and Mg include AZ31 and AZ91 alloys. AZ31 is widely
used in the aircraft industry because of its low mass density
and good mechanical properties.
Then, many researchers have not made breakthroughs in
this area due to the unstable chemical properties of Mg al-
loys themselves. Meanwhile, pure Mg is more widely used
in metallurgy, chemistry and medicine, but is not an ideal
material for practical engineering applications. Fully consid-
ering the cost and technical issues, scholars have turned their
research to the surface treatment technology of Mg alloys.
Electrochemical plating, conversion coating and anodic oxi-
dation are common coating techniques.
In medicine, it is difficult to achieve the required "service
life" of Mg alloys as implant components in the human body,
and too rapid degradation can lead to hemolysis and osteol-
ysis. Numerous studies have shown that the development of
new series of Mg alloys can enhance the corrosion resistance.
However, we believe that the composition, technical process-
ing, and medical technology of new medical Mg alloys must
 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47
take full account of biosafety and compatibility. All Mg alloy
medical devices must be carried out in compliance with laws
and regulations and medical safety.
5.2. Engineering technology challenges
Mg alloy die casting technology is relatively mature,
but due to the limitations of porosity and heat treatment,
which restricts the large-scale expansion of Mg alloy appli-
cations. Plastic forming and semi-solid thixotropic technol-
ogy can eliminate the influence of cast defects and signifi-
cantly improve the alloy properties with the help of deforma-
tion strengthening and heat treatment strengthening. However,
these technologies are not yet mature and there is a shortage
of talents, currently relying on foreign experts and talents.
Process parameters remain critical for Mg due to the need
to improve the hot formability of the sheet and to control
edge cracking and surface quality. The relationship between
the processing process and the organization and properties is
a technical challenge for taking full advantage of the intrinsic
properties of Mg alloys.
In addition, the production safety of Mg alloy should not
be underestimated [182]. Due to the low melting point of Mg
alloy, the dust back in the process of ignition, or even explo-
sion. Using proper tools can avoid heat buildup, and avoiding
fine cutting and high-speed machining can also reduce fire
hazards.
Mg alloy in the welding process crystallization tempera-
ture zone is large, prone to thermal cracking, especially Mg
in close to the melting temperature is prone to oxidation,
accompanied by the mechanical properties of the joint. Con-
sequently, Mg alloy is prone to defects such as cracks, poros-
ity, and spatter when welding, which poses a challenge to
its welded structural parts in vehicles. As described in Sec-
tion 5.1.3, corrosion and degradation of Mg alloys can dam-
age their mechanical properties and strength. Despite the sig-
nificant progress made so far, the technique of studying the
resistance to corrosion of Mg alloys is still a major challenge
[183]. The development of advanced surface protection tech-
nology and the development of new joining technology and
equipment represented by stir friction welding is an urgent
task.
5.3. Policy, environmental, and cost challenges
5.3.1. Policy challenges
The last decade is the scale and efficiency of China’s Mg
industry continued to improve 10 years. The government’s
policy of expanding and opening up, the policy of global-
ization and development, the development of national econ-
omy related industries all make the Mg industry development
mode, development level, and industrial structure constantly
optimized, laying a good foundation for further high-quality
development in the future. However, the overall national and
corporate research and development investment in the Mg
industry has yet to be strengthened. Facing the disconnect
between the strong research and development capability of
43
universities and the lack of innovation capability of enter-
prises, the implementation of joint university-enterprise poli-
cies should be strengthened. Although the domestic consump-
tion of Mg and Mg alloy consumption is on the rise, the
proportion of Mg alloy used for large structural parts is still
low. Meanwhile, despite the formation of a large number of
industrial base, but the Mg industry in general lack of compet-
itiveness, low industrial concentration and the overall strength
of enterprises is weak.
5.3.2. Environmental challenges
The current goal is not only to achieve weight reduc-
tion, but also structural, material, economic and environmen-
tal impacts, explaining lightweighting with environmental ap-
proaches, alternative rules, and multi-material design [55].
With the continuous improvement of environmental protection
standards, the former Mg enterprises face increasing environ-
mental pressure due to the more prominent CO2 emissions
and dust control comprehensive cost increases. However, the
market demand for Mg and Mg alloys has declined due to
the impact of the new crown epidemic and export restric-
tions. Limited by the external heating and vacuum process, the
existing Pijiang process itself has low production efficiency,
small scale, high labor costs, unstable product quality, high
energy consumption, and other drawbacks, which cannot be
cured without a new alternative technology. With the gradual
implementation of national energy conservation and emission
reduction, carbon peak, carbon neutral, carbon trading, and
other policies, the Mg refining industry will face unprece-
dented pressure on environmental protection and production
costs.
The concept of Mg recycling is also gaining a lot of at-
tention from research experts [21,184]. The development of
suitable sub-alloys facilitates the rational recycling and uti-
lization of structural parts of vehicles at the end of their life.
In addition, the actual mass production and market promotion
are difficult. A large number of Mg alloy materials are com-
monly used in vehicle interior parts, and the development and
promotion of large external coverings are still challenging.
5.3.3. Cost challenges
The universal application of Mg alloys presupposes that
the material is compatible with the cost [185]. The lower the
cost, the greater the possibility of replacing Al, steel, and
plastics with Mg, but especially the automotive industry also
needs a reliable supply of high-quality alloys [186]. How-
ever, at present not only the cost of raw materials is high, but
also the price of the touch into type equipment remains high.
According to the Mg market research, the cash price of Mg
material with tax has generally increased due to the epidemic.
Mg alloy material industry long-term accumulation of struc-
tural overcapacity, market supply and demand imbalance and
other deep-seated contradictions gradually emerged. Energy
saving, material saving, environmental protection of the short
process preparation, and processing technology development
and application is still a long way to go.
44 B. Liu, J. Yang, X. Zhang et al. / Journal of Magnesium and Alloys 11 (2023) 15–47
6. Summary and prospect
As an engineering material, Mg has gained a firm foothold
in automotive industries with its excellent properties. The
most important thing in this paper is to introduce the whole
process development technology route of die casting Mg alloy
with the actual production cases of OEMs, which is worthy to
be considered by enterprises and manufacturing companies in
the research of automotive lightweighting. The main purpose
of the review is to illustrate the wide range of applications of
Mg alloys in the automotive industry with practical examples
to increase the confidence of OEMs in developing new parts.
Meanwhile, the application of Mg alloy still follows the prin-
ciple of the right material in the right place, giving full play
to its advantages such as light density and good fluidity, and
trying to avoid the disadvantages such as low strength and
easy corrosion. Thus, we get the following core conclusions:
(1) The mainstream material in automotive applications is
AM50/60, AZ91D series of Mg alloy and the molding pro-
cess is most common with die casting process.
(2) In order to avoid the disadvantage of the material itself
not having high load-bearing properties, Mg is not used in
beam system structural parts with very high load-bearing
requirements, but it is commonly used in the form of skele-
ton or bracket in the disassembled assembly parts of auto-
mobiles.
(3) Mg is applied in environments that are not susceptible to
galvanic corrosion, such as steering wheel bones wrapped
in plastic, CCB placed in the dashboard, and seat frames
wrapped in foam and leather.
(4) On the basis of the high cost of raw materials, the struc-
tural design and optimization of the attempt to break
through the cost reduction.
It is encouraging to note that Mg is a promising mate-
rial. Many multinational and interdisciplinary collaborations
are investigating Mg alloy additive manufacturing and hydro-
gen storage technologies. A large amount of research is ac-
tively helping to develop Mg alloys as premium lightweight
materials, including incomplete database system, connection
and assembly process, narrow thermal processing tempera-
ture range, uneven plastic flow, virtual software development,
costs remain high, materials for storing hydrogen, etc.
Process and cost problems, insufficient technological in-
novation ability, industrial structure contradictions, and other
issues make Mg alloy in the automotive industry development
is limited. However, this is ample proof that the application is
promising. The production of automotive parts must be closer
to the consumer in order to make Mg alloy an alternative ma-
terial with additional environmental and economic benefits. In
addition, with policy support, more attempts to adopt green
power electrolytic Mg technology is a recyclable and eco-
logical way. These challenges are global and require strong
collaboration from universities, governments, and research in-
stitutions. In the near future, new structures and technologies
of Mg alloys to achieve breakthroughs will better meet the
growing demand for lighter weight vehicles.
Acknowledgments
The project is supported partly by the Fundamental Re-
search Funds for Central Universities (No. 06500203 and No.
00007735).
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