Powder metallurgy in the automotive sector is

undergoing a transformation

Ali A. Oudah1, Mahmoud A.Hassan1 and Nabeel Almuramady1

1
University of Al-Qadisiyah, Al Diwaniyah, Iraq
a)
mark6ge@gmail.com
Mahmoud.Hassan@qu.edu.iq
nabeel.almuramady@qu.edu.iq

Abstract: Powder metallurgy (PM) is primarily used because of its relatively close capability and cost-achievement
ratio. The automotive industry is a major market for the powder metallurgy industry, as it necessitates products having
superior mechanical or part of the implementation on a global level. PM technology is undergoing considerable changes
in manufacturing and materials research as automobile technologies transitions beyond classic gasoline - powered
vehicles to new energy vehicles. Changes in automobile technologies has created both obstacles and opportunities for
PM, as outlined in this article. Future PM materials development will need to be relatively inexpensive, more efficient,
and having less than average weight. As a result, research into Powder metallurgy lean-alloyed steel, aluminium alloys,
and nickel - titanium materials were looked into. Additionally, the use of Powder metallurgy soft magnetic compound in
clean, renewable energy transports has been considered. Now there are significant potential for sophisticated systems in
the automobile industry, which including injection moulding (MIM) & additive manufacturing techniques (AM). In
general, the automobile community's transformation provides sufficient development opportunity for PM. Emerging
innovations, on the other hand, need the use of progressively superior PM materials. Because of their mechanical
performance and inexpensive cost, steel parts have always been the most popular Powder metallurgy compounds. MIM
will enter the rapidly expanding industry for highly flexible and complicated products. AM allows for quick prototyping,
high flexibility, and low-cost customization, as well as weight and assembly savings.

Keywords. Powder metallurgy; metal injection molding, additive manufacturing; automobile; lean alloy; Al alloy; ,
Composite

INTRODUCTION
Advantages of PM technology
Powder metallurgy is the conversion of metal powders into usable technical compounds [1]. The
primary advantage of PM is that It allows you to mass create components with high dimensional precision
and mechanical qualities in a cost-effective manner, you require at a cheap cost and with minimal waste. Iron
ores were used to produce implements by the Egyptians in 3000 BC, which gave rise to PM technology.

The automotive industry's early interest in mass-produced things allowed for massive quantities of
iron and copper powders to be used, sparking many of the current PM sector's technological advancements.
In 1927, In the first commercial application, a self-lubricating bearing consisting of copper and tin . PM
product with granules was used in an automotive application. [2]. As structural components, PM materials
have improved quickly in recent years, with sintered steels now having properties comparable to wrought
steels, as shown in Figure 1 [3].

Because the majority of manufacturing processes involve energy and natural resources, Greener raw
materials and manufacturing processes are becoming more popular.. Because of its high material utilisation
and low usage of energy.PM is considered an environmentally benign process. An injection molded yoke
utilized in A Life Cycle Assessment was performed on a heavy truck application. (LCA) by ENGSTRM et al
[4].
 FIGURE 1. Tensile strength comparison between PM and other steel materials

For a common car component, one purpose was to compare the environmental impact of machining and
forging to PM technology. Another objective was to investigate the environmental impact of two
different PM materials. Figure 2,3,4 shows that PM has an environmental advantage over wrought steel
because it uses less energy, and the Cr-containing PM material outperforms the Ni-containing PM
material. PM technology has made considerable advances in previously thought-to-be difficult sectors
during the last few decades. This favorable trend is being driven by improved mechanical performance,
tighter dimensional tolerances, and cost-effective methods.

FIGURE 2. Steel, SS2225 LCA findings.

 FIGURE 3. Astaloy CrM with two PM materials.

FIGURE 4. Distaloy AE.

Climate change potential (GWP), ozone depletion productivities (POCP), acidification potential (AP), &
eutrophication prospect (EP) are all measures of environmental effect (EP). The comparison between these
two Powder metallurgies, materials reveal that Astaloy (CrM), a chromium-including material, has a lower
impact on the environment than Distaloy AE, a nickel-molybdenum-copper.

The high Ni concentration of Distaloy AE accounts for the higher number. When creating high-
performance components, the LCA evaluation shows the environmental advantages of PM technologies over
traditional maded steel technology. The results also demonstrate that employing Cr alloy steels PM material
rather than large Ni content has advantages. In 2017, China's total steel powdered industry sales volume
exceeded 553 kt, with an annual increase of 10% through the previous ten years. Parts for various portions in
vehicle & motorbike industries accounted for 53.2 percent of total volume [5]. The explosive growth of
China's automotive industry, and also enhanced metallic powder development in association with new
production equipment development in compression tooling, presses, and sintered furnaces, has enabled these
accomplishments.

AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY INNOVATION

Since 2013, China has increased at a quick annual rate to become the world's largest vehicle
manufacturing and sales market, as illustrated in Figure 5 [6]. China has become a massive platform for the
PM business as production for automotive parts and materials with in supply chain rapidly localizes. The
body and chassis, pumps and hydraulic pump, transmissions, and engines mechanism all employ a lot of PM
parts.

FIGURE 5. Volume and growth rate of vehicle sales in China from 1994 to 2016.

Figure 6 [7] shows a published forecast for future propulsion technology penetrations. Full electric
and hybrid vehicles have been identified as key technology for meeting future emission regulations, with
traditional vehicles' hydraulic, transmission, and engine systems containing many PM parts shrinking and
eventually disappearing. The speed and completeness of this change, on the other hand, are far from clear. In
the next 15 years, significant expansion in electrification is projected. Given the PM industry's reliance on
the automobile market, the potential impact of each technical change in the automotive sector must be
carefully analyzed.
 FIGURE 5. Transmission type forecast.

In the long run, the transition from traditional combustion engines to hybrids or purely electric
vehicles will offer considerable difficulties to the PM fields. Clearly, change will not occur anytime soon.
The PM field is so well prepared to continue developing solutions that enhance efficiency in traditional
powertrains while also capitalizing on future electric and hybrid system opportunities. However, as
demonstrated in Figure 6, China's average use of PM parts per automobile has been just 3.96 kg, even less
than European or American [8]. It demonstrates that its Chinese powder metallurgy industry still has a
technical deficit, as well as a lot of space & possibility of growth within market place .

FIGURE 6. In different countries and locations, the average number of powder metallurgy parts used per automobile.

PM ALLOYS
New ferrous alloys for PM
Several ferrous alloy systems, which include iron/carbon (Fe-C), copper/carbon -iron (Fe,Cu,C),
astaloy steel, made by mixing low alloy steel, heat treated hard materials, as well as distribution alloy steels
steel, have indeed been normalized through PM formation manufacturing techniques, going to cover a
detailed materials platform from minimum to maximum strength [9].

Conventional molybdenum or nickel alloying elements, on the other hand, are often utilized as
alloying with small powder metallurgy steel for improving the strength and hardness and strength of
composite PM products. In recent times, the dramatic unpredictability of these materials' prices had also put
more pressure on cost and lower profit throughout the entire value, leaving PM techniques lesser economical
especially compared to alternative manufacturing processes like forging and casting. Figure 7 depicts the
price evolution of these metal components in comparison to Cr from 2015 - 2018 [10]. As a consequence,
there's also a significant focus on enhancing mechanical qualities with much more cost-successful and far
less reactive alloy solutions. Respectively high strength and hardness and high density should be used to
produce mechanical characteristics equal to wrought steel.

Aside from alloying content, the sintering method, in association with the processing
temperature(cooling), determines the strength. Different heat treatment process, including hardness or case
surface hardening (carburizing), can boost the toughness even more. To avoid excessive shrinkage during
sintering, the density is most important, which is better accomplished immediately via compressed air or hot
compaction.
 FIGURE 7. Metal and raw material prices have fluctuated throughout history.

Employing local densifying techniques like surface rolled, cold work process (shot peening), the density can
be raised even further in subsequent processing procedures [11, 12]. To date, dispersion powders containing
mixtures copper Ions, Ni, & Mo, as well as purified & developing high iron powder & Mo astaloy powders,
are the most widely utilized materials for rising application. Cr and Mn as alloying elements have recently
been studied [1315]. The alloying components Cr and Mn give hardenability and strength while remaining
cost effective. Cr and Mn elements, on the other hand, are prone to oxidation. A considerable increase in
strength can be produced by using (astaloy) pre-alloyed Chromium powders in addition to high temperatures
sintered, especially >1210 °C [16].

Table1 lists a few commercially available high-performance PM steels &table 1 shows the mechanical
characteristics at 1120°C for traditional sintering and 1250°C for high sintering. It is obvious that sintering at
a high temperature is helpful to high strength. Tensile is between 520 & 800 MPa following sintering at 1120
°C, and between 800 and 1100 MPa following sintering at 1250 °C.
TABLE 1. shows the mechanical parameters of the material after 600 MPa compaction and 30 minutes of sintering at
1120 °C and 1250 °Respectively, with a cooling rate of 0.51.0 °C/s as a preventative measure atmospheric 90 N2+10 H2.

Material UTS-MPa Yield-MPa Hardness (HV10) Elongations/% volume

1120 °C 1250C 1120 °C 1250 °C 1120 °C 1250 °C 1120 °C 1250 °C 1120 °C 1250 °C

Distaloy AE
751 1051 422 722 221 302 2.4 1.4 −0.13 −0.81
0,( 5%C)

Distaloy HP
831 1102 505 801 282 351 1.4 1.4 −0.14 −0.84
( 0. 5%C)

Astaloy CrM
802 1101 601 852 244 311 1.2 2.1 −0.21 −0.74
(0, 4%C)

table1 are represented above which contain:

1-Distaloy AE(1.50%Cu, %4.0Ni,% 0.50Mo,%0.5Cr).
2-Distaloy HP(%2.0Cu, %, 4.0 Ni, %, 1.50Mo, %1.5Cr).
3-Astaloy CrA(%2.0Cu ,%4.0Ni,% 1.50Mo,%1.8Cr)
 Because their better hardenability, pre-alloyed Cr-alloyed steels have a higher yield strength than
diffusion-alloyed steels. The shrinkage, on the other hand, increases from roughly 0.2 percent at 1120 °C to
0.8 percent at 1250 °C, affecting the physical tolerances management of Powder metallurgy parts. As a
result, after rising-temperature sintering, sizing of high-hardness materials is challenging. However, TAN et
al [17] reported greater dimension accuracy sintered at 1251 °C using a rolling combustion furnace. As a
result, achieving a satisfactory level of tolerance during sintering and therefore avoiding or minimizing
machining operations is critical.
The existence of holes in the sintering material has a bad influence on characteristics in compacted
and sintered parts. Nonetheless, some studies demonstrate that porosity has a positive impact on noise
reduction and damping [18]. As a result, PM could be a great help in the invention of the electric & hybrids
powertrains that need to be as quiet as feasible. Another example is synchronizing hubs, which are used in
manual and dual clutch gearboxes (MT/DCT) and have intricate shapes while requiring great performance.
As a result, it requires both high strength and high hardness to endure the transmission torque and the sliding
with the sleeves. To survive sliding with opposing materials, the boss's edge face requires a high hardness.
Astaloy CrM, a lean alloyed iron material utilized in synchronizing hubs formed by sinter-hardening [19],
proved to be a cost-effective and well-balanced option with high strength, high hardness, and low
dimensional distortion. As a result of their mechanical properties, iron-based parts are commonly used in
automobile applications.

P.M. Alloys of aluminium

Light-weight materials can significantly improve vehicle fuel economy, with a 10 percent. As a result,
reduction in vehicle weight translating to a 5.5 percent changes in fuel efficiency [20]. Properties such as low
density (2.7 g/cm3), outstanding machinability, formability, and resistance to corrosion, aluminium and its
alloys have been regarded the dominant alternative in light-weights applications in the Automotive industry
analysis. 2014, 6061, 7075, and Al-14Si are three of the most often utilized Powder metallurgy aluminium
alloys types, although aluminium metal matrix compounds composites become more popular in the industry.
Table 3 [21] shows the usual mechanical parameters of these materials.

Aluminium alloys is used in a variety of vehicle industries. Metallic powder product Co (MPP) &
GKN hard materials metal, for example, have been producing and using cam caps successfully since 1993
[22]. Using typical gas atomization, Al alloy powder can be easily manufactured. Fully pre-alloyed Al
powders, on the other hand, are rarely employed due to their low compaction and sintered activity. Particle
mixing methods are developed and precisely engineered in order to obtain the best feasible press&sinter
performance for adequate mechanical, microstructural, and physical qualities. For introducing alloying
elements, highly finest elements particles (usually 46 m) with binaries pre-alloyed powder with a nearly
austenite phase (e.g., AlSi12) including up than 50% AL was utilized.

In PM Al manufacture, sintered is considered as the most significant step. The oxide coating on the
surface of the Al powder inhibits the Al powder particles from sintered. Cu-containing hydrate sintering is
one possible solution. During sintering, Cu can create a liquid phase along Al, disrupting the stable oxide
layer. The hypereutectic .5Mg-2.5Cu-Al-14Si alloy as well as the 1.7Cu-2.5Mg-Al-6Zn alloy produced in
ECKA, Bavaria, are examples of transient liquid phase sintering systems. Powder metallurgy of Al parts are
now typically employed throughout minimal applications requiring fabrication shaping. PM Al alloys have
higher mechanical properties than cast alloys but poorer mechanical properties than as-wrought alloys.
Existing powder metallurgy of Al compounds are unable to satisfy the demands of new applications with
high elasticity, fatigue strength, or thermal property stability at elevated temperatures [23]. As a result,
additional research is required to develop a wide variety of quality powder metallurgy of Al alloys
appropriate for middle to high tensile grade purposes. For PM Al alloys, heat treatment is an important
aspect in achieving a high level of mechanical property [24],[25].

Magnetic composite that is soft (SMC)

Due of their potential for automotive applications, magnetic materials components (SMC) materials have
piqued interest. Various soft magnets, including iron, phosphorus iron, silicone iron, nickel iron, cobalt iron ,
and alloy steels, have been produced in recent decades. This group of materials, known as the first
generations of magnetic particles, is mostly employed in directly application areas[26]].
 Only a second generation of magnetic materials composites was covered in this work, which are
basically pure metal powder particles covered with a very tiny electrically insulated layer[27]. As graphically
shown in Figure 8 [28, 29], SMC also has characteristics as an unique mix of magnetic metal& minimal flux
losses, 3-dimensional flux capable of obtaining, and price manufacture of

3-dimensional formed components by Powder metallurgy method. SMC could offer significant advantages
with 3D shape, configuration via Powder metallurgy as compared to standard laminated electrical steel. In
drive systems, pumping systems, ignitions system, regular diesel injector systems, reactor for DC-DC
converter, e-turbo mechanism, and AC compressor, SMC will have a lot of promise. Figure 8 depicts some
of the most common uses for SMCs[28].

FIGURE 8. A SMC-material is depicted schematically in this diagram.

It's worth noting that the most obvious benefit of employing SMC in linear machines is from a
production standpoint. By switching from lamination to SMC, the number of parts can be reduced and
assembly can be simplified, as shown in Figure 9. Furthermore, by altering the design for SMC, the
performance may be not only equalled but substantially improved[30],[31],[32].
FIGURE 7. SMCs have advantages and disadvantages over electrical steel [33].

Advantage Disadvantages

Due to isotropic magnetic characteristics, three- Permeability (10%–20% of electrical steel)

dimensional flux guiding allows for new motor
topologies.

Three-dimensional shaping is more complicated than Mechanical strength is lower than that of electrical
sheet metal cutting. steel.

Thermal properties that are quasi-isotropic Magnetic characteristics are influenced by density
differences.

By reducing eddy current losses, it can be used at high

frequencies.

Powder metallurgical production at a low cost

 FIGURE 8. SMC's main applications in the automobile industry [33]

CONCLUSION
Because of environmental friendliness, higher manufacturing utilization, & reduced energy consumption,
PM is not only a low cost along-net shaping process, and also an environmentally benign technique. PM
technology has advanced fast in tandem with the growth of the vehicle industry. Alternative manufacturing
processes pose a few competitive risks as automotive technology changes beyond combustion to electric
vehicles, although these transitions will take time. In order to produce a product, process and material needs,
PM technology will undergo substantial modifications.

The possibilities for materials with low cost, excellent performance, and low weight will always be
available. In light of these considerations, PM ferrous steel, Al, and Ti alloys materials face significant
hurdles and technological advancements. Soft magnetic composite materials will open up a slew of new
possibilities, while certain applications are already in place. It is envisaged that MIM and AM will be able to
get chances in the new design of complicated ge ometric components, assuming that the limitations of these
technologies, such as tolerance, size, and cost effectiveness, are solved .

REFRENCESS
1. RANDALL M. Powder metallurgy science [M]. Metal Powder Industries Federation, 1994: 1−18.
DOI: 10.1016/ 0261-3069(85)90117-7.
2. STANLEY A. Powder metal technologies and applications [M]. ASM International, 1998: 10−18.
https://www.osti. gov/biblio/289959.
3. TAN Zhao-qiang. Trends and opportunities for future growth [R]. Shanghai, China: Höganäs PM
School, 2019.
4. ENGSTRÖM U. From raw material to new challenging applications [C]// Proceedings of EURO
PM 2013. 2013(3): 301−306.
5. HUANG Bai-yun, WEI Wei-feng, LI Song-lin, ZHANG Li, LI Li-ya, LIU Feng, LI Rui-di.
Advances in modern powder metallurgy materials and technologies [J]. The Chinese Journal of
 Nonferrous Metals, 2019, 29(9): 1917−1933. DOI: 10.19476/j.ysxb.1004.0609.2019.09.08. (in
Chinese).
6. LMC Automotive. Global forecasting and market intelligence service [EB/OL]. [2019-11-25].
https://www. lmc-auto.com/.
7. China Association of Automobile Manufactures. Automotive report China market [EB/OL]. [2019-
11-25]. http://www. caam.org.cn/chn/4/ cate_39/list_1.html.
8. FLODIN A. Automotive teardown: Dismantling of three modern vehicles to discover current and
potential uses of PM [J]. Powder Metallurgy Review, 2017, 6(2): 41−47.
9. MPIF Standard 35. Materials standard for PM structural parts [S].
10. London Metal Exchange. Featured LME prices [EB/OL]. [2019-11-25]. https://www.lme.com/.
11. ANGELOPOULOS V, HIRSCH M, WEIHMANN C. A parametric study on PM gear rolling
densification simulations coupled with experimental results [C]// Proceeding of the World
Conference on Powder Metallurgy. 2018: 16−20. [12] KLOCKE F, LOPENHAUS C. Densifying
PM gears by shot peening [C]// European Congress and Exhibition on Powder Metallurgy.
European PM Conference Proceedings. The European Powder Metallurgy Association, 2016: 1−6.
12. AKHTAR S, SAAD M, MISBAH M R, SATI M C. Recent advancements in powder metallurgy: A
review [J]. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2018, 5(9): 18649−18655. DOI:
10.1016/j.matpr.2018.06.210
13. BERGMAN O, CHASOGLOU D, DAHLSTROM M. Mechanical performance of Cr-alloyed PM
steel after different sintering and heat treatment operations [J]. Metal Powder Report, 2017, 73(1):
1−5. DOI: 10.1016/j.mprp. 2017.01.003.
14. HRYHA E, GIERL C, NYBORG L, DANNINGER H, DUDROVA E. Surface composition of the
steel powders pre-alloyed with manganese [J]. Applied Surface Science, 2010, 256(12): 3946−3961.
DOI: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2010. 01.055.
15. BERGMAN O. Influence of oxygen partial pressure in sintering atmosphere on properties of Cr-Mo
prealloyed powder metallurgy steel [J]. Powder Metallurgy, 2007, 50(3): 243−249. DOI:
10.1179/174329007X205073.
16. TAN Zhao-qiang, GUO Yang, SU Peng-fei, ENGSTRÖM U. Influence of sintering conditions on
dimensional precision for different PM steels [C]// World PM 2018. 2018: 336−341.
17. GERD K. NVH potential of PM gears for electrified drivetrains [J]. Ratio, 2018, 12: 5.
18. LARSSON C, ENGSTRÖM U. High performance sinter hardening materials for synchronizing
hubs [J]. Powder Metallurgy, 2012, 55(2): 88−91. DOI: 10.1179/0032589912z. 00000000053.
19. FROES F H. Advanced metal for aerospace and automotive use [J]. Materials Science and
Engineering, 1994, 184(2): 119−133. DOI: 10.1016/0921-5093(94)91026-X.
20. QIAN Ma, SCHAFFER B. Sintering of aluminum and its alloys [M]. Woodhead Publishing, 2010:
316. DOI: 10.1533/9781845699949.3.291. [22] WAYNE D. Versatile & cost-effective option for
lightweighting [J]. Lightweigting World, 2017(JAN+FEB): 42−52.
https://www.mppinnovation.com/wp-content/uploa ds/2017/02/Aluminum-Powder-Metallurgy-
Article-Lightwei ghting-World.pdf.
21. HUNT W H. New directions in aluminium based P/M materials for automotive applications [J]. The
International Journal of Powder Metallurgy, 2000, 36(6): 51−60. DOI: 10.4271/2000-01-0333.
22. HEO J Y, GWON J H, PARK J K, LEE K A. Effects of heat treatment on the microstructures and
high temperature mechanical properties of hypereutectic Al–14Si–Cu–Mg alloy manufactured by
liquid phase sintering process [J]. Metals and Materials International, 2018, 24(3): 586−596. DOI:
10.1007/s12540-018-0068-9.
23. [K. Najm HUSAIN et al., “Procedure for Creating Personalized Geometrical Models of the Human
Mandible and Corresponding Implants,” Technical Gazette, vol. 26, pp. 1044–1051, 2019, doi:
10.17559/TV-20181009193111.
24. Kadhim Zarzoor, N. Almuramady, and E. S. Hussein, “Stress Analysis for Spur Gears Using Solid
Works Simulation,” International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (IJMET, vol.
9, no. 11, pp. 927–936, 2018, Accessed: Feb. 03, 2022. [Online]. Available:
http://www.iaeme.com/IJMET/index.asp927http://www.iaeme.com/ijmet/issues.asp?
JType=IJMET&VType=9&IType=11http://www.iaeme.com/IJMET/issues.asp?
JType=IJMET&VType=9&IType=11
25. N. Almuramady, F. M. Borodich, I. G. Goryacheva, and E. v. Torskaya, “Damage of functionalized
self-assembly monomolecular layers applied to silicon microgear MEMS,” Tribology International,
vol. 129, pp. 202–213, Jan. 2019, doi: 10.1016/J.TRIBOINT.2018.07.049.
26. M. Hamed Mosa, N. Almuramady, and K. Hussein Hamzah, “Numerical Investigation to
Optimizing the Design of Helical Compression Spring by Using Hollow Shaft Stress analysis for
spur gears using solidworks simulation View project A Unique Design for CAM Analysis Device
View project Numerical Investigation to Optimizing the Design of Helical Compression Spring by
Using Hollow Shaft,” Journal of Green Engineering, vol. 10, no. 7, pp. 3832–3843, 2020,
Accessed: Feb. 03, 2022. [Online]. Available: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343583326

27. ANDERSSON O, HOFECKER P. Advances in soft magnetic composites— Materials and

applications [R]. Las Vegas: Höganäs AB, 2009.

28. HULTMAN L O, JACK A G. Soft magnetic compositesmaterials and applications [C]// IEEE
International Electric Machines and Drives Conference. 2003, 1: 516−522.

29. GUMBLETON-WOOD D, ATKINSON G, WASHINGTON J, SJOBERG L. The influence of

production methods on the magnetic performance of electrical steels and soft magnetic composites
[C]// 2017 IEEE International Electric Machines and Drives Conference (IEMDC). IEEE, 2017:
1−7. DOI: 10.1109/IEMDC.2017.8002238.
30. Al-Adily, K., Abdulrazzaq, M., Hassan, M.A.Fatigue life prediction under variable loading using
rainflow, Journal of Mechanical Engineering Research and Developments, 2021, 44(5), pp. 412–
419
31. Abdulrazzaq, M., Hassan, M.A.Life prediction of thin wall pipe for external superficial cracked
exposed to interior pressure, Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 2019, 14(1), pp. 88–92.
32. Abdulrazzaq, M., Hassan, M.A.,Evaluation of fatigue crack rate for thin plate using IF-then, Journal
of Advanced Research in Dynamical and Control Systems, 2018, 10(7 Special Issue), pp.
33. GUMBLETON-WOOD D, ATKINSON G, WASHINGTON J, SJOBERG L. The influence of
production methods on the magnetic performance of electrical steels and soft magnetic composites
[C]// 2017 IEEE International Electric Machines and Drives Conference (IEMDC). IEEE, 2017:
1−7. DOI: 10.1109/IEMDC.2017.8002238.