Integrated Science 8-9 Notes by DJ Principle

PLATINUM NOTES
INTEGRATED SCIENCE GRADE 8 - 9
JANUARY 1, 2023
DEEJAY PRINCIPLE
0978936116/0964728794/0955075833
THE HUMAN BODY
THE HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Reproduction is the process of producing new organisms by parents. This process can
either be sexual or asexual.
Sexual reproduction is a process that creates the new organisms by combining the
genetic information of male and female parents.
In humans, sexual reproduction is carried out by the reproductive system that has
special organs that produce gametes (sex cells).
The Male Reproductive System
The main function of the male reproductive system is to produce sperms and to deliver
them into the female reproductive sytem. The diagram below shows the organs of the
male reproductive system.
The main organs of the male reproductive system are: testes, sperm duct, scrotum,
urethra, epididymis and penis.
The functions of the male reproductive organs.
✓ Penis – to deposit sperms into the vagina during sexual intercourse
✓ Testes – to produce the sperm cells and the male sex hormone, Testosterone.
✓ Scrotum – is the skin sac that holds the testes outside the body to keep them cooler
than the normal body temperature.
✓ Epididymis - Long, coiled tube that stores manufactured sperm cells.
✓ Sperm duct – the tube that transports sperm cells from the testes to the urethra
✓ Urethra – a tube that transports the semen through the penis during ejaculation and
a passage of urine from the bladder to the outside of the body.
Page 1 of 46 PLATINUM NOTES BY DJ PRINCIPLE

The Female Reproductive System
The female reproductive system carries out a number of functions. It produces
gametes and hormones. It is also a site for fertilization. The diagram below illustrates
the female reproductive system.
The mains organs of the female reproductive system are: ovary, oviduct (fallopian
tube), uterus, cervix, and vagina.
The functions of the female reproductive organs.
✓ Ovary – to produce the ovules (eggs). The two ovaries are responsible for the
secretion of the two hormones called oestrogen and progesterone. Oestrogen is
responsible for female secondary sexual characteristics and it stimulates the build up
the uterus lining.
✓ Cervix – to supply the vagina with mucus for lubrication during sexual intercourse. It
also closes the uterus from vagina.
✓ Oviduct/Fallopian tube – the passage of ova (egg) from the ovary to the uterus.
It is also a site where fertilization occurs.
✓ Vagina - it accepts the penis and receive the sperm cells during copulation (sexual
intercourse) and it is the birth canal for the foetus during normal child birth.
✓ Uterus / womb – this is where the embryo develops during pregnancy.
Puberty
The secondary sexual characteristics in both male and female develop during puberty
stage.
Puberty is a period when organs of the reproductive system mature and fertility is
assured.
Puberty usually occurs between the ages of 10 and 14 in girls and between the ages
of 12 and 16 in boys.
Puberty involves a series of physical changes that lead to attainment of fertility and
development of secondary sexual characteristics and rapid growth in both boys and
girls.
These changes are caused by the hormones, i.e., testosterone produced by the
testes in boys and oestrogen produced by the ovaries in girls into the body system.

A hormone is a chemical substance produced within the body and work in specific
areas of the body.
Changes associated with puberty for both male and female.
Males:
✓ pubic hair grows
✓ the penis grows longer and wider
✓ the testicles grow bigger
✓ wet dreams and ability to ejaculate
✓ chest broadens
✓ Hair grows in armpits
✓ Deepening of the voice
Females:
✓ The breasts develop
✓ Pubic hair appears
✓ Hair grows in the arm pit
✓ The body grows in height
✓ The hips become wider.
✓ The first menstruation occurs
The importance of observing personal hygiene of the reproductive organs

It is important for both boys and girls to maintain proper hygiene of their external
reproductive organs to avoid infections and diseases by:
- bathing using clean water and soap
- drying the genitals with a towel after bathing
- regular shaving of pubic hair
- regular washing of underwear and drying them on the sun.
Fertilization and Embryo development
Fertilisation is the fusion of a sperm and an egg (ovum) in the oviduct to form a
zygote. The zygote formed during this process contains information from both the
mother and the father.
The zygote undergoes rapid cell divisions to form an embryo as it moves down the
fallopian tube (oviduct) to the uterus.
Once the zygote reaches and become attached to the uterus, it is called embryo.
The cells of the embryo continue to grow into different body organs and once
completed, this embryo is now called the foetus. The foetus continues to grow into
a mature baby in the uterus. The diagram below shows the main parts important for
development of the embryo.

Functions of the parts important for development of the embryo
Placenta - Allows the exchange of nutrients, oxygen and waste products between
the foetus and the mother.
Umbilical cord - This cord transports blood from the embryo/foetus to and from the
placenta. It joins the growing embryo to the placenta. It also transports waste
products from the foetus to the placenta.
Amnion – this is the membrane that encloses the fluid called amniotic fluid. The
foetus does not drown in this fluid because it does not breath through the mouth or
nose.
Amniotic fluid – This fluid allows the foetus to move freely inside the uterus while it
is still developing
- It ensures that the development of the foetus will be normal and that the foetus will
have symmetrical growth
- protects the foetus from mechanical shocks (being bumped)
- Protects the foetus from dehydration.
- Stabilizes the temperature around the foetus.
Gestation period and Birth
Gestation is the period between conception (fertilisation) and birth. In humans the
length of the gestation period is 266 – 280 days (38 weeks) or 9 months. The zygote
takes about 12-14 days to move from the fallopian tube to the uterus for implantation.
This number of days (12 - 14) must be added to the actual days of gestation period
when calculating the expected date of delivery of the new born baby.
- The stages of embryo development are: zygote → embryo → foetus → new born.
The stages of birth are:
1. The dilation and shortening of the cervix.
2. The descent and birth of the infant.

3. The expulsion of the placenta.
THE HUMAN BODY 2
Exercise
2. Study the diagram illustrating a process in sexual reproduction involving gametes

(sex cells) R and Q. [2020 SPECIMEN]
(a) Identify gamete R. [1]

(b) Name the organ that produces gamete Q. [1]
(c) What process occurs between gamete R and Q that results into the zygote? [1]
(d) State the organ in which the zygote is produced. [1]

(e) (i) What term is given to the period from the time the zygote is produced to the
time of birth? [1]
(ii) How long is this period of development from zygote to child birth in human
beings? [1]
THE HUMAN BODY 2

The blood circulatory system
✓ The circulatory system is an organ system that allows blood to circulate around the
body and transport nutrients and gases to and from all the body cells.
✓ The circulatory system involves the movement of blood in vessels around the body.
✓ In humans, the essential components of the circulatory system are; the heart, lungs,
blood, and blood vessels.
Components of Blood and Their Functions
✓ Blood is a connective tissue made up of red blood cells, white blood cells,
platelets and plasma.
✓ Red blood cells – their main role is to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.
✓ White bloods cells – the main function of the white blood cells is to defend
the body against diseases and they do so by destroying bacteria and other
germs.
✓ Platelets – the main function of the platelets is to prevent the loss of blood
through blood clotting. Platelets do this by clamping together at the site of a
wound.
✓ Plasma – this is the pale-yellow liquid part of blood that transport water, body
wastes, hormones and food nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, mineral
salts, vitamins and lipids.
The Internal Structure of the Heart

The heart consists of 4 chambers, the left Atrium and the right atrium (plural: atria)
at the top and the left ventricle and the right ventricle below. Ventricles have thick
muscular walls because they pump blood at high pressure. It is located in the
chest cavity in between the lungs. Its main function is to pump blood to the whole
body. The diagram below shows the internal structure of the heart.

The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood around the body through blood
vessels. The type of muscle found in the wall of the heart is known as cardiac
muscle.
The heart is divided into left and right side. Each side has an upper chamber known
as an atrium and a lower chamber known as a ventricle. The atria receive blood from
the veins which they pump to the ventricles. The ventricles receive blood from the
atria and pump it out of the heart through the arteries.
The heart receives blood from blood vessels called veins. These include the vena
cava (which carries deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body to the right atrium)
and the pulmonary vein (which carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left
atrium). The heart pumps blood out through blood vessels called arteries. These
include the aorta (which carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the rest
of the body) and the pulmonary artery (which carries deoxygenated blood from the
right ventricle to the lungs). The wall of the heart receives blood from the coronary
artery which branches from the aorta.
The heart also contains valves which are responsible for keeping blood flowing in one
direction by preventing back flow. The one on the right side is called the tricuspid
valve while the one on the left is called the bicuspid valve. Those found between
the ventricles and arteries are called semi-lunar valves. The table below shows the
summary of the functions of the parts of the mammalian heart.
Structure Function
Left atrium Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through the
pulmonary vein.
Right atrium Receives deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body through
the vena cava.
Left ventricle Pumps blood to all parts of the body through the aorta.

Right ventricle Pumps blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery.
Bicuspid valve Prevents back flow of blood from the left atrium.
Tricuspid valves Prevents back flow of blood to the right atrium.
Semilunar Prevents the back flow of blood
valves
Aorta Carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body
Pulmonary vein Carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
Pulmonary Carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs
artery
Vena cava Carries deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body to the
heart.
Double Circulatory System

This is a type of circulation where blood passes through the heart twice during one
circulation around the body. It involves pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation.
- Pulmonary circulation: this is the flow of blood from the right ventricle to
the lungs through the pulmonary artery and from the lungs to the left atrium
through the pulmonary vein.
- Systemic circulation: This is the flow of blood from the left ventricle to the
rest of the body through the aorta and from the rest of the body to the right
atrium through the vena cava.
The role of the heart, lungs and blood vessel in blood circulation
The heart pump blood to all parts of the body. The valves prevent back flow of blood.
The lungs add oxygen to the blood and remove carbon dioxide from the blood. (It is
where gaseous exchange takes place).
Blood Vessels
The blood vessels are the arteries, veins and capillaries. Arteries transport blood away
from the heart to the rest of body while veins transport blood towards the heart.
All arteries transport oxygenated blood to all parts of the body except the pulmonary
artery.
All veins transport deoxygenated blood back to the heart except the pulmonary vein.
Capillaries links arteries to veins for exchange of materials such as oxygen, glucose,
carbon dioxide, etc. between blood and body tissues.
Heart Rate and Pulse Rate
The term heart rate refers to the number of heart beats per minute. It can be
measured using an instrument called the stethoscope. The heart rate of a normal
adult human being at rest is about 72 beats /minute. Factors that affect and modify
the normal resting heart rate are sleeping, emotional excitement, illness (e.g. fever)
and physical exercise.

A pulse is a wave of pressure created in the arteries by a heartbeat. The number of
pulses per minute is called the pulse rate. Measuring the pulse rate is an indirect way
of measuring the heart rate. A pulse can be located using the index and middle fingers
on any part of the body where arteries are very close to the skin surface.
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Respiratory system refers to the parts of the body that are used in the process of
breathing. Note that there are two types of respiration:
1. Mechanical respiration – involves breathing (inspiration and expiration)
2. Tissue/cell respiration – involves breaking down of sugars inside the body cells
to produce energy.
The parts of the respiratory system involved in breathing are: Mouth, nose, trachea,
bronchi, bronchiole, lungs (air sacs), ribs, diaphragm, and intercostal muscles.
Functions of the organs of the respiratory system

Mouth: it is used for breathing when the nose is blocked.
Nose: has two nostrils through which the air from outside is allowed to pass into the
lungs. The nostrils contain small hairs which help trap the dust particles from air before
it enters the lungs.
Trachea: it acts as a passage for air and has cilia and mucus that trap dust. It is a
cylindrical tube lined with rings of cartilage to prevent collapsing.
Bronchi: directs air to the lungs.
Lungs: this is where gaseous exchange takes place.
Ribs: give physical protection of the lungs.
Diaphragm: is a tough sheet of muscles that separates the chest cavity from the
abdominal cavity.
Air sacs: it is the site for gaseous exchange (make up the lungs).
Mechanism of ventilation in a human being
Mechanism of ventilation (breathing) involves two processes.

1. Inhalation / inspiration
- Diaphragm muscles contract and flattens
- External intercostal muscles contract
- Ribs move upwards and outwards
- Volume of chest cavity increases.
- Lungs inflate
- Air is drawn inside.
2. Exhalation / expiration
- Diaphragm relax and moves upward (becomes dome shaped)
- External inter-costal muscles relax
- Ribs move downwards and inwards.
- Volume of chest cavity decreases.
- Lungs deflate
- Air is drawn outside
Gaseous Exchange in Humans

In humans, gaseous exchange is the diffusion of oxygen from the lungs into the blood
and carbon dioxide from the blood into the lungs across the walls of the alveoli. The
following diagram illustrates gaseous exchange in humans.

Tissue respiration
Tissue respiration or cellular respiration is a chemical process in cells by which energy
is released from food (glucose).Glucose combines with oxygen to release carbon
dioxide, water and energy.
WORD EQUATION
Glucose +oxygen ----->Carbon dioxide + water + Energy
Effects of Smoking on the Respiratory System
Cigarette smoke contains three major toxic substances, namely nicotine, tar and
carbon monoxide. Tar is responsible for causing respiratory diseases such as bronchitis
and lung cancer.
Bronchitis: This is the inflammation of the air passages. Tar immobilizes (stops
movement of) the cilia, causing mucus to accumulate in the air passages. This gives
chance to the germs in the mucus to infect the lining of the air passages, causing
coughing. The overall effect of bronchitis is that it reduces the amount of oxygen
reaching the lungs.
Lung Cancer: This is the uncontrolled or abnormal division of cells in the lungs.
Smoking increases the risk of lung cancer because tar which is present in cigarette
smoke is a carcinogen (a cancer-causing agent)
PLANTS & ANIMALS 1
PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

The basic unit of all living organisms is the cell. The cell is very small to be seen by a
naked eye. A microscope is an instrument which is used to make small objects look
bigger or magnify small objects which are invisible to the naked eye. Since most
cells are invisible to the naked eye, a microscope is an essential tool in the study of
cells. There are different types of microscopes. The common type found in the
laboratory is called the compound microscope. This microscope consists of two sets

of lenses. The lenses are fitted at the opposite ends of a body tube. The lenses
closer to the eye are called eye piece and the ones nearer the object are called the
objective lens. The objective lenses are fitted into a revolving nose piece in the
order of low power, medium power and high power. The figure below shows a
labelled compound microscope.
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF A COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

1. Eyepiece or ocular lens: to magnify the image so that it can be seen by the
human eye.
2. Coarse adjustment: brings the specimen into general focus under lower
magnification.
3. Fine adjustment: it fine tunes the focus and increases the detail of the
specimen.
4. Nose piece: it is turned to select different objective lenses.
5. Objective lens: it magnifies the specimen to produce an image.
6. Clip: it holds the specimen in place on the stage.
7. Stage: the platform where the slide is placed.
8. Diaphragm: it allows the light from the mirror to reach the specimen.
9. Mirror /lamp: to reflect the light up through the specimen.
10. Arm: used to hold and carry the microscope.
WATER
Chemical formula: H2O
Water is made up of two elements and these are: Hydrogen and Oxygen.

WATER MANAGEMENT
Water management is the activity of planning, developing, distributing and
managing the optimum use of water.
Sources of water
1. Ground water
2. Lakes and reservoirs
3. Rivers and canals
4. Rain water collection
Why is water management important?
Water is a very precious commodity needed to support life. Water contributes

significantly in fulfilling the basic human needs as follows:
Uses of water
(a) It is essential for all living things
(b) In homes, water is used for cooking, washing and flushing
(c) It is used as a solvent
(d) It is used for making beer, cement
(e) It is used for cooling machines in the industry
(f) Water for drinking, cooking, washing and industrial use
(g) Agriculture - irrigation
(h) Generation of electricity
Three effective water management systems
1. Construction of dams:
Dam acts as emergency water. Dams like the Kariba dam is used for generation of
hydro-electric power.
2. Reservoir:
They provide benefits such as flood control, recreation, scenic beauty, fish and wild
life.
3. Water purification plant
Water purification is the process of removing unwanted substances from
contaminated water.
Water from the source (rivers and underground) is never completely pure because it
contains the following impurities:
1. Bacteria and tiny organisms: Most bacteria are harmless but some can cause
diseases
2. Dissolved substances: Nitrates and sulphates from the soil, gases from air and
some calcium and magnesium compounds from the rocks
3. Solid particles: Solid particles include particles of mud, sand, grit, twigs, dead
plants, dead animals and perhaps tins and rags that people have dumped.
Before the water is safe to drink, the bacteria and solid substances must be
removed. This is done at the water works.

Purification of water at the water works/plant
The diagram below shows what happens at the water works.
The water is pumped through the screen which gets rid of large bits of rubbish.
Then the water gets through the following stages:
1. Coarse sand filter
The coarse sand filter tank traps the larger particles of solid
2. Sedimentation tank
Here chemicals are added to water, to make the smaller particles stick together.
These particles then settle to the bottom of the tank.
3. Fine sand filter
The fine sand filter traps any remaining particles.
4. Chlorination tank
In this tank, a little chlorine gas is added. Chlorine gas dissolves, and kills any
remaining bacteria. This is called disinfecting or sterilising the water. In some places,
a fluoride compound is also added to the water, to help prevent tooth decay. Water
is now fit to drink.
5. Storage tank: Water is now pumped into high storage tanks and from there
piped to homes and factories.

EXERCISE - HEALTH 2
(a) Explain FOUR ways in which one can get infected with HIV and AIDS. [4]
(b) Apart from HIV and AIDS, state FOUR other sexually transmitted diseases. [2]
(c) Describe FOUR impacts of HIV and AIDS on the Zambian population. [2]
MATERIALS AND ENERGY 1

Composition of Matter
Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight. Matter has three states:
1. solid
2. liquid
3. gas
All matter is made up of particles called atoms, ions and molecules. These are the
basic units or basic building blocks of matter.
An atom: is a smallest basic building block of matter. Most atoms can combine with
other atoms to form molecules.

An element: is a pure substance made up of only one type of atom.
The Basic Structure of Atoms
An atom has three sub-atomic particles: protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom and electrons in shells around an atom. The structure of an atom is shown
below.
Common Atoms and Their Symbols

The following are the common atoms and their symbols.
NAME OF AN ATOM SYMBOL

Carbon C
Oxygen O
Nitrogen N
Hydrogen H
Copper Cu
Iron Fe
Aluminium Al
Simple Molecules and Their Models

A molecule: is a small particle of matter made up of two or more atoms chemically
combined. Below are some of the names, chemical formulae and models of simple
molecules.
Name of a molecule Symbol Model 1 Model 2

Oxygen O2
Hydrogen H2
Water H2O
Carbon dioxide CO2
Nitrogen N2

PHYSICAL CHANGE OF STATE
A physical is change from one state to the other with no new substances formed.
For Example, changing of ice to water or water to ice.
Arrangement of Atoms in the Three States of Matter.
Solid: has definite (fixed) shape and volume.
Arrangement of particles: Solid particles (Atoms) are very close together in a regular
pattern.
Liquid: Liquids do not have any specific shape (no fixed shape) but fixed volume.
Arrangement of particles: Particles are slightly further apart.
Gas: gases have no fixed shaped and volume.

Arrangement of particles: Particles are slightly further apart.
Boiling and Melting Point of Water

- The change of state from solid to liquid is called Melting.
- Melting point is the temperature at which a solid changes into a liquid. The
melting point of ice is 0 0C.
- When a liquid is heated it changes into a gas. This process is called evaporation.

- Evaporation the change of state of matter from liquid to gas. Once the liquid
increases to a certain temperature it starts to boil.
- The temperature at which a liquid turns into gas is called boiling point. The
boiling point of water under normal conditions at sea level is 100 0C.
Below is a graph showing a heating curve of water. This graph shows the change of
state of solid water (ice) to vapour (gas) over a period of time.
Sublimation is the direct change of state from solid to gas by heating.

Condensation is the change of state from gas to liquid.
Freezing or solidification is the change of state from liquid to solid.
The temperature at which a liquid changes into a solid is called freezing point.
Freezing point is also called the melting point for a pure substance.
MIXTURES
A mixture: is a material made up of two or more substances that are physically
combined. They are usually easily separated by physical means.
There are two types of mixtures and these are:

Homogeneous mixture: a mixture in which any two samples (substances) have
the same composition and properties.
Examples: air (a gas); seawater (a liquid); sugar water (sugar solution); Blood
Heterogeneous mixture: a mixture containing substances that are not identical.
Examples: concrete; smoke, Soil, Salt, Fruit salad, sand in water, Marbles, Corks,
Oil and water, Soups and stews
Methods of Separating Mixtures

1. Filtration
This is a method of separating an insoluble solid from a liquid using a filter.
For instance, separating the sand from a mixture of sand and salt water.
Method
Set the apparatus as shown in the diagram below
• Pour the mixture into the filter funnel containing a filter paper.
• The liquid (solvent) will go through and be collected in the beaker as the
filtrate.
• The insoluble solid will be collected from the funnel as the residue.
Uses of filtration
a) It is used in the purification of drinking water at the water works.
(b) It is used in car engines to remove impurities from oil, petrol etc.
2. Simple distillation

In simple distillation, a liquid is boiled to form a vapour, and then condensed back
to a liquid by a Liebig condenser. This liquid is collected; is called the distillate.
Distillation removes the pure liquid from the particles that may be dissolved in it;
the pure liquid is removed and collected.
Method
Set the apparatus as shown in the diagram below
• Turn on the Bunsen burner
• The solvent will evaporate and rise as vapor into the condenser
• The cold water surrounding the tube where the water is in the condenser will
make the vapor condense into liquid
• The solvent is collected in the tube or beaker on the other side of the
condenser, it’s called the distillate.
• The solute (solid particles) is collected in the flask as powder.
Uses of simple distillation

This method is prefect for distilling sea water.
3. Fractional distillation
Fractional distillation is a method of separating a mixture of two or more liquids that
have different boiling points.
Method
• The apparatus is set as in the diagram below
• When the heat is turned on the vapor of all the liquids rises
• The liquid with the lowest boiling point goes all the way through the glass
beads and into the condenser and out on the other side as liquid. The
temperature is constant during this.
• The liquids with the higher boiling points condense on the glass beads. When
all of the liquid with the lowest boiling point have evaporated and collected,
the temperature starts rising again. The liquid with the second lowest boiling
point evaporates now, and gets collected on the other side. And so on.
• The glass beads are to provide a cool large surface area for condensation.

Uses of fractional distillation
(a) Separation of various components of crude oil (petroleum)
(b) Used in the manufacture of spirits such as whisky, rum, gin, etc.
(c) Separation of liquid air into nitrogen and oxygen
4. Evaporation
Evaporation is the escape of molecules from the top of a liquid to form a gas or
vapour. For evaporation to occur, the solution is heated. As the heating continues,
the liquid (water) vaporizes, leaving the substance behind.
5. Magnetism

It is used to separate a mixture when one component is magnetic and other one is
non-magnetic.
For example, magnetism can be used to separate a mixture of saw dust and iron
fillings. The magnet attracts iron fillings, only leaving particles of saw dust in the
petri dish.
6. Crystallization
Crystallisation separates a pure solid from a substance from an impure solution in a
liquid.
Crystallization involves heating a solution until the substances separate. When the
separated solution cools, it forms crystals. The diagram below shows the
crystallization of copper sulphate from a solution of copper sulphate solution.
Uses of Crystallisation
To obtain pure salt crystals from sea water.

MASS, WEIGHT AND DENSITY
MASS
Mass is the amount of matter in a substance.
→ Mass is measured in kilogram [kg] and grams [g].
→ Beam balance is an instrument used to measure the mass of a body. Mass can
also be measured using the triple beam balance and the digital or electronic balance.
→ The mass of an object is the same everywhere on the moon or on other planets.
→ If for example a body has a mass of 3Kg on earth, it will have the same mass at
the equator, at the poles, on the moon etc.
Example: To measure the mass of salt.
1. Place an empty beaker on the triple beam balance and record its mass as M1.

2. Pour the salt in the beaker and record the new mass as M2 (mass of beaker and
salt).
3. Calculate the difference between M1 and M2. This gives the mass of the salt.
4. Repeat the experiment using other substances such as flour or rice.
WEIGHT
Weight is the pull of gravity on the mass of an object.
The weight of an object varies from place to place (e.g., from the earth to the
moon)
The unit of weight is Newton [N]. Weight is measured using a spring balance.
How can we measure the weight of a given object?

We measure weight with a spring balance and its unit is Newton (N). When
measuring weight, hold a spring balance or attach it to a fixed surface by its ring at
the top. Attach the object you want to weigh to the hook at the bottom of the
balance. This causes the spring in the balance to stretch. Measure the weight of the
object then. The marker on the outside of the spring balance moves down the scale
of the spring balance.
Weight is calculated using the formula shown below;
Weight = mass × acceleration due to gravity
W=mg; where m is mass; g is acceleration due to gravity.
Note: Acceleration due to gravity is 10N/kg or 10m/s2 on earth and 1.67N/Kg or
1.67m/s2 on the moon, which is represented by g.
The following table shows the changes to the mass and weight of an astronaut when
he travels from the earth to the moon in a spacecraft.
Earth Moon
Mass 90kg 90kg
weight 900N 150N

[Example]
The mass of a man is 70kg. What is his weight on the earth and moon?
Solution:
DATA
m=70kg, g=10N/kg on earth
g=1.67N/kg on moon
w=?
On Earth
W=mg = 70kg x 10N/Kg
= 700N
On Moon
W=mg = 70kg x 1.67N/Kg
= 117N
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MASS AND WEIGHT

i Mass of a body is constant, weight of a body varies from place to place.
ii Mass is measured in kilograms; weight is measured in Newtons.
iii Mass is measured by a beam balance; weight is measured by a spring balance.
DENSITY
Density is mass per unit volume of a substance.
The unit for density is grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3)
Density is calculated using the formula:
𝑴
𝑫= ; Where, D is density in g/cm3, M is the mass in g and V is the volume in
𝑽
cm3.
How to Determine the Densities of Different Substances

(i) Determining the density of a stone

- Weigh the stone by placing it on a beam balance/electronic balance. Read and
record its mass as M
- Pour water into a measuring cylinder and record its volume as V1.
- Tie a thin string to the stone and gently lower it into the water until it is fully
submerged (under water).
- Record the total volume of the water and the stone as V2.
- Now calculate the density of the stone as follows:
𝑴
𝑫=
𝑽𝟐−𝑽𝟏
The figure below illustrates how the density of a stone can be determined.
(ii) To determine the density of stone using eureka can/ overflow can
- Measure the mass of the stone using the electronic balance. And record the mass
as (M)
- Pour water in the Eureka can and allow it to overflow until it levels to just below
the overflow pipe.
- Lower the stone (tied to a string) into the water, the stone displaces the water
which runs down the overflow pipe into the empty measuring cylinder.
The water that runs into the measuring cylinder is equal to the volume of the stone
and record it as V.
- Now calculate the density of the stone as follows:
𝑴
𝑫=
𝑽
The figure below illustrates how the density of a stone can be determined using a
Eureka can.

(iii) To determine the density of a block of wood.
Draw a table for the results like the one shown below.
Mass (g) Length (cm) Breadth (cm) Height (cm) Volume [l x b x h] (cm3)
- Using a beam balance/electronic balance, measure the mass of the block of wood
and record your results in the table above.
- Measure and record the length, width/breadth and height of the block of wood.
- Calculate the volume of the block of wood using the formula, V = l × b × h.
- Calculate the density of the wooden block using the formula
𝑴
𝑫=
𝑽
(iv) To determine the density of a liquid e.g., water.

- Draw a table for your results like the one shown below.
Liquid Mass of Mass of Mass of Volume of water in a

cylinder (g) cylinder + water (g) cylinder (cm3)
M1 water (g) M=M2- M1
M2
Water
- Carefully determine the mass of the empty measuring cylinder using the beam
balance/electronic balance and record it as M1.
- Pour water into the measuring cylinder and record the volume of this water.
- Now place the measuring cylinder with the water on the beam balance/electronic
balance and record the mass as M2.
- Calculate the mass of water M by subtracting M1 from M2 i.e. (M2-M1).

- Use the data recorded in your table to calculate the density of the water.
𝑴
𝑫=
𝑽
How objects sink or float on a liquid

Different substances have different densities.
- When a solid object is placed into a liquid with lower density than that of the
solid, it sinks.
- When a solid object is placed into a liquid with higher density than that of the
solid, it floats.
- When two liquids of different densities are poured into one container, the
liquid with a lower density float on top of the other liquid (if they cannot mix)
oil
How Vessels/Ships Float

Vessels float because:
- They have a larger volume and are less dense. Their average density is less than
that of water.
- Of their shape which displaces an amount of water equal to its mass.
Effects of Overloading Vessels/Ships.
- It causes sinking of vessels (capsizing of ships in the sea or ocean)
- It causes accidents
HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer is the movement of heat from a hotter place to a colder place. Heat can
travel in three ways:
1. Conduction
2. Convection

3. Radiation
Conduction: It is the flow of heat through matter from a place of higher temperature
to a place of lower temperature.
How heat travel by conduction in solid materials
At the hotter part, the molecules vibrate actively. They collide with neighbours. Then,
the vibration is transferred from the hotter part to the colder part as shown below.
Good conductors of heat:

Good conductors of heat conduct heat easily because they are made up of atoms with
freely electrons. Examples are all metals like aluminium, copper, iron, steel, lead etc.
They are used in making cooking utensils like kettle, saucepans, boilers etc.
Bad conductors of heat:
Bad conductors of heat do not conduct heat easily because they are not made up of
free electrons. Bad conductors of heat are also known as Insulators. Examples are
all non-metals like wood, plastic, wool, glass, cork etc. They are used in making
handles of cooking utensils. Bad conductors lose heat easily than good conductors.
Metals transfers heat faster than non-metals.
Experiment to compare good conductors and bad conductors:
MATERIALS AND ENERGY 2

CHEMICAL REACTION
Chemical reaction is a process of forming new substances. It involves the changing of
a substance into a new one that has a different chemical identity. For example, burning
of sugar, paper, etc.
NATURE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
During a chemical reaction, heat can be given out to the environment or absorbed
from the surroundings/environment.
A reaction that gives out heat energy to the surroundings is called exothermic
reactions. When an exothermic reaction occurs, the heat is produced and transferred
from the chemicals to the surroundings, the temperature of the reaction mixture rises
and the container feels hot.

Not all reactions give out heat. A reaction that absorbs heat from the surroundings is
called endothermic reaction. When an endothermic reaction occurs, the heat is
absorbed and transferred from the surroundings to the reactants, the temperature of
the reaction mixture falls and the container feels cold.
The table below shows the differences between exothermic and endothermic
reactions.
Exothermic reaction Endothermic reaction

Gives out heat energy Absorbs heat energy
The temperature rises The temperature falls
Examples; respiration, condensation, Examples; photosynthesis, evaporation,
freezing, rusting of iron etc. melting, decomposition etc.
Types of Chemical Reactions

There are different types of chemical reactions and these are:
Synthesis reaction, Decomposition reaction, Single replacement reaction, and Double
Replacement reaction.
i. Synthesis reaction: this is a reaction in which two or more substances combine to
form a new compound. A + B → AB
For example, copper combines with oxygen to form a new compound, copper oxide
as shown below.
Copper + Oxygen → Copper Oxide
ii. Decomposition reaction is the reaction that breakdown a compound into two or
more substances. AB → A + B
Decomposition usually involve heat and it is referred to as thermal decomposition.
The word thermal means heat. An example of thermal decomposition reaction is when
potassium chlorate is heated to give potassium chloride and oxygen gas.
potassium chlorate → potassium chloride + oxygen
Another example of thermal decomposition is when calcium carbonate is heated to
give calcium oxide and carbon dioxide gas as shown below.
calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide
ii. Single displacement reaction: this is a reaction where one element replaces a
simpler element in a compound. AB + C → A + BC
For example, Sodium and hydrogen chloride react to form sodium chloride and
hydrogen as shown in the chemical equation below.
Sodium + hydrogen chloride → sodium chloride + hydrogen

iv. Double displacement reaction is a reaction that involves the exchange of parts
between the two compounds. An aqueous solution is a solution in which the solvent
is water. AB + CD → AD + CB
An example of double displacement chemical reaction is shown below.
Sodium chloride + silver nitrate → sodium nitrate + silver chloride
Chemical Reaction of Water with Electricity (Electrolysis)

Pure water is a poor conductor of electricity because it has more molecules and very
few ions in it. However, when a small amount of dilute acid is added to it, it becomes
an acidified water and a good conductor of electricity.
This acidified water can be decomposed into hydrogen gas and oxygen gas by
electrolysis. Electrolysis is the process of using electricity to break down or
decompose a compound. The products of electrolysis of acidified water are always
two volumes of hydrogen gas at the cathode and one volume oxygen gas at the anode
(Hydrogen is formed twice as much more than oxygen) as shown in the diagram
below. Note that electrolysis is a decomposition type of a reaction.
The decomposition reaction of water by electrolysis is given below.

Water → hydrogen + oxygen
The law of conservation of matter
The law of conservation of matter state that in a chemical reaction, the total mass of
substances before a chemical reaction is equal to the total mass of the substances
that are produced.
This law can also be stated as follows:
Matter cannot be made created or destroyed during a chemical reaction.
LIGHT AND ITS NATURE
LENSES

Lenses are spherical surfaces of transparent materials. The materials may be glass,
plastics, water, etc.
There are two types of lenses and these are
i) Convex (Converging) lenses.
ii) Concave (Diverging) lenses
Converging lens (convex) lens: A lens that is thicker at the centre than at the
edges.
Diverging Lens (Concave Lens): A concave lens is thinnest in the central and
spreads light out.
Focal point and focal length of the lens
Focal point, F is the point where rays parallel to the principal axis converge or
diverge.
Focal length, f
This is the distance between the optical centre and focal point.

Images formed by convex/converging lenses:
The nature of the image formed by converging lens depends on the position of the
object from the lens.
(b) Object at 2F
(a) Object beyond 2F
Characteristics of the image:

✓ Nature: Real, Inverted and Same
size as object.
✓ Position: At 2F.
✓ Nature: Real Inverted and
Diminished.
✓ Position: Between F and 2F.
Applied in:
(i) Camera
(ii) The eye
(c) Object between F and 2F (d) Object at F
Characteristics of the image: Characteristics of the image:

✓ Nature: Real, Inverted and ✓ Nature: Real, Inverted and
magnified. magnified.
✓ Position: Beyond 2F. ✓ Position: At infinity.

Applied in:
(i) Projector This arrangement is applied in:
(ii) Microscope objective lens A spot lights.
(e) Object between F and C

✓ Nature: Virtual and Upright or
erect and magnified.
✓ Position: On the same side as the
object.
This arrangement is applied in:

(i) Magnifying glasses
(ii) Microscope eye piece.
(iii) Spectacles correction for
long sightedness.
When the object is placed between

F and C, the image is magnified and
this is why the convex lens is known
as a magnifying glass.
- A real image is the image formed where the light rays are focused. Real images
occur when objects are placed outside the focal length of a converging lens or outside
the focal length of a converging mirror.
- A virtual image is formed at a location from where light rays appear to have
converged. Converging lenses form virtue images if the object distance is shorter than
the focal length.
Uses of Converging and Diverging Lenses

Lenses are of great use in everyday life. Converging lens are used in microscope, film
projector, the camera, while Diverging lenses are used in spectacles.
Dispersing of white light using a prism

Dispersion is the separation of white light into its component colours. When a narrow
beam of white light is passed through a glass prism, it is refracted and spreads into a
band of colours of the rainbow as shown in figure below. The band of the colours
formed is called spectrum. A spectrum is a range of seven colours that form white
light.
From the figure above we can conclude that white light is a mixture of seven colours.
Recombining the Spectrum
The spectrum obtained from a white light can be recombined. This may be done by
using two prisms.
The first prism deviates the white light into spectrum. The second prism placed in
inverted position reverses the deviation and dispersion of the first prism so that the
colours of the spectrum recombine and the emergent ray obtained is white light as
shown in figure below.
Formation of a rainbow
When white light from the sun enters a rain drop it undergoes refraction and then
dispersed and the spectrum is reflected inside the water drops and this is referred to
as a rainbow. A rainbow is caused by reflection, refraction and dispersion of light in
water droplets resulting in a spectrum of light appearing in the sky.
Red sunset
When the sun is setting, the light from it has to travel through greater thickness of
the earth’s atmosphere and only the longer wave-length red light is able to get
through. Therefore, the sunsets appear red to our eyes.

The colour of the object:
The colour of an object depends on the colour of light falling on that object and the
colour the object transmits or reflects. Therefore, the colour of the object is
determined by the colour of light falling on that object.
A white object reflects all the colours of the spectrum and therefore appears white in
white light while a black object absorbs all the colours of white light and reflects none
to the eye and therefore appears black.
Examples:
1. A red flower and a blue cloth both appear completely black in a dark room because
there is no light falling on the objects.
2. Green leaves will appear green in white light because green leaves absorb all other
colours in white light and reflects only green colour.
COLOUR FILTERS
A filter is a coloured sheet of plastic or glass material which allows light of its own type
to pass through it and absorbs the rest of the coloured lights i.e., a green filter
transmits only green, a blue transmits only blue, a yellow filter transmits red, green
and yellow lights.
EFFECTS OF COLOUR FILTERS ON LIGHT RAYS.

A yellow (R+G) A green filter A red filter absorbs A blue filter
filter absorbs all absorbs all other all other colours of absorbs all other
other colours of colours of white white light and colours of white
white light and light and transmits transmits only red. light and transmits
transmits only Red only green. only blue.
green and yellow.
ELECTRIC CURRENT AND VOLTAGE IN CIRCUITS

Electric current (I) is the rate of flow of charge. Or it is the rate of flow of electrically
charged particles. The S.I unit of current is an ampere represented by capital letter A.
Current is measured using the instrument called ammeter. The symbol for ammeter
is shown below.
Voltage is the potential diference expressed in volts.

The potential difference (p.d.) is the work done, when one coulomb (charge) of
electricity moves from one point to another. The unit of p.d. is the volt (V).
The p.d. is measured by an instrument called a voltmeter. See diagrams for the
symbol and connection.
The differences between current and voltage are shown in the table below:
Current (I) Voltage (V)

It is measured in amperes, A It is measured in volts, V
It is measured by an ammeter It is measured by a voltmeter
Current cannot flow without voltage Voltage can exist without current
RESISTANCE
Is the opposition to the flow of current in a conductor. A resistor (R) is a conductor
which opposes the flow of current through it.
The S.I unit of resistance is an ohm (Ω).
Resistance can be calculated using the formula below.

𝐕
R = 𝐈.
Relationship Between Current and Potential Difference

The relationship between current and potential difference can be explained using
Ohm’s Law which state that:
The current passing through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference between its ends at constant temperature.
Voltage (P. d) = Current × Resistance
Or
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
An electric circuit is a combination of electric appliances represented by electric
symbols. An electric circuit can be set up as shown below.
In a circuit, a voltmeter is connected in parallel across the resistor while the

ammeter is connected in series in order to measure the current flowing through a
component/resistor in a circuit.
The number of cells affects the voltage in the circuit. The more the number of cells
the higher the voltage and vice versa.
Some examples
1. A current of 4A flows through an electric kettle when the p.d. across it is 8V. Find
the resistance.
2. What voltage is needed to make a current of 0.4A flow through when the appliance
has resistance of 20Ω?
Series and Parallel arrangement of resistors

Resistors can be arranged in a series or parallel arrangement in a circuit as shown
below.

Uses of electric current:
Electricity is used in following ways in homes:
• Lighting in bulbs
• heating in pressing irons and electric kettles
• cooking using electric cookers/stoves
PRESSURE
This is the force per unit area. It is measured in Newton per metre (N/m). It can be
calculated using the formula given below.
𝐅
𝐏=𝐀
P = Pressure (N/m)
F = Force (N)
A = Area (m)
When the surface area is smaller, the exerted pressure on the object is always great
and vice versa. This is illustrated in the figure shown below.

Example 1
What pressure is produced when a force of 600N acts on an object of area 6m2?
𝐅
𝐏=𝐀
𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝐏= = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐍/𝐦
𝟔
Example 2
Calculate the pressure exerted on the ground by a metal object on an area of 0.50m2
if its weight is 200N.
𝐅
𝐏=𝐀
𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝐏 = 𝟎.𝟓𝟎 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝐍/𝐦
Pressure of gases in an enclosed container is affected by two factors and these are:
✓ temperature
✓ volume
Temperature:
When a gas is heated and its temperature rises, the average speed of its molecules
increases. If the volume of the gas is to remain constant, its pressure increases due
to more frequent and more violent collisions of the molecules with the walls of the
container.
Volume
If the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is halved by halving the volume of the
container, the number of molecules per unit volume will be doubled. There will be
twice as many collisions per second with the wall i.e., the pressure is doubled.

Applications of pressure in everyday life
Pressure is following ways in everyday life.
(i) Measurement of relative density of liquids (e.g., mixture of mercury and water)
(ii) Water supplies (water pump)
(iii) In hydraulic brakes
(iv) In drinking straws
(v) In the lift pump (the common pump for bicycles)
ENERGY AND ITS CONSERVATION:

ENERGY is the ability to do work.
FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy exists in various forms. The various forms of energy are described below.
Kinetic energy: This is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion.
Potential energy: This is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position
Heat energy. This is the form of energy that is transferred from region of high
temperature to region of low temperature. This form of energy is produced by
burning fuels, electric heaters and radiation from the sun.
Sound energy. This is a form of energy produced when particles in the medium
are set into vibrations. This form of energy is heard by the ear.

Electrical energy. This is a form of energy due to the flow of charges. This form of
energy can be obtained by the conversion of other forms of energy using
generators.
Light energy. This is the form of energy produced by hot bodies and travels in a
straight line. This form of energy can be converted into other forms of energy and
helps us to see.
Chemical energy. This is a form of energy that can be converted to heat by
burning.
Nuclear energy. This is form of energy produced when unstable nucleus splits
through nuclear fission or two light nuclei fuse together through nuclear fusion.
Wave energy. This is a form of energy which is transferred from one point to
another without causing any permanent displacement of medium itself. This form of
energy causes a disturbance through the medium.
Conversion of energy
By means of suitable mechanisms and apparatus, energy can be converted from one
form to another. This is shown in the table below.
Activity Energy Transformation/conversion
1. A boy running up a stair case Chemical energy in the muscles is

converted to K.E and then to P.E. (C.
E→ K.E → P.E)
2. Running water at a hydroelectric P.E is converted to K.E and then
power station (water turning turbine electrical energy. (P.E → K.E → E.E)
which finally drives a generator)
3. A stone dropped from rest at a P.E is converted K.E then to heat and
certain height until it hits the ground. sound
energy. (P. E→ K.E → H.E → S.E)
4. A moving car Chemical energy due to the burning of
fuel in the engine is converted to heat
energy which is converted by pistons to
kinetic energy. (C.E→ H.E → K.E)
5. A coal fired engine drives a Chemical energy is converted to heat
dynamo which lights a bulb. energy, kinetic energy, electrical energy
and lastly to light energy.
(C.E → H.E → K.E → E.E → L.E)
6. A torch bulb flashing. Chemical energy is converted to
electrical energy, light energy and heat
energy. (C.E → E.E → L.E → H.E)
7. charcoal in the brazier
The law of conservation of energy:

It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but changes from one
form to another.
Effects of energy generation
Energy generation has a lot of negative impacts on the environment. Some of the
effects are listed below.
✓ It causes land degradation.
✓ It leads to all forms of pollution.
✓ It displaces habitats
✓ It causes climate and global warming
Ways of Conserving energy:
All forms of energy can be conserved in the following ways:
✓ use of alternative sources, such as solar energy, wind energy that are
renewable.
✓ avoid wastage of energy,
✓ use three Rs (Reuse, Reduce, and Recycle) of conservation.
✓ Replacing light bulbs with fluorescent bulbs or LED bulbs.
✓ Reducing the use of outdoor lights for security purposes.
✓ Switching off all electrical appliances and lighting equipment
✓ Using natural light from the sun to brighten homes.
✓ Reducing excessive heating and cooling in summer and winter respectively in
✓ homes with summer cooling and winter heating systems.
✓ Conserving fuels.
✓ Higher use of renewable energy sources.
COMMUNICATION
Communication is the way of sending and receiving information over long distances.
- Communication can be sent or received by the use of telephones, radios,
television and emails
Advantages and Disadvantages of the different ways of sending messages
TELEPHONE
This is the most popular method of sending information that has been existing in
different Forms for the past years in both homes and business contacts. However
mobile phones are now the preferred methods of communication. Mobile phones are
also known as a cellular phone is a phone that can make and receive telephone calls
while moving around a wide geographical area.
Advantages
- It provides for two-way communication and one on one communication. You get
immediate feedback during the communication.
- Telephones provide current and timely information.
- The conversation is relatively private between the people communicating.
Disadvantages

- Telephones are expensive to buy and to install.
- The person must be within the network coverage area, otherwise there will
network failure.
- The use of telephones and mobile phones requires a certain amount of literacy.
RADIO
For a very long time, radio has been the fastest and most technologically
advanced means of transmitting information. Radio communication involves the
converting of sounds into electrical signals known as audio signal.
Advantages
- It is the cheapest form of media in terms of energy use, weight and cost.
- People can listen to radio in the background while doing other work, for example,
while driving to and from work.
- It has the ability to reach specific audience through specialized programming.
That way, it is possible to have radio stations using local languages so the
listeners can easily understand the message.
Disadvantages
- Radio allows only one way communication. The sender can only send information
but in most cases, there is no feedback.
- Radios can only send radio signals without visual signals.
- Radio signals are easily affected by interference such as hills, mountains and
distance, so it can sometimes be hard to receive a clear signal.
TELEVISION
Television is one of the popular ways of sending information around the world
nowadays. It is very effective because it transmits both audio (sound) and video
(visual/picture) signals.
Advantages
- Television is able to combine both sound and pictures thus making the
communication process more effective.
- It has a wide geographical coverage and broad audience.
- Television keeps the audience well informed of current affairs and breaking news
around the world.
Disadvantages
- It is an expensive method of communication. Buying a television for example, can
be very expensive.
- The programmes are not aired at a convenient time for the viewer.
- Unlike the radio, one cannot watch television while doing something else, such as
driving since it requires the full attention of the viewer.
EMAIL
E mail stands for electronic mail. It enables a person to send well-arranged text files
and pictures to another person’s e- mail address.
Advantages
- Emails are fast. They are delivered at once around the world. No other form of
written communication is as fast as the email.

- Aside from the cost of internet connections, email is free. One can send as many
messages, files, videos, documents and presentations as he or she wants without
having to pay anything.
- Thousands of email messages can be archived into folders on your computer or
handheld communication device such as a cell phone to be retrieved when you
need them.
Disadvantages
- Emails can carry viruses which can affect the computer systems.
- Many people send unwanted emails to others.
- Sending an email requires both the sender and the recipient to have email
addresses and access to the internet using a computer or a smartphone.
transmission of radio and television signals

- Radio and television signals broadcast are the primary means by which information
and entertainment reach the public in virtually every country or nation around the
world.
amplification of sound
- Amplify sound is to increase the strength of an electric signal by means of an
amplifier.
differences between digital and analogue transmission
- Analogue transmission conveys voice, data image, signal, or video
information using an information signal that is continuously varying while
digital transmission is the transmission of signals in a form of a stream of
binary numbers (combinations of zeros and ones). A digital signal uses
discrete (discontinuous) values.
uses of satellite in long distance communication
- A communication satellite is an artificial body or spacecraft placed in
geostationary or synchronous orbits around the earth or moon or another
planet in order to collect and transmit information or for communication.
It also sends signals from radio, television, telephone.
In satellite communication, communications satellite receives signals from different
stations on the ground called Earth Stations or Ground Stations.
Transmission of a Live Broadcast of An Event from Africa to Europe Using
Raw Block Diagrams

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PLATINUM NOTES

INTEGRATED SCIENCE GRADE 8 - 9

THE HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

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The importance of observing personal hygiene of the reproductive organs

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THE HUMAN BODY 2

2. Study the diagram illustrating a process in sexual reproduction involving gametes

(a) Identify gamete R. [1]

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THE HUMAN BODY 2

The Internal Structure of the Heart

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Double Circulatory System

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Functions of the organs of the respiratory system

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Gaseous Exchange in Humans

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PLANTS & ANIMALS 1

PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

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FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF A COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

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Why is water management important?

Water is a very precious commodity needed to support life. Water contributes

Three effective water management systems

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MATERIALS AND ENERGY 1

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Common Atoms and Their Symbols

NAME OF AN ATOM SYMBOL

Simple Molecules and Their Models

Name of a molecule Symbol Model 1 Model 2

Carbon dioxide CO2

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Gas: gases have no fixed shaped and volume.

Boiling and Melting Point of Water

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Sublimation is the direct change of state from solid to gas by heating.

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Methods of Separating Mixtures

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Uses of simple distillation

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How can we measure the weight of a given object?

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MASS AND WEIGHT

How to Determine the Densities of Different Substances

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(iv) To determine the density of a liquid e.g., water.

Liquid Mass of Mass of Mass of Volume of water in a

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How objects sink or float on a liquid

How Vessels/Ships Float